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PAUL D. BARCLAY

OUTCASTS
OF
JAPAN’S RULE ON
TAIWAN’S “SAVAGE BORDER,”
1874–1945

EMPIRE
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from UC Press. Luminos provides a framework for preserving and
­reinvigorating monograph publishing for the future and ­increases
the reach and visibility of important scholarly work. Titles
­published in the UC Press Luminos model are published with the
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 ASIA PACIFIC MODERN
Series Editor: Takashi Fujitani
1. E
 rotic Grotesque Nonsense: The Mass Culture of Japanese Modern Times, by Miriam Silverberg
2. V
 isuality and Identity: Sinophone Articulations across the Pacific, by Shu-mei Shih
3. Th
 e Politics of Gender in Colonial Korea: Education, Labor, and Health, 1910–1945, by
­Theodore Jun Yoo
4. F
 rontier Constitutions: Christianity and Colonial Empire in the Nineteenth-Century
­Philippines, by John D. Blanco
5. T
 ropics of Savagery: The Culture of Japanese Empire in Comparative Frame, by Robert Thomas
Tierney
6. C
 olonial Project, National Game: A History of Baseball in Taiwan, by Andrew D. Morris
7. R
 ace for Empire: Koreans as Japanese and Japanese as Americans during World War II, by
Takashi Fujitani
8. Th
 e Gender of Memory: Rural Women and China’s Collective Past, by Gail Hershatter
9. A
 Passion for Facts: Social Surveys and the Construction of the Chinese Nation-State,
1900–1949, by Tong Lam
11. R
 edacted: The Archives of Censorship in Transwar Japan, by Jonathan E. Abel
12. A
 ssimilating Seoul: Japanese Rule and the Politics of Public Space in Colonial Korea, 1910–1945,
by Todd A. Henry
13. Working Skin: Making Leather, Making a Multicultural Japan, by Joseph D. Hankins
14. I mperial Genus: The Formation and Limits of the Human in Modern Korea and Japan, by
Travis Workman
15. S anitized Sex: Regulating Prostitution, Venereal Disease, and Intimacy in Occupied Japan,
1945–1952, by Robert Kramm
16. O
 utcasts of Empire: Japan’s Rule on Taiwan’s “Savage Border,” 1874–1945, by Paul D. Barclay
Outcasts of Empire
 The publisher and the University of California Press
­ oundation gratefully acknowledge the generous support of the
F
­Philip E. L
­ ilienthal Imprint in Asian Studies, established by a major
gift from Sally Lilienthal.
 Outcasts of Empire
Japan’s Rule on Taiwan’s “Savage Border,” 1874–1945

Paul D. Barclay

UNIVERSIT Y OF CALIFORNIA PRESS

University of California Press, one of the most distinguished university
presses in the United States, enriches lives around the world by ­advancing
scholarship in the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences. Its
activities are supported by the UC Press Foundation and by philanthropic
contributions from individuals and institutions. For more information,
visit www.ucpress.edu.

University of California Press

Oakland, California

© 2018 by Paul D. Barclay

Suggested citation: Barclay, Paul D. Outcasts of Empire: Japan’s Rule on

­Taiwan’s “Savage Border,” 1874–1945. Oakland: ­University of California
Press, 2018. doi: https://doi.org/10.1525/luminos.41

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Barclay, Paul D., author.

Title: Outcasts of empire : Japan’s rule on Taiwan’s “savage border,”
1874–1945 / Paul D. Barclay.
Other titles: Asia Pacific modern ; 16.
Description: Oakland, California : University of California Press, [2018] |
Series: Asia Pacific Modern ; 16 | Includes bibliographical references and
index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017030926| ISBN 9780520296213 (pbk. : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9780520968806 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Taiwan aborigines—History—20th century. |
Japan—Colonies—History. | Taiwan—History—1895–1945.
Classification: LCC DS799.42 .B37 2018 | DDC 951.249/04—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017030926

27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
For Naoko
 C onte nts

List of Illustrations and Tables ix

Acknowledgments xiii
Note on Transliteration and Translation xvii

Introduction: Empires and Indigenous Peoples, Global Transformation

and the Limits of International Society 1

PART ONE. THE ANATOMY OF A REBELLION

1. From Wet Diplomacy to Scorched Earth: The Taiwan Expedition,
the Guardline, and the Wushe Rebellion 43
2. The Longue Durée and the Short Circuit: Gender, Language, and
Territory in the Making of Indigenous Taiwan 114

PART TWO. INDIGENOUS MODERNITY

3. Tangled Up in Red: Textiles, Trading Posts, and Ethnic Bifurcation
in Taiwan 161
4. The Geobodies within a Geobody: The Visual Economy of Race
Making and Indigeneity 190

Notes 251
Glossary 293
Index 301
 L i st of Illustrati ons an d Ta bl es

F IG U R E S

1. Japanese colonial-period ethnonyms for Taiwan Indigenous Peoples   9

2. Inō Kanori’s ethnic map, 1898   10
3. Picture postcard map of Taiwan’s ethnic bifurcation, ca. 1904   34
4. Two Atayal men engaged in “conjoined drinking,” near Wulai, Taiwan,
ca. 1900  45
5. Scorched earth guardline, ca. 1910   47
6. Surrendered Atayal at a stopover in Jiaobanshan, ca. 1910   48
7. Weapons captured from Atayal peoples, ca. 1910   49
8. Saigō Tsugumichi, Japanese soldiers, Paiwan headmen, and the interpreter
Johnson, 1874   72
9. A certificate attesting submission to the Japanese Expeditionary Forces,
1874  73
10. Relics preserved from the 1874 expedition, ca. 1910   74
11. Bottle and can from the meeting at Dakekan, 1895  84
12. The Linyipu District Administrative Office, 1898   92
13. Gantaban men with severed heads, 1903   97
14. Guards warn of the approach of hostile forces, ca. 1910  107
15. Cutting trees to build the scorched-earth barricades, ca. 1910  108
16. The large Taiwanese labor force, during construction of the aiyūsen,
ca. 1910  108
17. Porters hauling food and water for the guardline expeditionary troops,
ca. 1910  109
18. Watan Yūra, ca. 1900   123
ix
x    List of Illustrations and Tables

19. Watan Yūra, Kōan, Aki, and Pazzeh Watan, 1903   124
20. Kondō “the Barbarian” Katsusaburō, ca. 1910   130
21. Quchi-area residents posing with flag, ca. 1897   132
22. Kondō Gisaburō with Truku peoples, January 1915   137
23. Tata Rara with Japanese interpreter Nakamura Yūsuke, 1896   143
24. Tata Rara with her Puyuma militia, 1896   144
25. Pan Bunkiet, ca. 1900   145
26. The Wulai School for Indigenous Children, ca. 1910   150
27. Jiaobanshan model school for indigenous children, ca. 1930   153
28. Atayal textiles from Japanese ethnological survey, ca. 1915   170
29. A diorama from the 1913 Osaka Colonial Exhibition with Atayal red-striped
capes  171
30. Trading post at Jiaobanshan, ca. 1913  177
31. Atayal women wearing imported clothing and weaving traditional
clothing, 1936  186
32. Map of Taiwan, 1895   193
33. Japanese census map, 1905   193
34. Ethnic map of Taiwan, ca. 1912   193
35. An anthropology journal sketch of Watan Nawi, 1895   200
36. Jiaobanshan emissaries and Governor-General Kabayama as depicted in
Fūzoku gahō, 1895   201
37. Photograph of the Jiaobanshan emissaries and Japanese officials in Taipei,
1895  202
38. Photograph of Habairon, Motonaiban, and Washiiga, 1895   203
39. Ethnographic drawing of Habairon, Motonaiban, and Washiiga, 1896   204
40. Photograph of Habairon, Motonaiban, Ira Watan, Marai, Pu Chin, and
Washiiga, 1895   206
41. Textbook etching of Jiaobanshan emissaries, 1897   207
42. Jiaobanshan emissaries in fanciful setting, ca. 1900   208
43. Photo of Jiaobanshan emissaries in Western press, 1902   209
44. Etching of Sediq woman and Paalan headman in Ministry of Education
textbook, 1904  210
45. Photograph of Sediq woman and Paalan headman, ca. 1897   210
46. Etching of Sediq woman and Paalan headman in commercial textbook,
1908  210
47. Photograph of Mori Ushinosuke, Japanese officers, and Truku headmen,
1910  220
48. Official commemorative postcard depicting indigenous customs, 1911  224
49. Men and women along the Quchi guardline, ca. 1904   226
50. Japan’s Atayal allies along the Quchi guardline, ca. 1904   227
51. Dynamic and static maps of Taiwan’s ethnic diversity, 1912   231
 List of Illustrations and Tables    xi

52. Jiaobanshan as staging area for Gaogan offensives, ca. 1910   234
53. Jiaobanshan woman with basket and pipe, ca. 1930  237
54. Postcard sleeve, “Jiaobanshan’s hidden savage border,” ca. 1930  238
55. Couple in Jiaobanshan, ca. 1930  238
56. Mountains of Jiaobanshan, ca. 1930  239
57. Contrasting photos of Jiaobanshan and Paalan, 1935   240
58. Second-order geobody of Atayal   241
59. Marai and Yūgai of Rimogan, ca. 1903   242
60. Wulai dwelling and granary, ca. 1903   243
61. Yūgai and Marai in textbook illustration, 1919   243

MAPS

1. The major indigenous ethnic groups of northern Taiwan   7

2. Overview of the major indigenous ethnic groups of Taiwan as portrayed in
Japanese-period maps, ca. 1935   8
3. Taiwan, the Ryūkyū Islands, the Langqiao Peninsula, Mudan, and Satsuma,
in East Asia   51
4. The Langqiao Peninsula, ca. 1874   53
5. Administrative centers, contact zones, and political boundaries in Taiwan,
1874–1945  58
6. Dakekan, Jiaobanshan, Quchi, Wulai, and Rimogan, ca. 1910   80

TA B L E S

1. Military encounters between the colonial government and Taiwan

­aborigines, 1896–1909  100
2. Sources of revenue for the colonial administration, 1897–1907  101
 Ac knowle d gme n ts

The research for this book began in an undergraduate seminar room, decades ago.
Since then, I have racked up a record of personal and scholarly debts dispropor-
tionate to the modest results achieved. These begin with my history professors at
the University of Wisconsin, Alfred McCoy, Kathryn Green, Jean Boydston, John
Sharpless, Kenneth Sacks, and Jürgen Herbst. Thanks, Al, for encouraging me to
think big.
Several mentors who became friends at the University of Minnesota shaped
this project and have earned my eternal gratitude. Advisors Byron K. Marshall
and David W. Noble steered a comparative dissertation project to completion
and spent countless hours counseling me on matters profound and trivial. Ann
Waltner, Ted Farmer, Jeani O’Brien, Steven Ruggles, David Lipset, Russ Menard,
Jennifer Downs, Chris Isett, and Wang Liping were all generous with their time,
energy, and ideas. My fellow graduate students Sean Condon, Yonglin Jiang, Joe
Dennis, Yuichirō Onishi, David Hacker, David Ryden, Matthew Mulcahy, Rachel
Martin, Jennifer Spear, Jennifer Turnham, Martin Winchester, and Jon Davidann
were the best classmates and extended family a graduate student could hope for.
Jeff Sommers is a permanent friend and colleague from before and after graduate
school; his outlook and insight have shaped this book profoundly.
Indulgent hosts, true friends, and brilliant associates have promoted my
research in Japan. First and foremost, Vicky Muehleisen, Yamamoto Masashi, and
Jerome Young put me up in Tokyo more times than I can recall. Fumu Susumu at
Kyoto University and Sasaki Takashi at Doshisha University sponsored my early
research and opened their doors and offices to a neophyte. Arisue Ken at Keio

xiii
xiv    Acknowledgments

University hosted me for a year of sabbatical research at Keio University and took
the time to introduce me to everyone who was anyone in my area of research.
I emphatically thank Professor Kishi Toshihiko at the Center for Integrated
Area Studies at Kyoto University for a residency, his friendship and guidance,
myriad introductions, field trips, and workshops. Without Kishi-sensei’s enthusi-
astic support, this book could not have been completed. Thanks to Professor Hara
Shōichirō, director of the center, for making CIAS like a home away from home.
My research in Taiwan has been utterly dependent upon the friendship and assis-
tance of several scholars and friends. University of Minnesota classmate Peter Kang
(Kang Pei-te) has hosted me, shown me around, and provided the foundation for
my investigations. Chen Wei-chi (Tan Uiti) and Chang Lung-chih have been superb
teachers, comrades, and loyal supporters from the start. John Shufelt is a true friend,
intellectual compatriot, host, and fellow explorer of Hengchun Peninsula. Douglas
Fix is an indispensable mentor and model friend; Doug has forgotten more than
I’ll ever know about Taiwan. Caroline Hui-yu Ts’ai has written the most incisive
and thoroughly researched institutional, legal, and cultural history of Japanese rule
in Taiwan; more than that, she took great pains to host me at Academia Sinica’s
Institute for Taiwan History to finish research for this book. Paul Katz is a master
of Taiwanese social history and religious studies and an endless supplier of shipped
documents, connectivity, and nomunication. Professor Clare Huang (Huang Chih-
huei) has taken me to field sites, introduced me to graduate students, patiently
explained the nuances of the difficult postcolonial situation in Taiwan, and shared
rare historical materials; she has changed the course of this research for the bet-
ter. I also thank anthropologists of Taiwan Hu Chia-yu, Kuan Da-wei, Fred Chiu,
Kerim Friedman, Scott Simon, Wang Peng-hui, Aho Batu, and Geoffrey Voorhees
for camaraderie, mentorship, and vast repositories of knowledge. Wu Micha, Wang
Ying-fen, Sandra Jiang, Lin Maleveleve, and Yayut Chen have extended many cour-
tesies and made this project fun. Chen Yi-fang of the Puli Municipal Library opened
new doors and contributed wisdom, energy, and enthusiasm.
From the Shung Ye Japanese Research Group on Indigenous Peoples of Taiwan,
anthropologist, historian of colonial ethnography, and über-senpai Kasahara
Masaharu has inspired, mentored, and supported my work for two decades. Thank
you so much, Kasahara-sensei! I also thank Nobayashi Atsushi for hosting me at
the National Ethnological Museum in Osaka and trying to keep me in the loop.
Professors Shimizu Jun, Miyaoka Maoko, Ōhama Ikuko, Yamamoto Yoshimi, and
Tsuchida Shigeru have shared their networks, knowledge, and research in the true
spirit of collegiality. Nagasako Minako at the Gakushūin Daigaku Archives pro-
vided access to collections and bibliographic support.
Thank you very much to Julia Adeney Thomas, Kirsten Ziomek, Janice
Matsumura, Prasenjit Duara, Dennis Washburn, Chris Hanscom, Murray
Rubinstein, Andrew Morris, Kenneth Ruoff, Hyung Il Pai, Rob Tierney, Alexis
 Acknowledgments    xv

Dudden, Barak Kushner, Ann Heylen, David Ambaras, Kate McDonald, John
Shepherd, Robert Eskildsen, Joseph Allen, Tony Tavares, Emma Teng, Seiji
Shirane, Matthew Fraleigh, Adam Clulow, Sabine Frühstück, and Austin Parks
for the invitations, provocations, encouragement, panels, letters, edits, and shared
documents.
My colleagues in the History Department at Lafayette College have been there
for me in numerous ways over many years. Special thanks to Tammy Yeakel,
Deborah Rosen, Josh Sanborn, Rebekah Pite, DC Jackson, Bob Weiner, Don
Miller, Andrew Fix, Rachel Goshgarian, Jeremy Zallen, and Christopher Lee
for intellectual community and a place to call home. I thank my Asian Studies
Program compatriots: Seo-Hyun Park for brainstorms and crucial bibliography,
and Li Yang, Robin Rinehart, Ingrid Furniss, Il Hyun Cho, and David Stifel for
their intellectual companionship and ongoing commitment to my professional
and personal development.
I am fortunate to have accomplished and unselfish colleagues in anthropol-
ogy at Lafayette College. Thanks, Andrea Smith, Bill Bissell, Wendy Wilson-Fall,
and Rob Blunt, for not allowing me to caricature your discipline. EXCEL Scholars
Wu Haotian, Linda Yu, Li Guo, Sun Xiaofei, Sharon Chen, and Ning Jing have
compiled tables, abstracted articles, and translated Chinese-language and French
documents into English for me over the years.
Digital Scholarship Services colleagues Eric Luhrs, Paul Miller, Charlotte
Nunes, James Griffin III, John Clark, and Michaela Kelly have built databases, con-
structed maps, captured images, hosted workshops, and provided more support
than could be reasonably expected. John Clark created the six beautiful maps for
this book. Neil McElroy, Diane Shaw, Elaine Stomber, Terese Heidenwolf, Lijuan
Xu, Pam Murray, and Karen Haduck at Skillman Library unstintingly supported
this project with access to funds, images, texts, databases, and interlibrary loan
materials, not to mention accessioning and processing all manner of ephemera
and curios. They have spoiled me rotten.
Matsuda Kyōko’s pioneering research in the history of Japan’s colonial anthro-
pology in Taiwan has been an inspiration. I am also heavily indebted to Kitamura
Kae, Kondō Masami, Kojima Rei’itsu, Matsuoka Tadasu, Yamaji Katsuhiko, and
Matsuda Yoshirō for conceptualizing and documenting the history of indigenous-
Japanese relations with admirable depth, nuance, and creativity. These scholars
have set a high standard for this field. In addition, Chou Wan-yao, Wu Rwei-ren,
Ka Chih-ming, Wang Tay-sheng, and Yao Jen-to have produced masterworks in
the historical sociology of Taiwan; even where I’ve neglected to cite them, their
ideas permeate this book.
Thanks to Donald and Michiko Rupnow for the picture postcard that adorns
the cover of this book, and for supporting this research with other rare and won-
derful images. Michael Lewis, Elizabeth and Anne Warner, Richard Mammana,
xvi    Acknowledgments

Lin Shuchin, and David Woodsworth have kindly donated, lent, or provided access
to their private collections. Without their generosity and public-spiritedness, this
book would not have been possible.
Sections of “ ‘Gaining Trust and Friendship’ in Aborigine Country: Diplomacy,
Drinking, and Debauchery on Japan’s Southern Frontier,” Social Science Japan
Journal 6, no. 1 (April 2003): 77–96, appear in chapter 1; “Cultural Brokerage and
Interethnic Marriage in Colonial Taiwan: Japanese Subalterns and Their Aborigine
Wives, 1895–1930,” Journal of Asian Studies 64, no. 2 (May 2005): 323–60, in ­chapter 2;
“Tangled Up in Red: Textiles, Trading Posts, and the Emergence of Indigenous
Modernity in Japanese Taiwan,” in Andrew Morris, ed., Japanese Taiwan: Colonial
Rule and Its Contested Legacy (London and New York: Bloomsbury Press, 2015),
49–74, in chapter 3; and “Playing the Race Card in Japanese-Governed Taiwan, or:
Anthropometric Photographs as ‘Shape-Shifting Jokers,’ ” in Christopher Hanscom
and Dennis Washburn, eds., The Affect of Difference: Representations of Race in East
Asian Empire (Honolulu: University of Hawai‘i Press, 2016), 38–80, in chapter 4.
The editors and readers of these pieces offered valuable advice and suggestions.
Research for this book was funded by fellowships from the Japan Society for the
Promotion of Science, the National Endowment for the Humanities, the Taiwan
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Lafayette College Provost’s Office, and the Andrew
Mellon Foundation. The Friends of Skillman Library and the Lafayette College
Academic Research Committee generously supported the publication of this book.
Thank you, Asia Pacific Modern series editor Tak Fujitani and Professor Jordan
Sand of Georgetown University, for encouraging me to write a book. Tak offered
counsel, advice, and support and deserves many thanks for reading this manu-
script in its entirety, and parts of it repeatedly. Jordan has been an unselfish mentor
and colleague. The book was improved thanks to their kind attention. Any errors
of fact and interpretation that remain, despite all of this help, are wholly my own.
At University of California Press, senior editor Reed Malcolm and production
coordinator Zuha Khan are amazing. Thanks for your timely responses to queries
large and small! Jody Hanson designed the beautiful cover for this book, providing
a much-needed lift as I came down the homestretch. Also, my heartfelt thanks to
copy editor Erica Soon Olsen and production editor Francisco Reinking for their
heroic labors in seeing this project through to completion.
Finally, my parents, David and Mary Barclay; Keiko Ikegami; and dearly
departed Papa Ikegami cannot know the depth of my gratitude. Uncle Bill, Uncle
Akita, brother John, and sister Barbara, thank you so much for a lifetime of inspi-
ration and always being there.
I dedicate this book to my wife, Naoko. She and our daughter, Megumi, have
lived this project without complaint and have supported it in more ways than can
be expressed in writing.
 N ot e on Translite ration an d Tra n sl ation

Japanese-language words in the text are transliterated in the modified Hepburn sys-
tem, except for the place-names Tokyo and Osaka. The default system for Chinese-
language words is Hanyu Pinyin. However, Taiwanese personal and place-names
that are commonly transliterated in Wade-Giles or other non-Pinyin systems have
been left as I have found them. There is no standard system for transliterating
Austronesian personal names. Where possible, I have followed usage from Chou
Wan-yao’s New Illustrated History of Taiwan. Korean words are romanized in the
reformed system. The McCune-Reischauer system is used for names of authors
and publications that are cataloged under this system.
All translations from Japanese sources are by the author unless otherwise indi-
cated. Chinese translations are the author’s adaptations of translations by research
assistants Wu Haotian, Linda Yu, Li Guo, Sun Xiaofei, and Ning Jing.

xvii
 Introduction
Empires and Indigenous Peoples, Global Transformation
and the Limits of International Society

P R O L O G U E : T H E W U SH E R E B E L L IO N A N D
I N D IG E N OU S R E NA I S S A N C E I N TA I WA N

On October 27, 1930, terror visited the small community of Japanese settler-­
expatriates in the picturesque resort town of Wushe, an administrative center
nestled on a plateau in the central mountains of Taiwan.1 On that day, some 300
indigenes led by Mona Ludao raided government arsenals, ambushed isolated
police units, and turned a school assembly into a bloodbath. All told, Mona’s men
killed 134 Japanese nationals by day’s end, many of them butchered with long dag-
gers and beheaded. Alerted by a distressed phone call from an escapee, the Japanese
police apparatus, with backing from military units stationed in Taiwan, responded
with genocidal fury. Aerial bombardment, infantry sweeps, and local mercenaries
killed roughly 1,000 men, women, and children in the ensuing months. A cor-
nered Mona Ludao removed to the countryside and then killed his family and
hanged himself to avoid capture. Subsequently, the Japanese government relocated
the remaining residents of Mona’s village, Mehebu, forever wiping it off the map.2
Over the course of Japanese rule (1895–1945), the Taiwan Government-­General
forcibly relocated hundreds of other hamlets like Mehebu. The invasive and
exploitative policies that provoked Mona and his confederates also eroded pre-
colonial forms of social organization, authority, and ritual life among Taiwan’s
indigenes. As it severed bonds between indigenes and their lands, in addition to
prohibiting or reforming folkways it deemed injurious to its civilizing mission,
the government-general nonetheless laid the groundwork for the emergence of
Taiwan Indigenous Peoples as a conscious and agentive historical formation. By
arresting the diffusion of Chinese language and customs into Taiwan’s interior,
1
2    Introduction

restricting geographic mobility across the so-called “Savage Border,” dividing the
colony into normally and specially administered zones, and sanctioning a bat-
tery of projects in top-down ethnogenesis, the government-general inscribed a
nearly indelible “Indigenous Territory” on the political map of Taiwan over the
five decades of its existence.
This book will argue that successive, overlapping instantiations of state power’s
negative and positive modalities precipitated the formation of modern indigenous
political identity in colonial Taiwan. This process paralleled other nationalist
awakenings forged in the crucible of foreign occupation. As state functionaries
smashed idols, compelled assimilation, and asserted the authority of a central
government, their fellow nationals reified, commodified, and preserved the mate-
rial, cultural, and territorial expressions of native distinction. These Janus-faced
vectors of state building can be found wherever governments targeted citizenries,
imperial subjects, or marginalized out-groups for inclusion into a new kind of
national political space. Applying these axioms to the case of Taiwan Indigenous
Peoples under Japanese colonial rule, Outcasts of Empire argues that the process
Ronald Niezen dubs “indigenization” is a historical concomitant of competitive
nation building in the age of high imperialism (1870s–1910s).
Rightly emphasizing the importance of transnational activist circuits, global
NGOs, and the increased salience of international rights conventions, Niezen and
others consider the decades following 1960 the incubation period for “interna-
tional indigenism.”3 Laura R. Graham and H. Glenn Penny stress how indigeneity
“emerged as a legal and juridical category during the Cold War era” in response
to “growing concerns about environmental degradation during the twentieth cen-
tury together with the emergence of human rights discourses. . . . ”4 Writing about
the Taiwan case study explored in this book, Wang Fu-chang asserts that indig-
enous political consciousness is a decidedly recent arrival, erupting in its current
form in the 1980s.5
While recognizing the importance of the movements of the 1960s and beyond
for indigenous cultural survival in the twenty-first century, this book argues that
the early twentieth century is a better place to look for the systemic wellsprings of
indigenism.6 Rather than viewing indigenism as a postwar development enabled
by a more or less functioning international system, Outcasts of Empire suggests
that nationality, internationalism, and indigenism were mutually constituted for-
mations, rather than sequentially occurring phenomena.
The pages that follow examine the politics, economics, and cultural move-
ments that informed the Japanese colonial state’s partitioning of Taiwan’s indig-
enous homelands into a special zone of administration known as the Aborigine
Territory. The administrative bifurcation of Taiwan began as an expedient measure
in the 1890s, reflecting the dependence of the Taiwan Government-General on
Qing precedents and straitened colonial budgets. By the 1920s and 1930s, how-
ever, the peoples today known as Taiwan Indigenous Peoples7 were cast for good
 Introduction    3

beyond the bounds of the colonial state’s disciplinary apparatus. The so-called
Takasagozoku (Formosan Aborigines) were accorded a special status as imperial
subjects because they were believed to lack the economic competence to thrive
in the colony’s “regularly administered territories.”8 In a more positive sense,
indigenes were invested with a cultural authenticity that marked them as avatars
of prelapsarian Taiwan antedating Chinese immigration, based in part on high
Japanese appraisals of Austronesian cultural production.9 From the 1930s onward,
the distinctiveness of indigenes as non-Han Taiwanese was elaborated and pro-
moted by the state, the tourism industry, and intellectuals, laying the groundwork
for the successor Nationalist Party government of Taiwan (Guomindang or GMD)
to rule the island as an ethnically bifurcated political field.10
The deterritorializing and reterritorializing operations that underwrote the
emergence of Taiwan Indigenous Peoples during the period of Japanese colo-
nial rule had locally distinctive contours.11 But these interrelated processes were
embedded in a global political economy dominated by a capitalist business cycle
and international competition. In East Asia, the Japanese state refracted these
transnational forces throughout its formal and informal empires. A parallel and
instructive set of events in neighboring Korea illustrates this point.
In 1919, the Japanese state brutally suppressed a Korean uprising known as the
March 1 Movement. That year, across the peninsula, around one million Koreans
loudly protested the draconian administrations of governors general Terauchi
Masatake and Hasegawa Yoshimichi (1910–1919) on the occasion of former king
Gojong’s funeral. As was the case with the Wushe uprising of 1930 in Taiwan, the
magnitude and vehemence of the protests were taken as a negative verdict on
Japanese rule. The savagery of Japan’s suppression of the uprising, which may have
taken 7,500 Korean lives, became a source of national embarrassment. The sense
that colonial rule should rest on more than naked force, and the awareness that
the world was watching, impelled the Japanese state to embark on reforms that
emphasized co-optation, the active support of Korean elites, and abolition of the
most violent and hated forms of colonial police tactics, such as summary punish-
ment by flogging.12
During the 1920s, the Korean Government-General launched a series of poli-
cies known as “cultural rule” in response to the March 1 debacle. As part of a larger
program to legitimate itself, Japan’s official stance toward Korean literature, archi-
tecture, music, and other cultural forms took a preservationist turn that tempered
enthusiasm for the fruits of Korean ethnic genius with a wariness of insubordina-
tion and a long-standing belief that Koreans were developmentally laggard. The
softening of the government’s posture and policies entailed neither the implemen-
tation of a culturally relativist agenda nor the abandonment of the core principles
of racial denigration. Nonetheless, Saitō Makoto’s “cultural rule” policy repre-
sented a sea change, and it set into motion a series of reforms that laid bare the
contradictory demands made upon the interwar colonial state.
4    Introduction

On the one hand, state power was ultimately maintained through the threat
of force and justified by a theory of Japanese racial superiority. On the other, the
colonial state sought to attain hegemony through the politics of inclusion, which
brought in its train practices that were conducive to the production of modern
Korean subjects.13 Henry Em summarizes the paradoxical long-term effects of
colonial rule in terms that mirror events in Taiwan:
Thus, contrary to conventional [Korean] nationalist accounts that argue that Japa-
nese colonial authorities pursued a consistent and systematic policy of eradicating
Korean identity, we should see that the Japanese colonial state actually endeavored
to produce Koreans as subjects—subjects in the sense of being under the authority
of the Japanese emperor, and in the sense of having a separate . . . subjectivity. . . .
It was in this sense that Japanese colonialism was ‘constructive’ for both the ­colonizer
and colonized. . . . Coercion, prohibition, and censorship, then were not the only (or
even primary) forms through which colonial power was exercised. . . . there was a steady
proliferation of discourses concerning Korean identity emanating from the J­apanese
­colonial state itself—including studies of Korean history, geography, language, customs,
religion, music, art—in almost immeasurable accumulated detail. . . . For the Japanese
colonial state, the goal of exploiting Korea and using it for its strategic ends went hand
in hand with the work of transforming peasants into Koreans, or ‘Chōsenjin.’14

Two parallels are in evidence here. First of all, well-coordinated attacks on

Japanese state power (March 1 in Korea and Wushe in Taiwan), followed by clumsy
and disproportionate responses (the open firing on civilians in Korea, the aerial
bombardments in Taiwan), actuated regime change. In Taiwan, the heated debates
surrounding the Wushe Rebellion pitted Japan’s opposition Seiyūkai (Friends of
the Constitution) against Governor-General Ishizuka Eizō, who was allied with
the ruling Minseitō (Popular Government Party). The Seiyūkai capitalized on
the Taiwan Government-General’s incompetence to call for the resignation of
Ishizuka, who actually stepped down along with his inner circle, a reshuffling rem-
iniscent of Saitō Makoto’s ascension to the governor-generalship of Korea in 1919.15
Again echoing events in Korea, the cowed successor administration in Taiwan
called for a renovation of “Aborigine Administration” and a shift from rule by
naked force and intimidation to government by co-optation and delegation.
Importantly, for our purposes, Taiwanese highlanders were thereafter governed
as members of ethnic groups, whose cultural, political, and economic distinction
from the rest of Taiwan was selectively preserved, with certain elements even cel-
ebrated by colonial administrators, metropolitan voters, and consumers in Taiwan
and Japan alike.16 As was the case for Japanese cultural rule in 1920s Korea, the
new era of aborigine administration proved compatible with the emergence of a
discourse on ethnic integrity, one that overrode localisms. The artifacts and struc-
tures that coalesced during this period would then resurface in the postcolonial
era in the form of indigenous ethnonationalism.17
 Introduction    5

In contrast to Korea, public expressions of indigenous patriotism were

s­uppressed in Taiwan for over four decades after the Japanese Empire crum-
bled in 1945.18 The 1.5 million migrants to Taiwan in the Chinese Nationalist
Party (GMD) exodus represented yet another wave of colonization for Taiwan’s
majority population.19 During a long stretch of one-party rule under martial
law (1949–87), GMD-sanctioned history excluded discussions of indigenes as
autochthons because it regarded Taiwanese history as a regional variant of main-
land China’s.20
After martial law was lifted in 1987, politicians put distance between them-
selves and the GMD by supporting an indigenous cultural renaissance to signal
the island’s distinctiveness from the mainland.21 On a parallel track, the founding
of the Alliance of Taiwan Aborigines in 1984 ushered in a wave of organized indig-
enous activism.22 Thereafter, coordinated action between Han Taiwanese national-
ists and Indigenous activists produced a number of political and cultural reforms
aimed at promoting a measure of autonomy and correcting the most egregious
forms of public denigration. As a result, the notions that non-Han peoples are the
island’s original inhabitants and that Taiwan’s multiracial composition should be
celebrated rather than overcome are mainstream political positions23—much as
they were in the 1930s, when Japan ruled the island.
Within this broader context of renaissance and revival, Puli-based freelance
writer Deng Xiangyang’s energetically researched oral and documentary histories
articulate a local perspective on the Wushe uprising that posits indigenes as anti-
colonial heroes and avatars of an authentic, pre-Chinese Taiwanese past. Deng’s
books draw on biographical and family histories and photographs culled from his
local network of Sediq acquaintances.24 Along with graphic artist Qiu Ruolong,
who also has extensive contacts and family relations in the Sediq community, Deng
coproduced a television drama and children’s book about the Wushe Rebellion.
Qiu and Deng have popularized the heroic suffering of the Sediq people, the harsh
labor conditions and sexual harassment that contributed to the revolt, and the
brutality of the Japanese counterattacks. All of these themes were subsequently
dramatized in the blockbuster John Woo production Seediq Bale (2011), a feature-
length film that recounts the story of the rebellion in romantic hues that recall Last
of the Mohicans and Dances with Wolves.25
As I watched and rewatched this film, I was struck by its fidelity to the Japanese
inquest reports into the causes of the rebellion. The main characters, the key
scenes, and the plot structure are immediately recognizable to anyone who has
sifted through the documentation generated by the rebellion. Insofar as some
Japanese characters are made out to be racist buffoons deserving of grisly deaths,
this film can be considered anticolonial. At the same time, its deep engagement
with a reservoir of colonial-era tropes, documents, and narrative structures high-
lights the entanglement of colonialism and postcolonial nationalism that marks
6    Introduction

the Korean experience, shown here in a new context: the making of an indigenous
people.
While there were similarities, as noted above, the complex process by which
residents of Mehebu and Paaran (see map 1) became Sediq was different from
the trajectory that saw natives of Seoul, Gyeongju, and Pyongyang transformed
into Chōsenjin (people of Joseon, or Koreans). In the case of Taiwan Indigenous
Peoples, the translocal, subimperial, and putatively organic identities fostered
under the government-general’s variant of cultural rule were not Taiwanese, per
se, but by turns Indigenous Formosan (Takasagozoku) or attached to particular
ethnolinguistic groups (Amis, Bunun, Paiwan, Atayal, Tsou, Rukai, Saisiyat, and
Yami) (see map 2).
For example, in 1930, Mona Ludao and his followers appeared in official docu-
ments, journalism, and commercial publications as “savages,” “barbarians,” or
“Formosan Tribes” (banjin, seibanjin, banzoku).26 In many respects, they were
governed as such: policy before 1930 emphasized their backwardness, mainly by
excluding them from the tax base due to purported economic incompetence. The
translocal identifier banjin ascribed little importance to matters of ethnic identity
and was, in fact, symptomatic of a pre–Wushe Rebellion approach to governance
that paid scant attention to subject formation.27
In the press, in government statistics, in police records, and in ethnological
writing, indigenes were also identified as members of particular units called sha
in Japanese (Mehebu and Paaran, for example). The sha were units of governance
pegged to residential patterns, although they did not necessarily reflect local con-
ceptions of territoriality and sovereignty. Rather, the category sha (in Chinese, she)
was imposed by the Qing, long before the Japanese arrived, as a blanket term for
any indigenous settlement or cluster of hamlets.28 Like the banjin designator, affili-
ation with a sha did not confer ethnic or cultural status upon the governed.
Terminology anchored in derivatives of the terms ban and sha suggested con-
tinuity from Qing times and a relative disinterest in indigenous interiority. On
the other hand, as early as 1898, Japanese ethnologists began to classify residents
of Mona’s hometown of Mehebu as Atayals. This neologism originated with Inō
Kanori and signaled a different way of imagining Taiwan’s non-Han population(s).
The term Atayal first appeared in Japanese documents in 1896 to identify an ethnic
group noted for facial tattooing, a common language that spanned several water-
sheds and valleys (and sha), and the production of brilliant red textiles.29 The term
Atayal, which connoted membership in a culture-bearing ethnos, rarely surfaced
in policy-making circles during the first two decades of colonial rule. From early
on, however, the term was inscribed in an academic counterdiscourse, as exempli-
fied by a color-coded map. The map’s novel subethnic components—territories
for the Atayal, Bunun, Tsou, Amis, Paiwan, Puyuma, and Tsarisen peoples—­
overwrote Qing-period cartographic voids. This architectonic prefigured today’s
officially sanctioned view of Taiwanese multiculturalism (see figures 1 and 2).
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Map 1. The major indigenous ethnic groups of northern Taiwan, with the Atayal and Sediq
settlements most frequently mentioned in this book. The Sediq territory reflects the demarca-
tions of Japanese official surveys in the second decade of the twentieth century. Today, much of
the territory labeled Sediq by the Japanese is now considered Truku territory.
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Saisiyat

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Map 2. An overview of the major indigenous ethnic groups of Taiwan, as portrayed in

Japanese-period maps, ca. 1935. As this book argues, the shapes of these territories, their names,
and their numbers have been historically contingent.
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