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Collection Highlights

Materials engineering science processing and design Fourth

Edition Michael F. Ashby

Engineering Materials 1 5th Edition David R.H. Jones And

Michael F. Ashby

Materials Selection in Mechanical Design Ashby

CRC materials science and engineering handbook Fourth

Edition James F. Shackelford
Composite Materials Design and Applications 4th Edition
Daniel Gay

Bioinspired Materials Science and Engineering Guang Yang

Advanced Processing and Manufacturing Technologies for

Nanostructured and Multifunctional Materials Ceramic
Engineering and Science Proceesings 1st Edition Tatsuki
Ohji

Bioinspired materials science and engineering First

Edition Lallepak Lamboni

Kinetics in materials science and engineering Dennis W.

Readey
Materials
Engineering, Science, Processing
and Design

FOURTH EDITION

Mike Ashby

Hugh Shercliff

David Cebon
Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, UK

2
Table of Contents
Cover image

Title page

Copyright

Preface

Acknowledgments

Resources that accompany this book

IFC

Chapter 1. Introduction: materials – history and character

1.1. Materials, processes and choice

1.2. Material properties

1.3. Design-limiting properties

1.4. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 2. Family trees: organising materials and processes

2.1. Introduction and synopsis

2.2. Organising materials: the materials tree

2.3. Organising processes: the process tree

3
 2.4. Process–property interaction

2.5. Material property charts

2.6. Computer-aided information sources for materials and processes

2.7. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 3. Strategic thinking: matching material to design

3.1. Introduction and synopsis

3.2. The design process

3.3. Material and process information for design

3.4. The strategy: translation, screening, ranking and documentation

3.5. Examples of translation

3.6. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 4. Elastic stiffness, and weight: atomic bonding and packing

4.1. Introduction and synopsis

4.2. Density, stress, strain and elastic moduli

4.3. The big picture: material property charts

4.4. Manipulating the modulus and density

4.5. The science: microstructure and properties

4.6. Atomic structure and interatomic bonding

4.7. Atomic and molecular packing in solids: the origin of density

4.8. Interatomic bonding and properties: the origin of elastic modulus

4.9. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 5. Stiffness-limited design

5.1. Introduction and synopsis

5.2. Standard solutions to elastic problems

5.3. Material indices for elastic design

5.4. Plotting limits and indices on charts

4
 5.5. Case studies

5.6. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 6. Beyond elasticity: plasticity, yielding and ductility

6.1. Introduction and synopsis

6.2. Strength, ductility, plastic work and hardness: definition and measurement

6.3. The big picture: charts for yield strength

6.4. Drilling down: the origins of strength and ductility

6.5. Manipulating strength

6.6. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 7. Strength-limited design

7.1. Introduction and synopsis

7.2. Standard solutions to plastic problems

7.3. Material indices for yield-limited design

7.4. Case studies

7.5. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 8. Fracture and fracture toughness

8.1. Introduction and synopsis

8.2. Strength and toughness

8.3. The mechanics of fracture

8.4. Material property charts for toughness

8.5. Drilling down: the origins of toughness

8.6. Compressive and tensile failure of ceramics

8.7. Manipulating properties: the strength–toughness trade-off

8.8. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 9. Cyclic loading and fatigue failure

5
 9.1. Introduction and synopsis

9.2. Vibration: the damping coefficient

9.3. Fatigue

9.4. Charts for endurance limit

9.5. Drilling down: the origins of damping and fatigue

9.6. Manipulating resistance to fatigue

9.7. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 10. Fracture- and fatigue-limited design

10.1. Introduction and synopsis

10.2. Standard solutions to fracture problems

10.3. Material indices for fracture-safe design

10.4. Case studies

10.5. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 11. Friction and wear

11.1. Introduction and synopsis

11.2. Tribological properties

11.3. Charting friction and wear

11.4. The physics of friction and wear

11.5. Friction in design

11.6. Friction in material processing

11.7. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 12. Materials and heat

12.1. Introduction and synopsis

12.2. Thermal properties: definition and measurement

12.3. The big picture: thermal property charts

12.4. Drilling down: the physics of thermal properties

6
 12.5. Manipulating thermal properties

12.6. Design and manufacture: using thermal properties

12.7. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 13. Diffusion and creep: materials at high temperatures

13.1. Introduction and synopsis

13.2. The temperature dependence of material properties

13.3. Charts for creep behaviour

13.4. The science: diffusion

13.5. The science: creep

13.6. Materials to resist creep

13.7. Design to cope with creep

13.8. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 14. Durability: oxidation, corrosion, degradation

14.1. Introduction and synopsis

14.2. Oxidation, flammability, and photo-degradation

14.3. Oxidation mechanisms

14.4. Resistance to oxidation

14.5. Corrosion: acids, alkalis, water, and organic solvents

14.6. Drilling down: mechanisms of corrosion

14.7. Fighting corrosion

14.8. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 15. Electrical materials: conductors, insulators, and dielectrics

15.1. Introduction and synopsis

15.2. Conductors, insulators, and dielectrics

15.3. Charts for electrical properties

15.4. Drilling down: the origins and manipulation of electrical properties

7
 15.5. Design: using the electrical properties of materials

15.6. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 16. Magnetic materials

16.1. Introduction and synopsis

16.2. Magnetic properties: definition and measurement

16.3. The big picture: charts for magnetic properties

16.4. Drilling down: the physics and manipulation of magnetic properties

16.5. Materials selection for magnetic design

16.6. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 17. Materials for optical devices

17.1. Introduction and synopsis

17.2. The interaction of materials and radiation

17.3. Charts for optical properties

17.4. Drilling down: the physics and manipulation of optical properties

17.5. Optical design

17.6. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 18. Manufacturing processes and design

18.1. Introduction and synopsis

18.2. Process selection in design

18.3. Shaping processes: attributes for screening

18.4. Estimating cost for shaping processes

18.5. Case studies: selection of shaping processes

18.6. Joining processes: attributes for screening

18.7. Surface treatment (finishing) processes: attributes for screening

18.8. Technical evaluation

18.9. Additive manufacturing

8
 18.10. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 19. Processing, microstructure and properties

19.1. Introduction and synopsis

19.2. Processing for properties

19.3. Microstructure evolution in processing

19.4. Metal shaping processes

19.5. Heat treatment and alloying of metals

19.6. Joining and surface treatment of metals

19.7. Powder processing

19.8. Polymer processing

19.9. Making hybrid materials

19.10. Summary and conclusions

Chapter 20. Materials, environment, and sustainability

20.1. Introduction and synopsis

20.2. Material production, material consumption, and growth

20.3. Natural Capital and the materials life cycle

20.4. Embodied energy and carbon footprint of materials

20.5. Materials and eco-design

20.6. Materials dependence

20.7. Materials and sustainable development

20.8. Summary and conclusions

20.9. Appendix: some useful quantities

Guided Learning Unit 1. Simple ideas of crystallography

Introduction and synopsis

PART 1: Crystal structures

Exercise

9
 Exercises

Exercise

Exercises

PART 2: Interstitial space

Exercises

PART 3: Describing planes

Exercises

PART 4: Describing directions

Exercises

PART 5: Ceramic crystals

Exercises

Exercises

Exercise

PART 6: Polymer crystals

Answers to exercises

Guided Learning Unit 2. Phase diagrams and phase transformations

Introduction and synopsis

PART 1: Key terminology

Exercises (reminder: answers at the end of each section)

Answers to exercises, Part 1

PART 2: Simple phase diagrams, and how to read them

Exercises

Exercises

Exercise

Answers to exercises, Part 2

PART 3: The iron–carbon diagram

Exercise

10
 Answers to exercises, Part 3

PART 4: Interpreting more complex phase diagrams

Exercises

Answers to exercises, Part 4

PART 5: Phase transformations and microstructural evolution

PART 6: Equilibrium solidification

Exercise

Exercise

Exercises

Answers to exercises, Part 6

PART 7: Equilibrium solid-state phase changes

Exercises

Answers to exercises, Part 7

PART 8: Non-equilibrium solid-state phase changes

Exercise

Exercise

Answers to exercises, Part 8

Appendix A. Data for engineering materials

Appendix B. Corrosion tables

Appendix C. Material properties and length scales

IBC

Index

11
Copyright
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States

First published 2007

Second edition 2010
Third edition 2014
Fourth edition 2019

Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any

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at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under
copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new
research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods,
professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and
knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or
experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should
be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom
they have a professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors,

12
 or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or
property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use
or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.

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13
Preface

Science-led or Design-led? Two approaches to

materials teaching
The traditional approach to materials teaching starts with fundamentals: the
electron, the atom, atomic bonding, and packing, crystallography, and crystal
defects. Onto this is built alloy theory, the kinetics of phase transformations and the
development of the microstructure on scales made visible by electron and optical
microscopes. This sets the stage for the understanding and control of properties at
the millimetre or centimetre scale at which they are usually measured. This science-
led approach is grounded in a deep physical understanding of the origins of material
properties but gives less emphasis to the behavior of structures and components in
service, or methods for material selection and design (the schematic below, reading
from left to right).

Science-led and Design-led approaches to materials teaching, and

the length scales involved.

The alternative approach is design-led (the schematic, reading from right to left).
The starting point comprises the requirements that materials must meet if they are to
perform well in a given design. To match material to design requires a perspective
on the range of properties they offer, how these properties combine to limit
performance, the influences of manufacturing processes on properties, and the
environmental impact over the product life-cycle—all coupled to the need to access
data and expertise to evaluate them. Once the importance of each property is
established, there is a clear platform and motivation from which to “drill down,” so

14
to speak, to examine the science that lies beneath it—valuable because an
understanding of the fundamentals itself informs material choice, processing, and
usage.
Each approach has its place. The best choice depends on the nature of the course
and the aspirations of the student. If the intent is to educate future scientific
researchers, the first is the logical way to go. If it is any branch of engineering,
design, or applied industrial research, the second makes better sense. This book
follows the second, design-led, approach, while providing a balanced treatment of
the fundamentals.

What is different about this book?

There are many books about the science of engineering materials; many more about
design. What is different about this one?
First, its design-led approach, specifically developed to guide material selection and
understanding for a wide spectrum of engineering courses. The approach is
systematic, leading from design requirements to a prescription for optimized
material choice, illustrated by numerous case studies. Practice in the approach is
provided by worked Examples in the text and Exercises at the end of each Chapter.
Second, its emphasis on visual communication through a unique graphical
presentation of material properties as material property charts and numerous
schematics. These are a central feature of the approach, helpful in utilizing visual
memory as a learning tool, understanding the origins of properties, their
manipulation, and their fundamental limits, and providing a tool for selection and
for understanding the ways in which materials are used.
Third, its inclusivity and breadth. Equal weight is given to all classes of material:
metals, polymers, ceramics, and what we call “hybrids”—composites, foams, and
most natural materials. The aim here is to present the properties of materials, their
origins, and the way they enter engineering and design. A glance at the Contents
pages will show sections dealing with:

• physical, mechanical and thermal properties, and selection methods to deal

with them
• friction, wear, durability and corrosion
• electrical, magnetic and optical materials, as well as design with the
“functional” properties they offer
• manufacturing processes, and associated selection methods in design
• materials processing, and the way it influences properties
• eco-design and the broader issues of sustainable technology

Throughout we aim for a simple, straightforward presentation, developing the

15
materials science as far as is helpful in guiding engineering and design, avoiding
detail where it does not contribute to this end.
The fourth feature is that of guided self-learning. Certain topics lend themselves to
self-instruction with embedded exercises to build systematic understanding. It
works particularly well for topics that involve a contained set of concepts and tools.
Crystallography, as an example, involves ideas of three-dimensional geometry that
are most easily grasped by drawing and problem-solving. And understanding phase
diagrams and phase transformations relies on interpreting graphical displays of
compositional and thermodynamic information. Their use to understand and predict
microstructure follows procedures that are best learned by application. Both topics
have been packaged into self-contained Guided Learning Units, with each new
concept presented and immediately practiced using exercises, thereby building
confidence. Students who have worked through a package can feel that they have
mastered the topic and know how to apply the ideas it contains. Both topics appear
briefly in the main text to give a preliminary overview. The full Guided Learning Units
follow later in the book, providing for those courses that require a deeper
understanding.
The design-led approach is developed to a higher level in five further textbooks,
the first relating to Mechanical Design,1

What's new in the fourth edition

Several main features are new to the fourth edition of this book:

• The text and figures have been revised and updated throughout, with
particular additions in the following topic areas:
• the distinction between bonding-sensitive and microstructure-
sensitive properties, leading to a discussion of the nature of atomic
and molecular bonding;
• strengthening mechanisms, expanded to include grain-size
strengthening;
• functional properties, including dielectric, ferro, piezo, thermo- and
pyro-electric behaviour, ferro- and ferri-magnetic, magneto-
strictive and magneto-caloric responses, and optical attributes,
with examples of their selection and use in design;
• selection of manufacturing process, introducing a structured
approach to managing the knowledge-base of expertise that links
materials, processes, and design;
• additive manufacture, a review of emerging methods, set within the
same framework used to assess established processes;
• materials and the environment, the coverage of which has been fully

16
 updated, with a section on sustainability and sustainable
technology offering a new perspective.
• The number of worked examples in the text has been increased to provide
broader illustration of key concepts and equations.
• The end-of-chapter exercises have been edited and their number expanded
to more than 460, with a fully updated solution manual available to
instructors.

This book and the CES EduPack materials and

process information software
Engineering design today takes place in a computer-based environment. Stress
analysis (finite element method, or FEM, codes for instance), computer-aided design
(CAD), design for manufacture (DFM), and product data management tools are part
of an engineering education. The CES materials and process information software6
for education (the CES EduPack) provides a computer-based environment for
optimized materials selection and design, eco-auditing, and introducing processing,
including the underlying materials science.
This book is self-contained and does not depend on the CES EduPack for its use. But at the
same time, it is designed to interface with the CES software, which implements the
methods developed in it, should the instructor and student wish to do so. This
enables realistic design problems and selection studies to be addressed, properly
managing the multiple constraints on material and processes attributes, particularly
in project work. The methodology also provides the user with novel ways to explore
how properties are manipulated. And with sustainability now a core topic in most
materials-related teaching in engineering and design, the book and the software
introduce students to the ideas of life-cycle assessment. Using the CES EduPack
enhances the learning experience and provides a solid grounding in many of the
domains of expertise specified by the various professional engineering accreditation
bodies (analysis of components, problem-solving, design and manufacture,
economic, societal, and environmental impact, and so on). In addition, the CES
Elements database documents the fundamental physical, crystallographic,
mechanical, thermal, electrical, magnetic, and optical properties of all 112 stable
elements of the periodic table, allowing the origins and inter-relationships among
properties to be explored. In a change from previous editions of this book, an
extensive set of CES-based exercises for each chapter are now accessible online,
again with a fully worked solution manual available for instructors (further details
in the section: Resources that accompany this book).

1
Ashby, M. F. (2017), Materials selection in mechanical design, 5th edition, Butterworth
Heinemann, Oxford, UK. ISBN 9780081005996. (An advanced text developing

17
material selection methods in detail.)
2
Ashby, M.F. (2012), Materials and the Environment – eco-informed material choice, 2nd
edition, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, UK. ISBN 978-0-12-385971-6. (A teaching
text introducing students to the concepts and underlying facts about concerns for the
environment and the ways in which materials and products based on them can both
help and harm it.)
3
Ashby, M.F., Ferrer-Balas, D., and Segalas Coral, J. (2016), Materials and Sustainable
Development, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK. ISBN 978-0-08-100176-9. (A text
presenting a methodology for assessing whether a material, product or even a whole
technology can be regarded as sustainable.)
4
Ashby, M.F., and Johnson, K. (2013), Materials and design, the art and science of
material selection in product design, 3rd edition, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, UK.
ISBN 978-0-08-098205-2. (A text that complements those above, dealing with the
aesthetics, perceptions, and associations of materials and their importance in product
design.)
5
Tempelman, E., Shercliff, H.R., and Ninaber van Eyben, B. (2014), Manufacturing
and design – understanding the principles of how things are made, Butterworth
Heinemann, Oxford, UK. ISBN 978-0-08-099922-7. (The source of the manufacturing
triangle and the structured approach to process-material-design interactions.)
6
The CES EduPack, Granta Design Ltd., Rustat House, 62 Clifton Court, Cambridge
CB1 7EG, UK. www.grantadesign.com/education.

18
Acknowledgments
No book of this sort is possible without advice, constructive criticism, and ideas from
others. Numerous colleagues have been generous with their time and thoughts. We
would particularly like to recognize the suggestions made by Professors Mick
Brown, Archie Campbell, David Cardwell, Ken Wallace, and Ken Johnson, all of
Cambridge University, Professor John Abelson of the University of Illinois, and
Professor Erik Tempelman of TU Delft.
Equally valuable has been the contribution of the team at Granta Design,
Cambridge, responsible for the development of the CES software that has been used
to make the material property charts that are a feature of this book.
We gratefully acknowledge the following Materials, Fourth Edition reviewers,
whose valuable insight helped to shape this text.

Reviewers
Anton den Boer, Avans University of Applied Science, Netherlands
Benjamin Liaw, City College of New York
David A. Schiraldi, Case Western Reserve University
Atin Sinha, Georgia Southwestern State University

19
Resources that accompany
this book

Resources available to adopting instructors who

register on the Elsevier textbook website,
http://textbooks.elsevier.com:
Instructor's manual of exercises and solutions
The book includes a comprehensive set of exercises that can be completed using
information, diagrams, equations, and data contained in the book itself (with a small
number involving Web searches or independent student observation). Fully worked-
out solutions to the exercises are freely available online to tutors and lecturers who
adopt this book.

Image Bank
The Image Bank provides adopting tutors and lecturers with electronic versions of
the figures from the book that may be used in lecture slides and class presentations.

PowerPoint Lecture Slides

Use the available set of lecture slides in your own course as provided, or edit and
reorganise them to meet your individual course needs.

Interactive online materials science tutorials

To enhance students' learning of materials science, instructors adopting this book
may provide their classes with a free link to a set of online interactive tutorials. There
are 12 available modules: Bonding, Tensile Testing, Casting and Recrystallization,
Fracture and Fatigue, Corrosion, Phase Equilibria, Wear, Ceramics, Composites,
Polymers, Light Alloys, and Dislocations. Each module includes a selection of self-
test questions. The link is available to instructors who register on the Elsevier
textbook website.

20
Complementary resources available through
Granta Design Ltd, www.grantadesign.com:
The CES EduPack
As explained earlier, the CES EduPack is a software-based package developed by
Michael Ashby and Granta Design, that implements many of the methods in this
book. Used together, Materials: Engineering, Science, Processing, and Design and CES
EduPack provide a complete materials, manufacturing, and design course.

CES exercises and solutions

Two types of exercises, with fully worked-out solutions and CES project files, are
provided via the Granta Design website: the first uses the CES software to apply and
reinforce the methods developed in the book, and the second explores the
underlying science more deeply using the CES Elements database that is part of the
CES system. For further information please visit
http://www.grantadesign/education/textbooks/MaterialsESPD.

21
IFC

(∗)
Stress intensity is more commonly expressed in the numerically identical MPa.m1/2.

22
CHAPTER 1

Introduction
materials – history and character

Abstract
Engineering design depends on materials that are shaped, joined, and finished
by processes. Design requirements define the performance required of the
materials, expressed as target values for certain design-limiting properties. A
material is chosen because it has properties that meet these targets and is
compatible with the processes required to shape, join, and finish it. This chapter
introduces some of the design-limiting properties: physical properties like density,
mechanical properties like modulus and yield strength, and functional properties
such as those describing the thermal, electrical, magnetic, optical and
environmental behaviour.

Keywords
Carbon footprint; Density; Design-limiting properties; Electrical resistivity;
Embodied energy; Functional properties; Materials; Mechanical properties;
Modulus; Physical properties; Processes; Target values; Thermal conductivity;
Yield strength

CHAPTER CONTENTS

1.1 Materials, processes and choice

1.2 Material properties
1.3 Design-limiting properties
1.4 Summary and conclusions
1.5 Further reading
1.6 Exercises

23
 Professor James Stuart, the first Professor of Engineering at
Cambridge, appointed in 1875.

1.1. Materials, processes and choice

Engineers make things. They make them out of materials, and they shape, join and
finish them using processes. The materials support loads, they insulate or conduct
heat and electricity, and they channel or reject magnetic flux, transmit or reflect light,
and tolerate hostile surroundings. Ideally, they do all this without damage to the

24
environment or costing too much.
To make something, you also need a process, one that is compatible with the
material you plan to use. Sometimes it is the process that is the dominant partner,
and a material match must be found. Compatibility with viable processing
conditions is not always easy to find, and material failure can be catastrophic, with
issues of liability and compensation. But our aim here is not contention; rather, it is
to give a vision of the universe of materials (universe, since even on the remotest
planets you will find the same elements) and of the universe of processes, and to
provide methods for choosing them to ensure a durable, compatible union.
But, you may say, engineers have been making things out of materials for
centuries, and successfully so – think of Isambard Kingdom Brunel, Thomas Telford,
Gustave Eiffel, Henry Ford, Karl Benz and Gottlieb Daimler, the Wright brothers.
Why do we need new ways to choose them? A little history helps here. The portrait
with which this chapter starts shows James Stuart, the first professor of engineering
at Cambridge University. In his day, the number of materials available to engineers
was small – a few hundred at most. There were no synthetic polymers – there are
now over 45,000 of them. There were no light alloys (aluminium was first used in
engineering only in the 20th century) – now there are thousands. There were no
high-performance composites – now there are hundreds to choose from. The history
is developed further in Figure 1.1, the time axis of which spans 10,000 years. The
timescale is non-linear – almost all the materials we use today were developed in the
last 100 years. And this number is enormous: over 160,000 materials are available to
today's engineer, presenting us with a problem that Professor Stuart did not have:
that of optimally selecting the best one. Innovative design means the imaginative
exploitation of the properties offered by materials.
These properties today are largely known and documented in handbooks; one
such – the ASM Materials Handbook – runs to 22 fat volumes, and it is one of many.
How are we to deal with this vast body of information? Fortunately, another thing
has changed since Prof. Stuart's day: digital information storage and manipulation.
Computer-aided design is now a standard part of an engineer's training, and it is
backed up by widely available packages for solid modelling, finite-element analysis,
optimisation and for material and process selection. Software for the last of these –
the selection of materials and processes – draws on databases of the attributes of
materials and processes, documenting their mutual compatibility, and allows them
to be searched and displayed in ways that enable selections that best meet the
requirements of a design.
If you travel by foot, bicycle or car, you take a map. The materials landscape, like
the terrestrial one, can be complex and confusing; maps, here, are also a good idea.
This text presents a design-led approach to materials and manufacturing processes
that makes use of maps: novel graphics to display the world of materials and
processes in easily accessible ways. They present the properties of materials in ways
that give a global view, revealing relationships between properties and enabling

25
selection.

FIGURE 1.1 The development of materials over time. The materials

of pre-history are those of nature. The development of thermo-
chemistry, electro-chemistry and polymer chemistry enabled the
production of man-made materials. Three – stone, bronze and iron –
were so important that the era of their dominance is named after
them.

1.2. Material properties

What are ‘material properties’? Some, like density – mass per unit volume – and
price – the cost per unit volume or weight – are familiar enough, but others are not,
and getting them straight is essential. Think first of those that relate to the safe
carrying of loads – the mechanical properties.

Mechanical Properties.
A steel ruler is easy to bend elastically – ‘elastic’ means that it springs back when
released. Its elastic stiffness (here, resistance to bending) is set partly by its shape –
thin strips are easier to bend than thick ones – and partly by a property of the steel
itself: its elastic modulus, E. Materials with high E, like steel, are intrinsically stiff;
those with low E, like polyethylene, are not. Figure 1.2(b) illustrates the
consequences of inadequate stiffness.

26
 FIGURE 1.2 Mechanical properties.

The steel ruler bends elastically, but if it is a good one, it is hard to give it a
permanent bend. Permanent deformation relates to strength, not stiffness. The ease
with which a ruler can be permanently bent depends again on its shape and on a
different property of the steel – its yield strength, σy. Materials with large σy, like
titanium alloys, are hard to deform permanently, even though their stiffness, coming
from E, may not be high. Those with low σy, like lead, can be deformed with ease.
When metals deform, they generally get stronger (it is called ‘work hardening’), but
there is an ultimate limit, called the tensile strength, σts, beyond which the material
fails (and the amount it stretches before it breaks is called the ductility). The

27
hardness, H, is related to the strength, σy. High hardness gives scratch resistance and
resistance to wear. Figure 1.2(c) gives an idea of the consequences of inadequate
strength.
So far so good. There is one more property, and it is a tricky one. If the ruler were
made not of steel but of glass or of PMMA (Plexiglass, Perspex), as transparent rulers
are, it is not possible to bend it permanently at all. The ruler will fracture suddenly
before it acquires a permanent bend. We think of materials that break in this way as
brittle, and materials that deform and resist fracture as tough. If there is no
permanent deformation, then σy is not the right property. The resistance of materials
to cracking and fracture is measured instead by the fracture toughness, K1c. Steels are
tough – well, most are (steels can be made brittle) – they have a high K1c. Glass
epitomises brittleness; it has a very low K1c. Figure 1.2(d) suggests the consequences
of inadequate fracture toughness.
We started with the material property density, symbol ρ. Density, in a ruler, is
irrelevant. But for almost anything that moves, weight carries a fuel penalty, modest
for automobiles, greater for trucks and trains, greater still for aircraft, and enormous
in space vehicles. Minimising weight has much to do with clever design – we will get
to that later – but equally, to the choice of material. Aluminium has a low density,
lead a high one. If our airplane were made of lead, it would never get off the ground
at all (Figure 1.2(e)).

Exam ple 1.1 Design r equir em ents (1)

You are asked to select a material for the teeth of the scoop of a digger truck. To
do so, you need to prioritise the material properties that matter. What are they?

28
 Answer. The teeth will be used in a brutal way to cut earth, scoop stones,
crunch rock, often in unpleasant environments (ditches, sewers, fresh and salt
water and worse), and their maintenance will be neglected. These translate into a
need for high hardness, H, to resist wear, and high fracture toughness, K1c, so they
don't snap off. Does the cost of the material matter? Not much – it is worth paying
for good teeth to avoid expensive downtime.

These are not the only mechanical properties, but they are the most important
ones. We will meet them and the others in Chapters 4–11.

Thermal Properties.
The properties of a material change with temperature, usually for the worse. Its
strength falls, it starts to creep – to sag slowly over time – it may oxidise, degrade or
decompose (Figure 1.3(a)). This means that there is a limiting temperature called the
maximum service temperature Tmax above which its use is impractical. Stainless steel
has a high Tmax – it can be used up to 800°C; most polymers have a low Tmax and are
seldom used above 150°C.

29
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