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Collection Highlights

Managing Biological and Ecological Systems 2nd Edition

Brian D. Fath (Editor)

Managing Human and Social Systems 2nd Edition Brian D.

Fath (Editor)

Managing Soils and Terrestrial Systems 2nd Edition Brian

D. Fath (Editor)

Managing Water Resources and Hydrological Systems 2nd

Edition Brian D. Fath (Editor)
Managing Global Resources and Universal Processes 2nd
Edition Brian D. Fath (Editor)

Performance Improvement in Hospitals and Health Systems:

Managing Analytics and Quality in Healthcare, 2nd Edition
James R. Langabeer Ii

Alternative Energy Systems and Applications 2nd Edition B.

K. Hodge

Integration of Air Conditioning and Heating into Modern

Power Systems Enabling Demand Response and Energy
Efficiency Yi Ding

Cereal Grains Second Edition Assessing and Managing

Quality Colin Wrigley
Managing Air Quality and
Energy Systems
Environmental Management Handbook,
Second Edition
Edited by
Brian D. Fath and Sven E. Jørgensen

Volume 1
Managing Global Resources and Universal Processes
Volume 2
Managing Biological and Ecological Systems
Volume 3
Managing Soils and Terrestrial Systems
Volume 4
Managing Water Resources and Hydrological Systems
Volume 5
Managing Air Quality and Energy Systems
Volume 6
Managing Human and Social Systems
Managing Air Quality and
Energy Systems
Second Edition

Edited by
Brian D. Fath and Sven E. Jørgensen
Assistant to Editor
Megan Cole
Cover photo: Hounslow, United Kingdom, N. Fath

Second edition published 2021

by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2021 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

First edition published by CRC Press 2013

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot
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ISBN: 978-1-138-34267-5 (hbk)

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Typeset in Minion
by codeMantra
 Contents

Preface ....................................................................................................................... ix
Editors ....................................................................................................................... xi
Contributors ........................................................................................................... xiii

SECTION I APC: Anthropogenic

Chemicals and Activities
1 Genotoxicity and Air Pollutions ....................................................................... 3
Eliane Tigre Guimarães and Andrea Nunes Vaz Pedroso
2 Methane Emissions: Rice ................................................................................. 15
Kazuyuki Yagi
3 Petroleum: Hydrocarbon Contamination ....................................................... 21
Svetlana Drozdova and Erwin Rosenberg
4 Road-Traffic Emissions ................................................................................... 47
Fabian Heidegger, Regine Gerike, Wolfram Schmidt, Udo Becker,
and Jens Borken-Kleefeld

SECTION II COV: Comparative Overviews of

Important Topics for Environmental Management
5 Alternative Energy .......................................................................................... 63
Bernd Markert, Simone Wuenschmann, Stefan Fraenzle, and Bernd Delakowitz
6 Energy and Environmental Security ............................................................... 91
Muhammad Asif
7 Energy Commissioning: New Buildings ........................................................ 105
Janey Kaster
8 Energy Sources: Renewable versus Non-Renewable ...................................... 123
Marc A. Rosen

v
vi Contents

9 Energy: Physics . .............................................................................................. 135

Milivoje M. Kostic
10 Energy: Renewable ......................................................................................... 159
John O. Blackburn
11 Energy: Storage ............................................................................................... 167
Rudolf Marloth
12 Fossil Fuel Combustion: Air Pollution and Global Warming ...................... 177
Dan Golomb
13 Geothermal Energy Resources ....................................................................... 191
Ibrahim Dincer and Arif Hepbasli
14 Green Energy .................................................................................................. 213
Ibrahim Dincer and Adnan Midili
15 Ozone Layer ................................................................................................... 235
Luisa T. Molina
16 Thermodynamics ........................................................................................... 261
Ronald L. Klaus

SECTION III CSS: Case Studies of

Environmental Management
17 Energy Conversion: Coal, Animal Waste, and Biomass Fuel ....................... 281
Kalyan Annamalai, Soyuz Priyadarsan, Senthil Arumugam,
and John M. Sweeten
18 Energy Demand: From Individual Behavioral Changes to Climate
Change Mitigation ......................................................................................... 307
Leila Niamir and Felix Creutzig
19 Wind Farms: Noise ......................................................................................... 321
Daniel Shepherd, Chris Hanning, and Bob Thorne

SECTION IV DIA: Diagnostic Tools:

Monitoring, Ecological Modeling, Ecological
Indicators, and Ecological Services
20 Exergy: Analysis . ........................................................................................... 345
Marc A. Rosen

SECTION V ENT: Environmental Management

Using Environmental Technologies
21 Air Pollution: Monitoring .............................................................................. 361
Waldemar Wardencki
Contents vii

22 Air Pollution: Technology ............................................................................. 385

Sven Erik Jørgensen
23 Alternative Energy: Hydropower .................................................................. 407
Andrea Micangeli, Sara Evangelisti, and Danilo Sbordone
24 Alternative Energy: Photovoltaic Solar Cells ............................................... 427
Ewa Klugmann-Radziemska
25 Alternative Energy: Solar Thermal Energy . ................................................. 449
Andrea Micangeli, Sara Evangelisti, and Danilo Sbordone
26 Alternative Energy: Wind Power Technology and Economy . ...................... 473
K.E. Ohrn
27 Electric Power: Microgrids ........................................................................... 487
Ryan Hanna
28 Energy Conservation: Benefits ..................................................................... 497
Eric A. Woodroof, Wayne C. Turner, and Steven D. Heinz
29 Energy Conservation: Industrial Processes ................................................. 507
Harvey E. Diamond
30 Energy Master Planning ................................................................................. 519
Fredric S. Goldner
31 Energy: Solid Waste Advanced Thermal Technology .................................. 529
Alex E.S. Green and Andrew R. Zimmerman
32 Energy: Walls and Windows ......................................................................... 559
Therese Stovall
33 Energy: Waste Heat Recovery ........................................................................ 575
Martin A. Mozzo, Jr.
34 Fuel Cells: Intermediate and High Temperature .......................................... 583
Xianguo Li, Gholamreza Karimi, and Kui Jiao
35 Fuel Cells: Low Temperature ........................................................................ 593
Xianguo Li and Kui Jiao
36 Global Climate Change: Gasoline, Hybrid-Electric, and
Hydrogen-Fueled Vehicles ............................................................................ 607
Robert E. Uhrig
37 Heat Pumps .................................................................................................... 617
Lu Aye
38 Hydroelectricity: Pumped Storage ................................................................ 633
Jill S. Tietjen
39 Integrated Energy Systems . ........................................................................... 649
Leslie A. Solmes and Sven Erik Jørgensen
40 Bioreactors for Waste Gas Treatment ........................................................... 667
Sarina J. Ergas
viii Contents

41 Review of Fine-Scale Air Quality Modeling for Carbon and

Health Co-Benefits Assessments in Cities . .................................................. 679
Andrew Fang and Anu Ramaswami
42 Thermal Energy: Solar Technologies . ............................................................ 691
Muhammad Asif and Tariq Muneer

SECTION VI PRO: Basic Environmental Processes

43 Acid Rain ....................................................................................................... 707
Umesh Kulshrestha
44 Acid Rain: Nitrogen Deposition ................................................................... 729
George F. Vance
45 Carbon Sequestration .................................................................................... 737
Nathan E. Hultman
46 Energy Conservation ...................................................................................... 747
Ibrahim Dincer and Adnan Midili
47 Energy Conservation: Lean Manufacturing ................................................. 765
Bohdan W. Oppenheim
48 Global Climate Change: Carbon Sequestration ........................................... 777
Sherwood Idso and Keith E. Idso
49 Global Climate Change: Earth System Response ......................................... 783
Amanda Staudt and Nathan E. Hultman
50 Global Climate Change: Gas Fluxes . ............................................................ 797
Pascal Boeckx and Oswald Van Cleemput
Index ...................................................................................................................... 803
 Preface

Given the current state of the world as compiled in the massive Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Report, humans have changed ecosystems more rapidly and extensively during the past 50 years than in
any other time in human history. These are unprecedented changes that need certain action. As a result,
it is imperative that we have a good scientific understanding of how these systems function and good
strategies on how to manage them.
In a very practical way, this multi-volume Environmental Management Handbook provides a com-
prehensive reference to demonstrate the key processes and provisions for enhancing environmental
management. The experience, evidence, methods, and models relevant for studying environmental
management are presented here in six stand-alone thematic volumes, as follows:
VOLUME 1 – Managing Global Resources and Universal Processes
VOLUME 2 – Managing Biological and Ecological Systems
VOLUME 3 – Managing Soils and Terrestrial Systems
VOLUME 4 – Managing Water Resources and Hydrological Systems
VOLUME 5 – Managing Air Quality and Energy Systems
VOLUME 6 – Managing Human and Social Systems
In this manner, the handbook introduces in the first volume the general concepts and processes used
in environmental management. The next four volumes deal with each of the four spheres of nature
(biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere). The last volume ties the material together in its
application to human and social systems. These are very important chapters for a wide spectrum of stu-
dents and professionals to understand and implement environmental management. In particular, the
features include the following:
• The first handbook that demonstrates the key processes and provisions for enhancing environ-
mental management.
• Addresses new and cutting-edge topics on ecosystem services, resilience, sustainability, food–
energy–water nexus, socio-ecological systems, etc.
• Provides an excellent basic knowledge on environmental systems, explains how these systems
function, and gives strategies on how to manage them.
• Written by an outstanding group of environmental experts.
Since the handbook covers such a wide range of materials from basic processes, to tools, technolo-
gies, case studies, and legislative actions, each handbook entry is further classified into the following
categories:
APC: Anthropogenic chemicals—the chapters cover human-manufactured chemicals and activities
COV: Indicates that the chapters give comparative overviews of important topics for environmental
management

ix
x Preface

CSS: The chapters give a case study of a particular environmental management example
DIA: Means that the chapters are about diagnostic tools—monitoring, ecological modeling, ecologi-
cal indicators, and ecological services
ELE: Focuses on the use of legislation or policy to address environmental problems
ENT: Addresses environmental management using environmental technologies
NEC: Natural elements and chemicals—the chapters cover basic elements and chemicals found in
nature
PRO: The chapters cover basic environmental processes.
Overall, these volumes will be a valuable resource for all libraries supporting programs in environmen-
tal science and studies, earth science, geography, and policy.
In this volume, #5, the focus is on managing air quality and the closely related topic of energy sys-
tems, as represented in over 50 entries. Energy basics and physics for conventional and alternative
sources are considered. Specific impacts such as global climate change, acid rain, and ozone are covered.
New entries include specific tools to measure road traffic emissions, the importance of managing micro-
power grids, and the role of individual and household behavior in emission scenarios. Case studies look
at energy conversion and the impact of wind farm noise. This volume contains a number of entries on
air pollution control strategies.

Brian D. Fath
Brno, Czech Republic
December 2019
 Editors

Brian D. Fath is Professor in the Department of Biological Sciences at Towson University (Maryland,
USA) and Senior Research Scholar at the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (Laxenburg,
Austria). He has published over 180 research papers, reports, and book chapters on environmental sys-
tems modeling, specifically in the areas of network analysis, urban metabolism, and sustainability. He
co-authored the books A New Ecology: Systems Perspective (2020), Foundations for Sustainability: A
Coherent Framework of Life–Environment Relations (2019), and Flourishing Within Limits to Growth:
Following Nature’s Way (2015). He is also Editor-in-Chief for the journal Ecological Modelling and
Co-Editor-in-Chief for Current Research in Environmental Sustainability. Dr. Fath was the 2016 recipi-
ent of the Prigogine Medal for outstanding work in systems ecology and twice a Fulbright Distinguished
Chair (Parthenope University, Naples, Italy, in 2012 and Masaryk University, Czech Republic, in 2019).
In addition, he has served as Secretary General of the International Society for Ecological Modelling,
Co-Chair of the Ecosystem Dynamics Focus Research Group in the Community Surface Modeling
Dynamics System, and member and past Chair of Baltimore County Commission on Environmental
Quality.

Sven E. Jørgensen (1934–2016) was Professor of environmental chemistry at Copenhagen University.

He received a doctorate of engineering in environmental technology and a doctorate of science in eco-
logical modeling. He was an honorable doctor of science at Coimbra University (Portugal) and at Dar
es Salaam (Tanzania). He was Editor-in-Chief of Ecological Modelling from the journal inception in
1975 until 2009. He was Editor-in-Chief for the Encyclopedia of Environmental Management (2013) and
Encyclopedia of Ecology (2008). In 2004, Dr. Jørgensen was awarded the Stockholm Water Prize and
the Prigogine Medal. He was awarded the Einstein Professorship by the Chinese Academy of Sciences
in 2005. In 2007, he received the Pascal Medal and was elected a member of the European Academy of
Sciences. He had published over 350 papers, and has edited or written over 70 books. Dr. Jørgensen gave
popular and well-received lectures and courses in ecological modeling, ecosystem theory, and ecological
engineering worldwide.

xi
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 Contributors

Kalyan Annamalai Pascal Boeckx

Paul Pepper Professor of Faculty of Agricultural and Applied Biological
Mechanical Engineering Sciences
Texas A&M University University of Ghent
College Station, Texas Ghent, Belgium

Senthil Arumugam Jens Borken-Kleefeld

Enerquip, Inc. Air Quality and Greenhouse Gases
Medford, Wisconsin International Institute for Applied Systems
Analysis
Muhammad Asif Laxenburg, Austria
School of the Built and Natural Environment
Glasgow Caledonian University Felix Creutzig
Glasgow, United Kingdom Mercator Research Institute on Global Commons
and Climate Change (MCC)
Lu Aye and
Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Group Technical University of Berlin
Department of Infrastructure Engineering Berlin, Germany
Melbourne School of Engineering
University of Melbourne Bernd Delakowitz
Melbourne, Victoria, Australia Faculty of Mathematics and Natural
Sciences
Udo Becker University of Applied Sciences
Chair of Transport Ecology Zittau, Germany
Faculty of Transportation Sciences
“Friedrich List” Harvey E. Diamond
Institute of Transport Planning and Road Traffic Energy Management International
Dresden University of Technology Conroe, Texas
Dresden, Germany
Ibrahim Dincer
John O. Blackburn Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science
Professor Emeritus of Economics University of Ontario Institute of Technology
Duke University (UOIT)
Maitland, Florida Oshawa, Ontario, Canada

xiii
xiv Contributors

Svetlana Drozdova Alex E.S. Green

Institute of Chemical Technologies Professor Emeritus
and Analytics University of Florida
Vienna University of Technology Gainesville, Florida
Vienna, Austria
Eliane Tigre Guimarães
Sarina J. Ergas Experimental Air Pollution Laboratory
Department of Civil and Environmental Department of Pathology
Engineering School of Medicine
University of Massachusetts University of Sao Paulo
Amherst, Massachusetts Sao Paulo, Brazil

Sara Evangelisti Ryan Hanna

Interuniversity Research Center for Sustainable School of Global Policy and Strategy
Development (CIRPS) University of California San Diego
Sapienza University of Rome La Jolla, California
Rome, Italy
Chris Hanning
Andrew Fang Sleep Medicine
Humphrey School of Public Affairs University Hospitals of Leicester
University of Minnesota Leicester, United Kingdom
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Fabian Heidegger
Stefan Fraenzle Chair of Integrated Transport Planning and
Department of Biological and Environmental Traffic Engineering
Sciences Faculty of Transportation Sciences
Research Group of Environmental Chemistry “Friedrich List”
International Graduate School Zittau Institute of Transport Planning and Road Traffic
Zittau, Germany Dresden University of Technology
Dresden, Germany
Regine Gerike
Chair of Integrated Transport Planning and Steven D. Heinz
Traffic Engineering Good Steward Software
Faculty of Transportation Sciences State College, Pennsylvania
“Friedrich List”
Institute of Transport Planning and Arif Hepbasli
Road Traffic Faculty of Engineering
Dresden University of Technology Department of Energy Systems Engineering
Dresden, Germany Yaşar University
Bornova, Izmir, Turkey
Fredric S. Goldner
Energy Management & Research Associates Nathan E. Hultman
East Meadow, New York University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland
Dan Golomb
Department of Environmental, Earth and Keith E. Idso
Atmospheric Sciences Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and
University of Massachusetts—Lowell Global Change
Lowell, Massachusetts Tempe, Arizona
Contributors xv

Sherwood Idso Bernd Markert

Center for the Study of Carbon Dioxide and Environmental Institute of Scientific
Global Change Networks (EISN)
Tempe, Arizona Haren-Erika, Germany

Kui Jiao Rudolf Marloth

Department of Mechanical Engineering San Diego State University
University of Waterloo San Diego, California
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Andrea Micangeli
Sven Erik Jørgensen Interuniversity Research Center for Sustainable
Institute A, Section of Environmental Chemistry Development (CIRPS)
Copenhagen University Sapienza University of Rome
Copenhagen, Denmark Rome, Italy

Gholamreza Karimi Adnan Midili

Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Waterloo Faculty of Engineering
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Nigde University
Nigde, Turkey
Janey Kaster
Yamas Controls West
Luisa T. Molina
San Francisco, California
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Cambridge, Massachusetts
Ronald L. Klaus
VAST Power Systems
Martin A. Mozzo, Jr.
Elkhart, Indiana
M and A Associates Inc.
Robbinsville, New Jersey
Ewa Klugmann-Radziemska
Chemical Faculty
Gdansk University of Technology Tariq Muneer
Gdansk, Poland School of Engineering
Napier University
Milivoje M. Kostic Edinburgh, United Kingdom
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Northern Illinois University Leila Niamir
DeKalb, Illinois Mercator Research Institute on Global
Commons and Climate Change (MCC)
Umesh Kulshrestha Berlin, Germany
School of Environmental Sciences
and
Jawaharlal Nehru University
New Delhi, India University of Twente
Enschede, The Netherlands
Xianguo Li
Department of Mechanical Engineering K.E. Ohrn
University of Waterloo Cypress Digital Ltd.
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
xvi Contributors

Bohdan W. Oppenheim Leslie A. Solmes

U.S. Department of Energy Industrial LAS and Associates
Assessment Center Mill Valley
Loyola Marymount University
Los Angeles, California Amanda Staudt
Climate Scientist
Andrea Nunes Vaz Pedroso National Wildlife Federation
Nucleus Research in Ecology Reston, Virginia
Institute of Botany
Sao Paulo, Brazil Therese Stovall
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Soyuz Priyadarsan Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Texas A&M University
College Station, Texas
John M. Sweeten
Texas A&M University
Anu Ramaswami
Amarillo, Texas
Humphrey School of Public Affairs
University of Minnesota
Bob Thorne
Minneapolis, Minnesota
Massey University
Palmerston North, New Zealand
Marc A. Rosen
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science
University of Ontario Institute of Technology Jill S. Tietjen
Oshawa, Ontario, Canada Technically Speaking, Inc.
Greenwood Village, Colorado
Erwin Rosenberg
Institute of Chemical Technologies and Analytics Wayne C. Turner
Vienna University of Technology Industrial Engineering and Management
Vienna, Austria Oklahoma State University
Stillwater, Oklahoma
Danilo Sbordone
Interuniversity Research Center for Sustainable Robert E. Uhrig
Development (CIRPS) Department of Nuclear Engineering
Sapienza University of Rome University of Tennessee
Rome, Italy Knoxville, Tennessee

Wolfram Schmidt Oswald Van Cleemput

Chair of Transport Ecology Faculty of Agricultural and Applied
Faculty of Transportation Sciences Biological Sciences
“Friedrich List” University of Ghent
Institute of Transport Planning and Road Traffic Ghent, Belgium
Dresden University of Technology
Dresden, Germany George F. Vance
Department of Ecosystem Sciences and
Daniel Shepherd Management
Auckland University of Technology University of Wyoming
Auckland, New Zealand Laramie, Wyoming
Contributors xvii

Waldemar Wardencki Kazuyuki Yagi

Department of Chemistry National Institute for Agro-Environmental
Gdansk University of Technology Sciences
Gdansk, Poland Ibaraki, Japan

Eric A. Woodroof Andrew R. Zimmerman

Profitable Green Solutions Department of Geological Sciences
Plano, Texas University of Florida
Gainesville, Florida
Simone Wuenschmann
Environmental Institute of Scientific
Networks (EISN)
Haren-Erika, Germany
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 I
APC:
Anthropogenic
Chemicals and
Activities

1
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 1
Genotoxicity and
Air Pollutions
Air Pollutants .................................................................................................... 3
Genotoxic Effects of Air Pollutants ................................................................ 5
Eliane Tigre Genotoxicity Tests ............................................................................................ 6
Guimarães and Air Pollutants and Other Health Effects ........................................................ 7
Andrea Nunes Conclusion and Remarks ................................................................................ 9
Vaz Pedroso References.......................................................................................................... 9

Air Pollutants
Air pollution can be generated by natural and anthropogenic sources. The natural sources, such as
electrical discharge, decomposition of organic matter, volcano eruption, and natural fires, do not depend
on human actions and emit large amounts of pollution, usually in restricted and sparsely populated
areas.
The anthropogenic sources can be stationary or mobile. Stationary sources are mainly industries
that cause local problems of air contamination. Their pollution emissions are determined by the
characteristics of the manufacturing processes, which include the sort of raw materials and fuels used
and the products furnished, as well as by the efficiency of the industrial processes and the control
measurements adopted.
Mobile sources consist of automotive vehicles, trains, airplanes, ships, and motorboats, which release
pollutants into the atmosphere due to incomplete burning of fossil fuels. However, the automotive
vehicles are the main mobile sources.
The atmosphere in large cities is usually contaminated by a range of pollutants from stationary and
mobile sources. The pollutant emissions of mobile sources are difficult to be controlled, mainly because
of the increasing number of automotive vehicles in the last 50 years. This number increased tenfold
during this period.[1] The emissions of air pollutants in urban centers have been causing great concerns
all over the world and have been causing harmful effects on living organisms.
The main pollutants in urban centers are gases such as carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur oxides, and
organic compounds such as hydrocarbons, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and particulate matter.
They will be described below.
The gas carbon monoxide is an odorless, colorless, and tasteless gas formed during the incomplete
combustion of carbon-containing fuels.[2]
The main source of sulfur dioxide (SO2) is the combustion of fuels. Fossil fuels have 1%–5% sulfur
in their composition. During combustion, the sulfur is converted to SO2. Nowadays, in developed
countries, a large quantity of the sulfur is removed from motor fuels during the refining process and gas
emission from chimneys. However, in developing countries, unabated burning of coal and the use of
fuel oils and automotive diesel with higher sulfur content are major sources of SO2.[2]

3
4 Managing Air Quality and Energy Systems

The nitrogen derived from the combustion process of fossil fuels is converted to nitrogen oxides[2]
such as nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). They are considered the precursors of
tropospheric ozone (O3) formation. Nitrogen dioxide diffuses into the atmosphere, where it is usually
oxidized and can react with water to form acid rain, causing corrosion in materials and damage to
human beings.[3]
The nitrogen oxides and VOCs are considered precursors and produce by photochemical reactions
many secondary pollutants, among them O3 and peroxyacetyl nitrate,[1,3] which compose so-called
photochemical smog.
When O3 is formed in an atmosphere without pollutants, it is consumed within minutes by the
photostationary equilibrium between NO and NO2. Nevertheless, in a polluted atmosphere, NO
is converted to NO2 and can be consumed by RO2 (organic radical), and, as a consequence, O3 is
accumulated.[3,4] The O3 is considered one of the most damaging gaseous pollutants to human health and
plants, because it forms the reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide, hydrogen peroxide, and
hydroxyl, among others. Reactive oxygen species are oxidative and affect lipids, proteins, and nucleic
acids; the cell membranes, composed by polyunsaturated fatty acids, represent the initial target of ROS,
changing their permeability and triggering lipid peroxidation,[5] amino acid oxidation, and inactivation
of enzymes.[6]
The particulate matter (PM) is a mixture of solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, including
smoke, fumes, soot, and other combustion by-products, besides natural particles such as wind-
blown dust, sea salt, pollen, and spores.[7] These components can be characterized by their size and
composition.[1] Based on the aerodynamic diameter, which ranges from 0.002 to 100 μm, the particulate
matter is classified into three categories: 1) coarse particles, ranging from 2.5 to 100 μm; 2) fine particu-
late matter, below 2.5 μm; 3) ultrafine particles, below 0.1 μm.[8]
Air quality is now regulated by standard concentrations established by laws, based on experiments on
humans and/or animals and epidemiological investigations. The standards for air pollutants in Europe
are proposed by the European Commission and in the United States by the Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). In Brazil, the standard values for air quality control are defined by a resolution proposed
by the National Council of Environment (CONAMA; Table 1).[9]
Although these standards are often revised in order to protect the human health, the World Health
Organization states that around 2.4 million people still die each year due to causes related to air pollution.

TABLE 1 Standard Values for Pollutants Established by Environmental Agencies (European Commission, EPA, and
CONAMA)
European
Pollutant Sampling Time Commission EPA CONAMA
CO (carbon monoxide) 1 hr 26 ppm 35 ppm 35 ppm
8 hr 10 mg/m3 – –
NO2 8 hr – – 9 ppm
1 hr 200 μg/m3 100 ppb 320 μg/m3
PM10 (particulate matter) Annual 40 μg/m3 53 ppb 100 μg/m3
24 hr 50 μg/m3 150 μg/m3 150 μg/m3
PM2,5 (particulate matter) Annual 25 μg/m3 150 μg/m3 50 μg/m3
24 hr – 35 μg/m3 –
O3 8 hr 120 μg/m3 80 ppb 120 μg/m3
24 hr – 120 ppb 125 μg/m3
SO2 24 hr 125 μg/m3 140 ppb 125 μg/m3
Annual – 75 ppb 80 μg/m3
Source: Adapted from “Air Quality Standards,”[16] “National Ambient Air Quality Standards,”[17] and “Qualidade do Ar.”[18]
–, Limit not defined.
Genotoxicity and Air Pollutions 5

About 1.5 million deaths are attributable to indoor air pollution (estimated deaths).[2] Epidemiological
studies suggest that Americans and Europeans have high rates of deaths from cardiopulmonary dis-
eases arising from air pollution.[10] Worldwide, the number of deaths per year caused by pollution is
greater than that caused by car accidents.[11] The individual response to air pollutants depends of the
type of pollutant, the degree of exposure, the health conditions and the individual genetics[12] and still,
socioeconomic profile.[13,14]
Air pollutants affect the vital molecules of human beings, such as nucleic acids, causing genotoxic
effects, among numerous other health problems. Thus, this will be the main focus of this entry from
here on. The genotoxic effects most commonly reported in the literature and bioassays proposed for
prognosis of genotoxic risks will be reported. Finally, other effects to human health will be mentioned
at the end of this entry.

Genotoxic Effects of Air Pollutants

Genotoxicity is defined as every alteration occurring in genetic material that causes loss of cellular
integrity.[15]
The literature defines that mutations can modify the amino acid sequence of the gene encoding the
protein or damage in the DNA molecule. They may occur over the life span of living beings. This pro-
cess is of extreme importance for the evolution of species. Among gene mutations, we may find the
following cases: 1) when a single nucleotide base is replaced by another; and 2) when extra base pairs
are added or deleted from the DNA. These are also referred to as insertions and deletions, respectively.
These mutations can be devastating, because the messenger RNA is translated into new groups of three
nucleotides and the protein produced can cause serious damage.
The mutations that encompass larger portions of DNA are called macrolesions, which change the
structure of chromosomes, resulting in damage of the genotype and phenotype of the organism,
such as translocations, inversions, deletions, and duplications. They occur most frequently during
meiosis.[19]
The mutation may result from exposure to different environmental or chemical agents. Throughout
the numerous and successive divisions, the cell can accumulate a large number of mutations and trigger
the loss of division control and contribute to the initial stage of tumor development.[20] Therefore, the
genotoxic agents are considered mutagenic or carcinogenic,[15] and there is a slight difference between
these classifications: 1) mutagenic effect is an alteration in the genetic material of the cell of a living
organism that is more or less permanent and that can be transmitted to the cell’s descendants; and 2) car-
cinogenic effects are caused by genotoxic substances that can produce tumors, abnormal tissue growths
caused by a loss of control in cell replication. Nevertheless, repairing mechanisms of DNA are present
in all organisms, and their complexity is directly proportional to the complexity of the organism.[21]
The mechanisms can be classified into direct reversal, damage excision, or recombination.[22]
In human beings, most of the pollutants studied are particulate matter.[7,23,24] In the previous section,
we said that smaller fractions of PM, i.e., <2.5 μm, are more harmful, and this was confirmed by Rossner
and colleagues,[25] who analyzed the organic fractions of PM of polluted sites and found DNA damage.
A similar result was found by Coronas and colleagues;[26] they employed cells of lymphocytes and buccal
mucosa cells to assess the genotoxic potential of PM in people living and working near refinery oil. The
authors used two genotoxicity assays—comet assay and micronucleus assay—and pointed out that the
comet assay was more sensitive. These tests will be detailed in the next section.
Other studies show organic extracts of particulate matter to cause genotoxicity. Roubicek and col-
leagues[27] found that in regions polluted in Mexico City, organic extracts of PM containing Cd and
PAHs induce micronucleus formation in human epithelial cells. In several European cities were col-
lected organic extracts mixtures of PAHs and particulate matter, confirmed this genotoxic, using
HepG2 cells have the metabolic capacity for PAHs similar to human hepatocytes and represent the best
in vitro model for investigating the genotoxic potential of complex mixtures containing PAHs.[28]
6 Managing Air Quality and Energy Systems

Another study found DNA damage in human lung cells when exposed to particulate matter.[29] Still,
Gilli and colleagues[30] obtained positive correlations statistically between PM10 and mutagenicity,
bioavailable iron, sulfates, and nitrates.

Genotoxicity Tests
Currently, there are numerous protocols with prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms, which evaluate
the mutagenic effects of different substances in order to identify risks that living organisms are exposed
to. The genotoxic tests most used to detect genotoxicity of air pollutants will be mentioned below.
The Ames test is also known as the Salmonella mutagenicity test. This test was developed by Bruce
Ames and colleagues and aimed to evaluate the carcinogenic potential of different substances using
mutant strains of auxotrophic Salmonella typhimurium with respect to histidine. It detects muta-
gens that cause the displacement of the reading frame (frameshift) or substitution of base pairs of
DNA.[31,32]
Other tests use eukaryotic organisms, aiming to evaluate the mutagenic potential of different
substances by means of numerical and/or structural chromosomal abnormalities involving at least
10 million base pairs (10 Mb). Among them, we may include the in vitro cytogenetic test in mammalian
cells (mouse lymphoma assay) that quantifies the genetic changes that affect the expression of the TK
gene of the enzyme thymidine kinase (tk) cells in cultures of L5178Y tk+/tk– lymphoma mice. Although
the mammalian cells present locus heterozygosity, only one gene copy is functional in this mouse strain.
Loss of locus heterozygosity of the enzyme thymidine kinase, when the gene is affected by a mutagen,
causes the resistance of cells mutated to supplementation of medium with trifluorothymidine (TFT).
The TFT causes inhibition of metabolism, preventing cell division and leading to death of cells that have
the entire way of nucleotides recovery. This test was developed by Clive and colleagues in 1979[33] and
modified by Cole and colleagues in 1990.[34]
The comet assay is also a well-known test. It is used to detect not chromosomal mutations but genomic
lesions. The test is based on the technique of gel electrophoresis, which detects DNA damage. Since
DNA is negatively charged, the electric current causes migration of small broken pieces through the gel,
faster and farther than larger pieces. As a result, the damaged cell looks like a comet, with the pieces
of damaged DNA forming the tail. The smaller the pieces of DNA, the more they migrate from the cell
body. Therefore, a longer tail with smaller pieces implies a greater genetic damage. The content and
fragment length of the tail are directly proportional to the amount of DNA damage.
Among mutagenic tests, the micronucleus test is widely used because it is applicable with different
eukaryotic organisms. By definition, the micronucleus is a small nucleus, regarded as a product of
breakage of genomic DNA of eukaryotic cells. During cell division, genetic material is duplicated and
distributed equally between two daughter cells. Radiation and chemicals can cause chromosomal
breakage or damage, affecting the distribution of genetic material between daughter cells. Parts
or fragments of chromosomes resulting from this damage can be distributed to any of the daughter
cells. It is not incorporated into the new core; they may be presented in the form of micronuclei clearly
observable on optical microscope.[35]
The micronucleus test in erythrocytes of bone marrow of rodents was developed by Matter and
Schmid[36] and modified by Heddle and Salamone[37] in the following years and more recently by
Mavournin and colleagues.[38] The test is based on the fact that the effect of genotoxic agent is observed
in polychromatic erythrocytes. In addition, the micronuclei are easily observed, and the frequency of
micronuclei is dependent on the sampling time.
The micronucleus test in human peripheral blood lymphocytes is also used to detect the mutagenic
potential of substances. Nonetheless, some technical problems occur due to the fragility of the cell and the
variability in the process of mitotic lymphocytes. These problems were solved by cell hypotonization[39]
and radioactive labeling with cytochalasin B to identify the cells that suffered mitosis by inhibiting
cytokinesis without blocking mitosis.[40]
Genotoxicity and Air Pollutions 7

Although studies on animals used to detect the effects of air pollution are successful,[41] simple and
more efficient analyses to investigate the environmental risks and to determine the genotoxicity induced
by pollution are needed. The bioassays with plants are generally more sensitive than other systems for
this purpose.[42] Several studies with genus Tradescantia have been considered since 1960 as effective
biomarkers for determining the genotoxic potential of air pollutants.[43–50]
The Tradescantia micronucleus bioassay is the quantification of micronuclei formed in meiotic
prophase I, better seen in the young tetrad stage.[44] Among the genus Tradescantia, we may highlight
the 4430 clone (hybrid between Tradescantia hirsutiflora and T. subacaulis).[44,48] A cultivar of T. pallida
Purpurea from Mexico and Honduras has also been used for the micronucleus test since 1999.[47,49]
Nonetheless, in urban areas, gaseous and particulate pollutants interact with each other, thereby
enhancing the genotoxic effects on the living organisms. Some studies with Tradescantia showed a
significant increase in genotoxic potential in plants exposed in the urban environment compared with
the rural environment,[49,51,52] also to detect the genotoxic potential of water-soluble fraction of PM10[47]
and a dose of 60 ppb ozone in fumigation chambers.[53]
Furthermore, other tests are also conducted with micronuclei in different plant species such as
Allium cepa and Vicia faba; however, the micronuclei are formed from errors in mitotic division in
those species.[50]
Another test used to evaluate the risks caused by mutagens also using the genus Tradescantia is the
Tradescantia stamen hair bioassay.[54] It was developed by Arnold H. S. Sparrow based on the fact that
the stamen hair cells of plants are heterozygous for color, making it possible to detect mutations based
on the change in pigmentation from blue (dominant) to pink (recessive).[55] A pink mutant cell can
continue to divide, giving rise to a series of contiguous pink cells, representing a single mutation event.
Two mutant cells separated by blue cells are considered two mutation events.[54,56]
In addition to the genotoxic tests using plant species, there is another test known as pollen abortion,
which has the ability to detect lethal mutations in haploid cells (microsporous) that end up affecting the
development of pollen grains.[57,58] This was confirmed by Micieta and Murín,[59] who evaluated approxi-
mately 40 species of native vegetation in Slovakia subjected to industrial pollution, and they observed a
positive relationship, i.e., high rate of pollen abortion in polluted area.
Other plant species used in genotoxic tests, like Nicotiana tabacum, in different degrees of polluted
environments show the largest amount of DNA damage in high pollutant concentrations.[52]
The genotoxic effects caused by air pollutants are studied with more emphasis on the respiratory
system in human beings. Effects as changes in pulmonary functions, modification of biochemical and
cellular functions, or secretions could happen in the respiratory epithelium. Pacini and colleagues[60]
observed a higher amount of DNA damage in people living in the polluted region in Florence, when
compared with those living in less polluted areas in Sardinia, both in Italy. In Suwon, Korea, the
genotoxic potential of organic extract of PM2,5 in lung bronchial epithelial cells was also detected.[61]
In addition, the same genotoxic effect can be observed when human beings were exposed to different
concentrations of NO2.[62] Additionally, Tova-lin and colleagues[63] noted the severity of DNA damage in
workers in a large urban center, due to the combination of air pollutants VOC, PM 25, and O3.
A considerable amount of tests to detect the mutagenicity of different substances is available,
although only the most used were described. A review on urban air mutagenicity and experimental
systems reported that 50% of the studies apply the Salmonella assay (Ames test); about 30% apply the
plant systems (micronucleus tests, chromosomal aberrations, among others); and the other 20% of the
studies used other bioassays (such as damage in DNA), animals, and other combinations of studies.[64]

Air Pollutants and Other Health Effects

Historically, the harmful effects of air pollution on human health have become evident. The associa-
tion between high levels of pollution and diseases manifested by the population exposed has been long
detected. Perhaps the most known episode occurred in London in December 1952, where a thermal
8 Managing Air Quality and Energy Systems

inversion was responsible for 4000 deaths in 2 weeks.[65] Other similar episodic events confirm this
evidence, for example, Meuse Valley in Belgium in 1930,[66] Donora in Pennsylvania in 1948.[67] and St.
Louis in 1985.[68]
There is evidence to support the concept that particulate matter causes human mortality,
morbidity,[69,70] and genotoxic effects.[71] There is an association between particulate matter and alteration
in the respiratory system with restricted activity and severe breathing conditions (acute bronchitis
and asthma), resulting in difficulty in breathing and insomnia in adults,[72] emergency room visits,
hospital admissions,[73] and pulmonary vasoconstriction.[74,75] It affects lung growth in rats after chronic
exposure[76] and significant association between lung cancer and long-term exposure to fine particles,
reinforcing the role of fine particulates in the pathogenesis of lung cancer.[77]
Still, in the circulatory system, the fine particulate matter reaches the alveolar regions, transposes
the alveolar capillary barrier, and, as a consequence, intensifies the risk of functional abnormalities,[78]
such as acute vascular dysfunction, increases thrombus formation,[79,80] arrhythmia, and sudden
death.[81]
The toxicity of carbon monoxide has been widely investigated and is well known. Studies show that
a major change in humans is the formation of a stable complex between CO and hemoglobin, called
carboxyhemoglobin. It decreases the release transport of oxygen to the tissues via blood.[82] In relation
to nitrogen dioxide, epidemiological studies have shown that it affects the respiratory system of humans
when inhaled[83] and, in high levels of concentration, can be correlated with increased symptoms of
asthmatic bronchitis and reduced lung function in children.[2]
In humans, high concentrations of O3 are associated with reduced forced expiratory volume in
1 sec and forced expiratory flow at 50% and 75% of forced vital capacity.[83] Regions with higher ozone
concentrations present a higher incidence of asthmatic patients.[83,84] Additionally, according to Pereira
et al.,[85] this pollutant showed a positive correlation with the incidence of lung and larynx cancer.
Animal studies suggest that O3 may damage the ciliate cells of the epithelium with changes in the air–
blood barrier permeability, causing an inflammatory response.[86]
The complex mixtures of pollutants may affect the human circulatory system, with changes in the
levels of fibrinogen, increases erythrocyte count, and plasma viscosity.[87–89] Some studies evidenced
deleterious effects on lung defense mechanism, causing inflammatory changes in the airway and distal
lung parenchyma.[90–92] Others confirm the carcinogenic effect resulting from air pollution, which acts
as a promoter and/or initiator of pulmonary tumor in mice.[93,94]
Over the past few years, some evidence focused particularly on male fertility and pregnancy, show-
ing the negative effects of urban air pollutants on reproductive health in humans.[95–97] Moreover, few
studies have been able to demonstrate an association between air pollution and changes in fertility
in women, probably due to multiple factors involved in female reproductive function.[98] Male and
female mice exposed to urban pollution in São Paulo, Brazil, show changes in the genus distribution
in their offspring, suggesting that air pollution can change the proportion of XY sperm in exposed
animals.[99]
Previous studies showed that air pollution has a significant impact on female reproductive function in
mice. Exposure to fine particulate matter has been implicated in disruption of the pattern of segregation
of inner cell mass and trophectoderm cell lineages at the blastocyst stage,[100,101] an important marker of
embryo viability and development potential.[102] A retrospective epidemiological study confirmed the
increased risk of early pregnancy loss, which was already observed in experimental studies in women
exposed to air pollution. In addition, an association between brief exposure to high levels of environ-
mental particles during pre-conception and early pregnancy loss was found, independently from con-
ception method (natural or after in vitro fertilization treatment), and the risk of miscarriage increased
2.6-fold.[100] Furthermore, a positive association between air pollution and intrauterine mortality was
found in a study conducted in São Paulo, southeastern Brazil, suggesting that pollution in São Paulo
may promote adverse effects on fetuses.[103]
Genotoxicity and Air Pollutions 9

Conclusion and Remarks

Air pollution is a reality in megacities, and it is intensified mainly by a huge number of vehicles
circulating. According to the literature, the major air pollutants that human populations are exposed
to in urban areas have a number of substances with carcinogenic activity. These substances can cause
mutations and trigger neoplasias.
Therefore, the high levels of vehicular emissions require complex demands and strict actions from
the government. These solutions can be taken individually with proper maintenance of vehicles; indeed,
need the improvement of public transport, which means efficient and rapid tubes, trains, trams, and
buses. Alternative measurements such as rodizio have been implemented in large cities such as São
Paulo, Mexico City, and Beijing, aiming to reduce the daily and enormous traffic and, consequently, the
direct emissions from sources.
Although not emphasized in this entry, industrial air pollution also should not be underestimated.
However, the emissions of industries are more easily controlled and must be applied, followed by periodic
monitoring, employment of cleaner technologies, and cleaning up of filters on the chimneys, which
should be constructed with enough height to guarantee adequate dispersion of pollutants. Furthermore,
it is important to choose raw materials that produce waste with lower pollution potential at the end of
the production process. It is mandatory to apply more resources to develop new technologies, which
can be developed at universities, research institutes, and private companies. The use of cleaner energy
sources, such as wind and biogas, is desirable.
Nevertheless, the pollutants produced locally may not stay in the same place and its surrounding
area. It can also damage remote areas of the planet due to long-term transportation. Each country has its
own formulation of public policies that impose limits on environment pollution levels. Finally, not only
signed agreements among governments will bring significant changes to reduce emissions of pollutants.
Individual and local actions organized by nongovernmental organizations, schools, and media are
equally important to preserve life.

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