MCB 225

LECTURE NOTES

BY

DR. FAITH CHIDINMA TERNA

Department of Microbiology, Federal University of Lafia

INTRODUCTION TO QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH – STUDY
DESIGNS AND METHODS
What is Quantitative Research?

Quantitative research is a systematic investigation that primarily deals with numerical

data. It aims to quantify the problem, understand how prevalent it is, and find patterns,
relationships, or causal explanations through statistical analysis. In simpler terms, it is
the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns
and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to
wider populations. Quantitative research is the opposite of qualitative research, which
involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio).
Quantitative research plays a crucial role in the scientific understanding of patterns,
relationships, and causal mechanisms. It is essential for evidence-based decision-
making in fields such as health, education, business, and social sciences. Quantitative
research is widely used in the natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry,
psychology, economics, sociology, marketing, etc.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

Objective: Focuses on facts and numbers.

Structured instruments: Uses tools like surveys, tests, and structured
observations.
Quantifiable data: Data is in the form of numbers and can be statistically
analyzed.
Large sample sizes: Often uses larger groups to generalize findings.
Replicable: Methods can be repeated by other researchers.

Key Features of Quantitative Research

Feature Description

Structured approach Research is planned and follows a formal process

Quantifiable data Data collected is numeric and can be statistically analyzed

Objective measurement Researcher remains detached and objective

Use of instruments Standardized tools like surveys, tests, or lab equipment

Large sample sizes Allows generalization to a wider population

Replicability Other researchers can repeat the study using the same design

Purpose of Quantitative Research

To describe variables (e.g., how common a trait is)

 To compare groups (e.g., males vs. females)
To examine relationships between variables (e.g., income and education level)
To test hypotheses or theories

Types of Quantitative Research Designs

Quantitative study designs fall under three main categories. They are descriptive
research design, correlational research design and Experimental research design.

A. Descriptive Research

Definition: Descriptive research is used to systematically describe a population,

situation, or phenomenon. It answers the “what” question (e.g., What is the average
income of a region?). Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically
describe a population, situation or phenomenon. It can
answer what, where, when and how questions, but not why questions.

A descriptive research design can use a wide variety of research methods to investigate
one or more variables. Unlike in experimental research, the researcher does not control
or manipulate any of the variables, but only observes and measures them. Descriptive
research is an appropriate choice when the research aim is to identify characteristics,
frequencies, trends, and categories.

It is useful when not much is known yet about the topic or problem. Before you can
research why something happens, you need to understand how, when and where it
happens.

Key Characteristics:

No manipulation of variables
Focus on accurate portrayal of characteristics or behaviors
Often the first step in exploring a topic

Methods Used:

Surveys: Allows you to gather large volumes of data that can be analyzed for
frequencies, averages and patterns. Common uses of surveys include:
Describing the demographics of a country or region, gauging public opinion on
political and social topics, Evaluating satisfaction with a company’s products or
an organization’s services, etc.
Observations: Observations allow you to gather data on behaviors and
phenomena without having to rely on the honesty and accuracy of respondents.
This method is often used by psychological, social and market researchers to
understand how people act in real-life situations.

Observation of physical entities and phenomena is also an important part of

 research in the natural sciences. Before you can develop testable hypotheses,
models or theories, it’s necessary to observe and systematically describe the
subject under investigation.

Case studies: case study can be used to describe the characteristics of a

specific subject (such as a person, group, event or organization). Instead of
gathering a large volume of data to identify patterns across time or location, case
studies gather detailed data to identify the characteristics of a narrowly defined
subject.

Rather than aiming to describe generalizable facts, case studies often focus on
unusual or interesting cases that challenge assumptions, add complexity, or
reveal something new about a research problem.

Example: A survey to determine the percentage of students who own a Prescott

Microbiology textbook?

B. Correlational Research Design

Definition: Correlational research examines the relationship between two or more

variables without manipulating them. Correlational research is a type of research
method that involves observing two variables in order to establish a statistically
corresponding relationship between them. The aim of correlational research is to
identify variables that have some sort of relationship to the extent that a change in one
creates some change in the other.

This type of research is descriptive, unlike experimental research which relies entirely
on scientific methodology and hypothesis. For example, correlational research may
reveal the statistical relationship between high-income earners and relocation; that is,
the more people earn, the more likely they are to relocate or not.

Correlational research is a way of studying two things to see if they’re related. For
example, you might do a correlational study to see if there’s a relationship between how
much time people spend on social media and how lonely they feel. Correlational
research can’t prove that one thing causes the other, but it can show that there’s a link
between them. For example, correlational research may reveal the statistical
relationship between high-income earners and relocation; that is, the more people earn,
the more likely they are to relocate or not.

Key Characteristics:

Identifies direction and strength of relationships

Does not establish causation
Uses correlation coefficients (e.g., Pearson’s)

Types of Correlation:
Essentially, there are 3 types of correlational research which are positive correlational
research, negative correlational research, and no correlational research. Each of these
types is defined by peculiar characteristics.

Positive Correlational Research

Positive correlational research is a research method involving 2 variables that are

statistically corresponding where an increase or decrease in 1 variable creates a like
change in the other. An example is when an increase in workers’ remuneration results in
an increase in the prices of goods and services and vice versa.

Negative Correlational Research

Negative correlational research is a research method involving 2 variables that are

statistically opposite where an increase in one of the variables creates an alternate
effect or decrease in the other variable. An example of a negative correlation is if the
rise in goods and services causes a decrease in demand and vice versa.

Zero Correlational Research

Zero correlational research is a type of correlational research that involves 2 variables

that are not necessarily statistically connected. In this case, a change in one of the
variables may not trigger a corresponding or alternate change in the other variable. Zero
correlational research caters for variables with vague statistical relationships. For
example, wealth and patience can be variables under zero correlational research
because they are statistically independent. Sporadic change patterns that occur in
variables with zero correlational are usually by chance and not as a result of
corresponding or alternate mutual inclusiveness.

Correlational research can also be classified based on data collection methods. Based
on these, there are 3 types of correlational research: Naturalistic observation research,
survey research and archival research.

Example: Investigating the relationship between students’ GPA and hours spent
studying per week.

C. Experimental Research Design

Experimental quantitative research design utilizes the scientific approach. It

establishes procedures that allow the researcher to test a hypothesis and to
systematically and scientifically study causal relationships among variables. A
scientific experiment may use a completely randomized design in which each study
participant is assigned randomly to a group. Alternatively, it may use the randomized
block design in which study participants who share a certain attribute are grouped
together. In either case, the participants are randomly given treatments within their
groups.
 Purpose: To determine cause-and-effect relationships.
Key Feature: Random assignment of participants to groups.
Example: Testing a new drug’s effect on blood pressure.
Subtypes:
o True Experimental Design (e.g., Randomized Controlled Trials)
o Quasi-Experimental Design (no random assignment but still examines
causality)

Common Methods for Conducting Quantitative Research

1. Surveys/Questionnaires

Collects standardized data from a large population.

Uses closed-ended questions.
Tools: Multiple-choice.

2. Observations (Structured)

Observing behavior using a predetermined checklist or coding system.

3. Experiments

Manipulating one variable to observe its effect on another.

4. Secondary Data Analysis

Analyzing existing numerical data (e.g., national census, hospital records).

Types of Data in Quantitative Research

Data Type Description Example
Nominal Categories without order Gender, nationality
Ordinal Categories with order Education level
Interval Numerical with equal intervals, no true zero Temperature in Celsius
Ratio Numerical with a true zero Weight, height, income

Advantages of Quantitative Research

Objective and replicable

Good for testing hypotheses
 Can analyze large data sets
Useful for generalizing findings to populations

Limitations of Quantitative Research

May not capture context or deeper meanings

Less flexible during data collection
Can be limited by poor question design or biases in sampling

Steps in Conducting Quantitative Research

1. Identify the Research Problem: Clear, focused, and researchable question.

2. Review Related Literature: Understand what is already known and identify gaps.
3. Formulate Hypotheses or Research Questions: Hypotheses state expected
relationships between variables.
4. Choose the Research Design: Select among descriptive, correlational, or
experimental.
5. Define Variables and Measurement Tools: Decide how to operationalize key
concepts.
6. Select the Sample: Choose the population and sampling method (random,
stratified, etc.).
7. Collect Data: Use structured instruments (surveys, tests, observations).
8. Analyze Data: Apply statistical methods to test hypotheses.
9. Interpret Results: Determine whether results support or refute the hypotheses.
10. Report Findings: Prepare a research report or presentation of results.

Ethical Considerations: This has to do with Informed consent; Anonymity and

confidentiality; No harm to participants and Honesty in data reporting

SAMPLING AND SURVEY

What is Sampling?

Sampling is the process of selecting a subset of individuals or units from a larger

population to estimate characteristics of the whole population. In survey research,
sampling is the process of using a subset of a population to represent the whole
population. To help illustrate this further, let’s look at data sampling methods with
examples below.

Let’s say you wanted to do some research on everyone in Nigeria. To ask every person
would be almost impossible. Even if everyone said “yes”, carrying out a survey across
different states, in different languages and time zones, and then collecting
and processing all the results, would take a long time and be very costly.
Sampling allows large-scale research to be carried out with a more realistic cost and
time-frame because it uses a smaller number of individuals in the population with
representative characteristics to stand in for the whole.

However, when you decide to sample, you take on a new task. You have to decide who
is part of your sample list and how to choose the people who will best represent the
whole population. How you go about that is what the practice of sampling is all about.

Fig 1: Pictorial representation of the concept of sampling

Why is sampling important?

Although the idea of sampling is easiest to understand when you think about a very
large population, it makes sense to use sampling methods in research studies of all
types and sizes. After all, if you can reduce the effort and cost of doing a study, why
wouldn’t you? And because sampling allows you to research larger target populations
using the same resources as you would smaller ones, it dramatically opens up the
possibilities for research.

Sampling is a little like having gears on a car or bicycle. Instead of always turning a set
of wheels of a specific size and being constrained by their physical properties, it allows
you to translate your effort to the wheels via the different gears, so you’re effectively
choosing bigger or smaller wheels depending on the terrain you’re on and how much
work you’re able to do.

Sampling allows you to “gear” your research so you’re less limited by the constraints of
cost, time, and complexity that come with different population sizes.It allows us to do
things like carrying out exit polls during elections, map the spread and effects rates of
epidemics across geographical areas, and carry out nationwide census research that
provides a snapshot of society and culture.

Types of sampling

Sampling strategies in research vary widely across different disciplines and research
areas, and from study to study.

There are two major types of sampling methods: probability and non-probability
sampling.

Probability sampling, also known as random sampling, is a kind of sample

selection where randomization is used instead of deliberate choice. Each
member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of being selected.

Non-probability sampling techniques are where the researcher deliberately picks

items or individuals for the sample based on non-random factors such as
convenience, geographic availability, or costs.

As we delve into these categories, it’s essential to understand the nuances and
applications of each method to ensure that the chosen sampling strategy aligns with
the research goals.

Probability sampling methods

There’s a wide range of probability sampling methods to explore and consider. Here are
some of the best-known options.

1. Simple random sampling

With simple random sampling, every element in the population has an equal chance of
being selected as part of the sample. It’s something like picking a name out of a hat.
Simple random sampling can be done by anonymizing the population – e.g. by
assigning each item or person in the population a number and then picking numbers at
random.
Pros: Simple random sampling is easy to do and cheap. Designed to ensure that every
member of the population has an equal chance of being selected, it reduces the risk of
bias compared to non-random sampling.

Cons: It offers no control for the researcher and may lead to unrepresentative groupings
being picked by chance.

2. Systematic sampling

With systematic sampling the random selection only applies to the first item chosen. A
rule then applies so that every nth item or person after that is picked.

Best practice is to sort your list in a random way to ensure that selections won’t be
accidentally clustered together. This is commonly achieved using a random number
generator. If that’s not available you might order your list alphabetically by first name
and then pick every fifth name to eliminate bias, for example.

Next, you need to decide your sampling interval – for example, if your sample will be
10% of your full list, your sampling interval is one in 10 – and pick a random start
between one and 10 – for example three. This means you would start with person
number three on your list and pick every tenth person.

Pros: Systematic sampling is efficient and straightforward, especially when dealing with
populations that have a clear order. It ensures a uniform selection across the population.

Cons: There’s a potential risk of introducing bias if there’s an unrecognized pattern in

the population that aligns with the sampling interval.

3. Stratified sampling

Stratified sampling involves random selection within predefined groups. It’s a useful
method for researchers wanting to determine what aspects of a sample are highly
correlated with what’s being measured. They can then decide how to subdivide (stratify)
it in a way that makes sense for the research.

For example, you want to measure the height of students at a college where 80% of
students are female and 20% are male. We know that gender is highly correlated with
height, and if we took a simple random sample of 200 students (out of the 2,000 who
attend the college), we could by chance get 200 females and not one male. This would
bias our results and we would underestimate the height of students overall. Instead, we
could stratify by gender and make sure that 20% of our sample (40 students) are male
and 80% (160 students) are female.

Pros: Stratified sampling enhances the representation of all identified subgroups within
a population, leading to more accurate results in heterogeneous populations.
Cons: This method requires accurate knowledge about the population’s stratification,
and its design and execution can be more intricate than other methods.

4. Cluster sampling

With cluster sampling, groups rather than individual units of the target population are
selected at random for the sample. These might be pre-existing groups, such as people
in certain zip codes or students belonging to an academic year.

Cluster sampling can be done by selecting the entire cluster, or in the case of two-stage
cluster sampling, by randomly selecting the cluster itself, then selecting at random
again within the cluster.

Pros: Cluster sampling is economically beneficial and logistically easier when dealing
with vast and geographically dispersed populations.

Cons: Due to potential similarities within clusters, this method can introduce a greater
sampling error compared to other methods.

Non-probability sampling methods

The non-probability sampling methodology doesn’t offer the same bias-removal

benefits as probability sampling, but there are times when these types of sampling are
chosen for expediency or simplicity. Here are some forms of non-probability sampling
and how they work.

1. Convenience sampling

People or elements in a sample are selected on the basis of their accessibility and
availability. If you are doing a research survey and you work at a university, for example,
a convenience sample might consist of students or co-workers who happen to be on
campus with open schedules who are willing to take your questionnaire.

This kind of sample can have value, especially if it’s done as an early or preliminary step,
but significant bias will be introduced.

Pros: Convenience sampling is the most straightforward method, requiring minimal

planning, making it quick to implement.

Cons: Due to its non-random nature, the method is highly susceptible to biases, and the
results are often lacking in their application to the real world.
2. Quota sampling

Like the probability-based stratified sampling method, this approach aims to achieve a
spread across the target population by specifying who should be recruited for a survey
according to certain groups or criteria.

For example, your quota might include a certain number of males and a certain number
of females. Alternatively, you might want your samples to be at a specific income level
or in certain age brackets or ethnic groups.

Pros: Quota sampling ensures certain subgroups are adequately represented, making it
great for when random sampling isn’t feasible but representation is necessary.

Cons: The selection within each quota is non-random and researchers’ discretion can
influence the representation, which both strongly increase the risk of bias.

3. Purposive sampling

Participants for the sample are chosen consciously by researchers based on their
knowledge and understanding of the research question at hand or their goals.

Also known as judgment sampling, this technique is unlikely to result in a representative

sample, but it is a quick and fairly easy way to get a range of results or responses.

Pros: Purposive sampling targets specific criteria or characteristics, making it ideal for
studies that require specialized participants or specific conditions.

Cons: It’s highly subjective and based on researchers’ judgment, which can introduce
biases and limit the study’s real-world application.

4. Snowball or referral sampling

With this approach, people recruited to be part of a sample are asked to invite those
they know to take part, who are then asked to invite their friends and family and so on.
The participation radiates through a community of connected individuals like a snowball
rolling downhill.

Pros: Especially useful for hard-to-reach or secretive populations, snowball sampling is

effective for certain niche studies.

Cons: The method can introduce bias due to the reliance on participant referrals, and
the choice of initial seeds can significantly influence the final sample.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESIS
In any research endeavor, the foundation lies in clearly articulating what the researcher
wants to investigate. This foundation is typically expressed through research questions
and hypotheses. Together, they guide the direction, design, and methodology of the
study.

Research Questions

A research question is a clear, focused, concise, and arguable question around which a
research study is centered. It articulates what the researcher aims to explore or
understand.

Importance of Research Questions

Provide focus and clarity to the research.

Determine the type of data needed.
Influence the methodology (qualitative or quantitative).
Help in forming hypotheses (if applicable).

Characteristics of a Good Research Question

A good research question should be:

Characteristic Description
Clear Easily understandable and specific.
Focused Narrow enough to allow for in-depth analysis.
Researchable Can be answered through data collection and analysis.
Feasible Realistic in terms of time, scope, and resources.
Relevant Contributes to academic, scientific, or societal knowledge.
Ethical Avoids harm and respects participants' rights.

You can use the FINER criteria when developing a research question:

Feasible – is the research practical and achievable given time and resources?

Interesting – is the research intriguing, compelling and able to contribute to the

field?

Novel – is the research original?

Ethical – are there any concerns about the impact of the research on participants
or wider community?
 Relevant – is the research important or meaningful for those in the field?

Types of Research Questions

A. Descriptive Questions

Aim to describe phenomena or characteristics.

Example: What are the study habits of high school students in rural areas?

B. Comparative Questions

Involve comparing two or more groups or conditions.

Example: How do online and in-person learning environments affect student
performance?

C. Correlational Questions

Investigate relationships between two or more variables.

Example: Is there a relationship between physical activity and academic
achievement?

D. Causal or Explanatory Questions

Aim to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Example: Does increased screen time cause sleep disturbances in teenagers?

E. Exploratory Questions

Used when little is known about a topic.

Example: What are the experiences of first-generation college students?

Note: A hypothesis is often developed from a research question when the study
involves testing a theory or relationship.

Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a specific, testable prediction about the relationship

between two or more variables. It provides a tentative answer to a research question
based on existing knowledge or theory.

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

Characteristic Description
Testable Can be supported or refuted using empirical data.
Falsifiable Can be proven false under specific conditions.
Clearly states the expected relationship or
Precise and Specific
difference.
Characteristic Description
Based on Theory or Prior
Grounded in existing knowledge.
Research
Types of Hypotheses

A. Null Hypothesis (H₀)

States there is no relationship or difference.

Example: H₀: There is no significant difference in test scores between boys and
girls.

B. Alternative Hypothesis (H₁ or Ha)

States that there is a relationship or difference.

Example: H₁: Girls score significantly higher than boys on standardized tests.

C. Directional Hypothesis

Specifies the direction of the expected relationship.

Example: Students who study more hours will score higher on exams.

D. Non-directional Hypothesis

Predicts a difference or relationship, but not the direction.

Example: There is a difference in test scores between morning and evening
students.

Relationship Between Research Questions and Hypotheses

Research Element Example

Does caffeine intake affect memory performance in
Research Question
college students?
Null Hypothesis (H₀) Caffeine intake has no effect on memory performance.
Alternative Hypothesis
Caffeine intake significantly affects memory performance.
(H₁)

Formulating Hypotheses

Steps in Developing a Hypothesis:

1. Identify Variables
o Independent Variable (IV): The cause or treatment (e.g., caffeine intake)
o Dependent Variable (DV): The effect or outcome (e.g., memory
 performance)
2. Review Literature
o Explore existing theories and studies.
3. Construct a Predictive Statement
o Use theoretical and empirical knowledge.
4. State in Testable Terms
o Clear and operationalized variables.

Role in Research Design

Component Role
Research Question Identifies the issue/problem and sets the scope of the study.
Hypothesis Provides a specific statement to test and guide data collection.
Common Mistakes to Avoid

Vague or overly broad research questions.

Unmeasurable or untestable hypotheses.
Confusing correlation with causation.
Not aligning the hypothesis with the research question.
Biased or leading questions/hypotheses.

Practical Examples

Example 1:

Research Question: What is the impact of social media use on the self-esteem of
adolescents?
Null Hypothesis: Social media use has no significant impact on adolescent self-
esteem.
Alternative Hypothesis: High social media use is associated with lower self-
esteem in adolescents.

Example 2:

Research Question: Does daily exercise improve cognitive function in adults over 60?
Null Hypothesis: Daily exercise does not improve cognitive function in adults over 60.
Alternative Hypothesis: Daily exercise improves cognitive function in adults over 60.

Conclusion

Both research questions and hypotheses are critical elements of the research process.
A clear research question helps define the purpose of the study, while a well-structured
hypothesis provides a specific, testable statement. Understanding their roles and how
to formulate them is essential for designing rigorous, effective research.