Sufi Movement

SUFISM IN INDIA
 Many renowned Sufis migrated to India, especially after Mahmud of Ghazni’s conquest
of Punjab. One of the earliest and most influential among them was Abu’l-Hasan ‘Ali bin
‘Usman al-Hujwiri, also known as Data Ganj Bakhsh (“Distributor of Unlimited
Treasure”). He came to Lahore around 1035 and died sometime after 1089. His famous
Persian work, Kashf al-Mahjub, is a key source on the lives, beliefs, and practices of Sufis
from the time of Prophet Muhammad to his own period.
 Another important Sufi text was ‘Awarif al-Ma‘arif, written by Shaykh Shihab al-Din
Suhrawardi in 1234-35. Both Hujwiri and Suhrawardi emphasized that spiritual
knowledge (ma‘rifa) must be grounded in Islamic law (shari‘a) and true reality
(haqiqa).
 According to them, a Sufi’s spiritual progress involved changing inner states (hal) and
stable stages (maqam). Total loss of self in divine experience (fana’) was not the end
goal; rather, the Sufi was to regain self-awareness in baqa’, the state of living in God.

SUFI ORDERS IN INDIA

Rise of the Suhrawardi Order in India
 By the 13th century, Sufism had divided into about 14 orders or silsilas, each with its
own strict traditions. Among these, the Suhrawardiyya order became very prominent in
India. Although some of Suhrawardi’s disciples migrated to India, the order was truly
established by Shaykh Baha’ al-Din Zakaria of Multan, born around 1182–83. He
studied in Baghdad under Suhrawardi himself, who appointed him as his representative
in India.
 Baha’ al-Din built a large khanqah (Sufi lodge) in Multan with the help of wealthy
merchants from Iraq and Iran. Unlike some other Sufis, he stayed away from ordinary
people and opposed the wandering dervishes known as Qalandars. He invited Sultan
Iltutmish to conquer Multan and replace its ruler, Qabacha. After Multan was annexed
in 1228, Baha’ al-Din was given the prestigious (though non-political) title of Shaykh al-
Islam.
 Baha’ al-Din’s influence continued through his family. His son-in-law, Shaykh Fakhru’d-
Din Iraqi, was a talented poet and philosopher who wrote Lam‘at (“Flashes”), a major
work on the Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of Being) philosophy. This idea was central to later
Sufi thought. Iraqi sent a copy of his book to Shaykh Sadru’d-Din ‘Arif, Baha’ al-Din’s
son, whose disciple Amir Husayn further wrote about this doctrine.
 Shaykh Ruknu’d-Din, son of ‘Arif, became famous during the rule of Alauddin Khalji and
Muhammad bin Tughluq. His reputation reached as far as Alexandria, and Ibn Battuta
was advised to visit him. Ruknu’d-Din believed that a true Sufi leader should have
property (to support dervishes), knowledge (to debate scholars), and spiritual
enlightenment (hal) to inspire others. He died in 1334–35. After his death, the
Suhrawardiyya order declined in Multan, though it remained active elsewhere.
 Expansion and New Branches - The order spread to Gujarat, Punjab, Kashmir, Delhi,
and other regions. One of its most famous later figures was Sayyid Jalalu’d-Din Bukhari,
known as Makhdum Jahaniyan (World Master). He lived in Uch during the reign of Firuz
Tughluq but often visited Delhi. A strict puritan, he criticized local Muslim practices that
 resembled Hindu customs, such as celebrating Shab-i Barat with fireworks and lamps,
similar to Diwali.
 His grandson, Qutb-i ‘Alam, settled near Ahmedabad, the new capital of Gujarat. His
son Sayyid Muhammad, known as Shah-i ‘Alam (King of the Universe), attracted many
noble disciples. One of them implemented shari‘a-based taxation, making his land very
prosperous, as peasants flocked there.
 In the 14th century, a related order called the Firdawsiyya emerged. Its most noted
leader was Shaykh Sharafu’d-Din Ahmad Yahya Munyari, whose family had settled in
Bihar. He led a deeply ascetic life and gained many followers. His khanqah at Munayr
became a spiritual center during the reigns of Muhammad bin Tughluq and Firuz
Tughluq.
 Sharafu’d-Din was disappointed by Firuz Tughluq, especially after the sultan executed
his friends under pressure from orthodox clerics. He believed such injustice would bring
divine punishment. Some Sufi historians later blamed Delhi’s destruction by Timur on
these executions. Sharafu’d-Din believed in Wahdat al-Wujud and drew from poets like
Attar, Iraqi, and Rumi. He died in 1381, but his letters and teachings remained
influential.
 Decline of the Suhrawardiyya - In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Suhrawardiyya order
remained respected in Delhi due to figures like Shaykh Sama’u’d-Din and his disciple,
the poet Jamali. Jamali travelled widely and was admired by Sultan Sikandar Lodi. He
later supported Humayun and died during a military expedition to Gujarat in 1536.
 Jamali’s sons took different paths—Shaykh ‘Abdu’l Hayy served Sher Shah, while
Shaykh Gadai supported the Mughals. After Akbar’s return to power, Bayram Khan
appointed Gadai as Sadr-us-Sudur, a top religious officer. Gadai cancelled many land
grants given to orthodox Sunni scholars, leading to their opposition. After Bayram
Khan’s fall in 1560, Gadai faded into obscurity and died around 1569.
 Eventually, newer Sufi orders with stronger court connections replaced the
Suhrawardiyya. Only the Chishtiyya order, which avoided royal patronage, continued to
enjoy widespread popularity.
 Suhrawardis generally did not advocate for complete separation from political authority.
Instead, they actively engaged with ruling powers, believing that this relationship was a crucial
means to bring about social and moral reforms.

Key Aspects of the Suhrawardi Attitude towards the state

 Engagement and Political Involvement: Suhrawardi saints, particularly in India, maintained
close ties with rulers and political elites. They accepted state patronage, gifts, and land grants,
which they used to build hospices (khanqahs) and schools (madrasas) and fund charitable work.
This stands in stark contrast to the Chishti saints, who often preferred to live in poverty and
shunned contact with the state to avoid corruption and maintain their spiritual independence.
 Guidance to Rulers: Suhrawardi saints saw it as their duty to advise and guide rulers on matters
of justice and governance. By having a presence at court, they believed they could influence
state policies for the betterment of society and the promotion of Islamic law (Sharia). A prime
example of this is Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya in Multan, who was a close confidant and advisor
to Sultan Iltutmish of the Delhi Sultanate. He even received the title of 'Sheikh-ul-Islam' from the
Sultan.
 Rejection of Extreme Asceticism: The Suhrawardis held a more moderate view on worldly
possessions and asceticism than other Sufi orders. They believed a Sufi could possess property,
knowledge, and mystical enlightenment. This position made it easier for them to accept royal
 favors and accumulate wealth, which they viewed as a tool for their religious mission rather
than a corrupting influence.
 Strategic Collaboration: The relationship between the Suhrawardis and the state was mutually
beneficial. The saints gained influence and resources, while the rulers benefited from the saints'
spiritual authority, which helped legitimize their rule and create a peaceful atmosphere among
different religious and social groups. The saints' popularity and perceived piety provided a form
of social and political stability.
 Overall, the Suhrawardi attitude towards the state was one of strategic collaboration and
constructive engagement rather than renunciation. They believed in using their influence and
spiritual authority to actively participate in the political and social life of their time, aiming to
guide society and its leaders toward righteousness.

Chishti Order
 The Chishtiyya Sufi order became deeply rooted in India, even though its original
branches from Chisht (a place near Herat in Afghanistan) did not survive. In India, the
order was established by Khwaja Mu'inuddin Chishti, who became one of the most
influential Sufi saints in the subcontinent.
 Khwaja Mu'inuddin Chishti was born in Sijistan (modern Sistan, Iran) around 1142. He
received his education in leading intellectual centers of eastern Iran and traveled
through many parts of the Islamic world. After Sultan Mu'izzuddin Muhammad Ghori’s
death in 1206, Khwaja Mu'inuddin came to Delhi and finally settled in Ajmer.
 Many legends surround his life, especially tales of his encounters with Hindu yogis—
such as the story where his slippers supposedly brought a flying yogi to the ground.
These stories are often seen as part of the myth-making common to Sufi literature.
 Despite the legends, his actual teachings focused on piety, humility, and devotion to
God. He believed those who truly knew God avoided unnecessary socializing and did not
speak lightly about divine matters. His sayings show deep mystical insight, similar to
earlier ecstatic Sufis like Abu Yazid al-Bistami. For instance, he said:
o “We cast off our slough like snakes and looked attentively, but found no
difference between lover, beloved, and love. In the realm of divine unity, they are
one.”
o He also said: “For years I went around the Ka‘ba; now the Ka‘ba goes around
me.”
 He passed away in 1236 in Ajmer. His tomb later gained prominence, especially under
the Mughals, who frequently visited it for both spiritual and political reasons. From
Emperor Akbar’s reign onward, it came under state care and became the main Muslim
pilgrimage site in India.
 Important Disciples and Successors - One of Khwaja Mu'inuddin's early disciples was
Shaykh Hamiduddin, who settled in Nagaur, Rajasthan, a largely Hindu area. Born in
Delhi after its capture in 1192, he lived very simply with his wife on a small piece of
farmland and rejected all gifts from rulers.
 Although a merchant once took his letters to the wealthy Suhrawardi Sufi, Shaykh
Bahauddin Zakariya of Multan, Hamiduddin was not convinced by Bahauddin's defense
of his riches. Hamiduddin chose poverty and humility until his death in 1274. He was
succeeded by his grandson Shaykh Fariduddin Mahmud, also known as Baba Farid.
 Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq admired Baba Farid’s family so much that he married
his daughter to one of Baba Farid's grandsons. A disciple of Baba Farid, Khwaja
 Ziyauddin Nakhshabi, was also a noted scholar. He translated two Sanskrit works into
Persian:
o Suka Saptati (as Tutinama or Tales of a Parrot), and
o Rati Rahasya (on love and passion).
 Nakhshabi believed Islam was a religion of moderation—a middle path between strict
asceticism and luxury.
 The Chishtis in Delhi - The Chishtiyya’s activities in Delhi were led by Khwaja Qutbuddin
Bakhtiyar Kaki, another key disciple of Khwaja Mu'inuddin. He came to Delhi around
1221. Though Sultan Iltutmish supported him, the practice of sama' (spiritual music and
dance) by the Chishtis angered the conservative Islamic scholars. Despite their
disapproval, Qutbuddin’s strong personality helped popularize sama'. He died in 1235
during an ecstatic state brought on by a verse in sama'.
 Baba Farid and Ajodhan - Among the most famous Chishti saints was Baba Farid. While
his father was a scholar, it was his deeply religious mother who influenced him most.
When Baba Farid became too well-known in Delhi, he moved to Ajodhan (now
Pakpattan in Pakistan) to live a quiet, spiritual life.
 There, he built a jama'at-khana—a thatched community hall with a small meditation
cell for himself. He lived very simply, slept on the floor, and had only a small rug and
staff. His food was basic: wild fruits, millet bread, and sherbet. He shared his food with
his disciples, often giving away more than he kept for himself.
 People from all walks of life visited his center, as it was located on a main trade route.
Even unruly groups like the Qalandars were welcomed. Towards the end of his life, local
authorities became hostile, scaring away visitors and cutting off his donations. Yet Baba
Farid remained indifferent to the hardships, staying focused on God. He died in 1265.
 Leadership After Baba Farid: Shaykh Nizamuddin Auliya - Shaykh Nizamuddin Auliya,
originally from Badaun, settled in Delhi and became the successor of Baba Farid. His
training at the jama'at-khana in Ajodhan was intense and aimed at making him a strong
leader of the Chishtiyya Sufi order in India. From his residence in Ghiyaspur, his moral
and spiritual influence deeply affected the people of Delhi.
 Despite his popularity, he had strained relations with rulers like Sultan Qutbuddin
Mubarak and Ghiyasuddin Tughluq. Although the poet and courtier Amir Khusraw was
close to him, conflicts arose when Khusraw supported a future Sultan, bringing gifts to
Sufis to gain blessings for victory. Some Sufis accepted the gifts but planned to return
them if the Sultan lost. Nizamuddin, following his practice, gave everything to the poor
immediately and thus couldn’t return the gifts later. This made enemies accuse him of
being frivolous and sinful, leading to a large assembly of over 250 scholars who opposed
him. The Sultan, however, refused to act against him. Nizamuddin died in April 1325,
while the Sultan was away, and the Sultan himself died three months later.
 Teachings of Nizamuddin Auliya - Nizamuddin taught that the foundation of Sufism was
ethical conduct—treating others as you wish to be treated. True renunciation wasn’t
about ascetic clothing or starving but sharing anything extra with the poor. He admired
those who fed everyone without regard to caste or class. He opposed philosophical
theories about the universe and preferred sharing Sufi stories and teachings. He was
especially critical of philosophers like Avicenna.
 Chiragh-e-Delhi: Shaykh Nasiruddin Mahmud - Nizamuddin was succeeded by his
devoted disciple, Shaykh Nasiruddin Mahmud, also called Chiragh-e-Delhi (The Lamp of
Delhi). Like his teacher, he avoided involvement with political rulers, which led to
tension with Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq. Still, during Sultan Firoz’s rule, many Sufi
 hospices (khanqahs) received royal grants. Chiragh-e-Delhi lived simply, even surviving
an assassination attempt without allowing revenge. He died in 1356 and, finding no
worthy disciple, chose to bury the relics of Nizamuddin with himself.
 His teachings were recorded in Khayru’l-Majalis by a disciple, showing the peak of
Indian Chishti philosophy. He advised Sufis to stay connected with ordinary people but
also maintain spiritual detachment. He was disappointed to see Sufism in Delhi
becoming more about rituals than true spiritual values. Many of his disciples moved to
the provinces to establish new centers, which helped spread but not break the influence
of Delhi.
 Wahdat al-Wujud and Its Opposition - By the late 14th century, the Chishtiyya Sufis in
India embraced the doctrine of Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of Being), which taught that all
existence is ultimately one with the Divine. A strong supporter of this view was Mas’ud-i
Bakk, a relative of Sultan Firoz. However, due to pressure from religious scholars, the
Sultan had him executed. In his final poem, Mas'ud claimed that he had lost his human
identity and become one with the Divine.
 Another follower of this idea was Sayyid Muhammad Husayni bin Ja’far al-Makki, who
lived through the reigns of several Sultans. He defended famous mystics like Bayazid and
Mansur Hallaj, saying their bold statements came from total spiritual absorption, not
arrogance.
 Chishtis in the Deccan: Khwaja Banda Nawaz - Shaykh Burhanuddin Gharib, a disciple of
Nizamuddin, was forced by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughluq to move to Daulatabad in
the Deccan. But the one who truly spread the Chishtiyya order there was Sayyid
Muhammad bin Yusuf al-Husayni, also known as Khwaja Banda Nawaz or Gisu Daraz. A
disciple of Nasiruddin, he moved to Gulbarga after fleeing from Delhi due to Timur’s
invasion. He wrote many works. Early in life he supported Wahdat al-Wujud, but later
adopted Wahdat al-Shuhud (Unity of Witnessing), influenced by Alauddin Simnani, who
had strongly opposed the former doctrine. Gisu Daraz criticized Ibn Arabi and poets like
Rumi and Attar who supported Wahdat al-Wujud, accusing them of misrepresenting
Islam. He died in 1422 at the age of 101.
 Chishtis in Bengal and Other Regions - In Bengal, the Chishtiyya order was brought by
Akhi Siraj, a disciple of Nizamuddin. His successor, Shaykh Ala’ul Haqq, left his
government post and turned to spiritual life. After his death in 1398, his followers
spread Chishti teachings across Bengal. In the 14th and 15th centuries, Chishti centers in
Jaunpur, Lucknow, Kalpi, and Gangoh grew influential. Thaneswar also became a major
center in the 16th century, though Jahangir exiled a local Sufi, Shaykh Nizam
Thaneswari, for blessing his rebellious son. He died in Balkh, denouncing the Mughals as
irreligious.
 Though Delhi's Chishti centers remained respected in the 16th and 17th centuries, none
matched the fame of Shaykh Salim Chishti, whose blessing, Akbar believed, led to the
birth of his son, Salim (Jahangir). Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri in gratitude. Meanwhile,
Gujarat became a hub of intellectual Chishtis, overshadowing rival Sufi orders like the
Suhrawardiyyas.
 Chishti Scholar vs. Philosophy - One major Chishti scholar was Shaykh Muhibullah
Mubariz Ilahabadi. He opposed both philosophical theology (kalam) and rational
philosophy. He was a fierce defender of Wahdat al-Wujud and criticized both Alauddin
Simnani and Gisu Daraz for opposing it.

Causes of Popularity of Chishtis

 During the Sultanate period, all Sufi orders aimed to achieve a direct connection with
God by following the Sufi path under the guidance of a spiritual teacher. However, these
orders differed in their customs, rituals, and attitudes toward society and the state.
Among them, the Chishti order became the most popular and widespread, deeply
rooted in the Indian cultural landscape. Its practices, values, and teachings gave it a
distinctly Indian character. The following factors contributed to the popularity of the
Chishti order:
 i) Familiar Practices: Many early Chishti customs resembled those of pre-existing non-
conformist religious groups in India. These included ascetic living, bowing to spiritual
masters, shaving the heads of new initiates, and holding musical gatherings for spiritual
purposes. Because of these similarities, the Chishtis were seen as continuing established
Indian spiritual traditions.
 ii) Religious Tolerance and Adaptability: The Chishtis adopted a tolerant attitude
toward non-Muslims and adapted themselves to India’s predominantly non-Muslim
environment. They used local imagery, language, and customs to make their teachings
more accessible. Many Chishti saints even used Hindawi, a local language, to spread
their message.
 iii) Egalitarian Ethos: Chishti khanqahs (spiritual lodges) offered an inclusive and
egalitarian environment, attracting people from the lower social and economic strata.
Unlike the rigid caste divisions of Brahmanical society or the Turkish elite's racial
hierarchy of noble-born and low-born, the Chishtis welcomed everyone—merchants,
artisans, peasants, and sweepers alike. Their teachings emphasized compassion and
concern for the underprivileged.
 iv) Charismatic Leadership and Detachment from Power: The leadership of early Chishti
saints played a major role in the order’s popularity. These saints stayed away from
political power, refused state patronage, and rejected the rigid legalism of orthodox
scholars (ulama). Their teachings combined the simplicity of Islam with the spiritual
depth of Sufism, which resonated with the masses.
 v) Posthumous Veneration and Popular Legends: The fame of the early Chishti saints
continued to grow after their deaths, as a strong tradition of saint worship developed
around their shrines (dargahs). Hagiographies and popular legends often credited them
with performing miracles and converting non-Muslims through spiritual power. While
the early Chishti saints believed in the possibility of miracles, they disapproved of using
them to gain followers and did not consider them central to Sufi practice. Still, miracle
stories played a significant role in enhancing the prestige of Chishti shrines and
spreading their posthumous reputation.
 In essence, the Chishti order’s popularity rested on its cultural adaptability, inclusive
values, moral leadership, and deep resonance with the spiritual and social needs of
Indian society.

Kubrawiyya Order
 The Kubrawiyya Sufi order established its main center in Kashmir, introduced by Mir
Sayyid ‘Ali Hamadani, a disciple of a follower of Shaykh ‘Ala’uddin Simnani. After
traveling widely across the Islamic world, Sayyid ‘Ali came to Uch, where the leader of
the Suhrawardiyya order, Makhdum Jahaniyan, ignored him. So, he moved on to
Kashmir, where his cousin had already prepared the ground for his arrival. He likely
reached Srinagar in 1381.
 Stories of his miracles—such as defeating a Brahman priest who allegedly levitated—
echo legends told about other famous Sufis like Khwaja Mu'inuddin Chishti. It is said he
threw his slippers at the levitating priest, causing him to fall. The Kali temple was
demolished, and a prayer platform was built for him at the site.
 Like Simnani, Mir Sayyid ‘Ali was a strong missionary. He encouraged his followers to
destroy Hindu temples and convert Hindus to Islam. After spending three years in
Kashmir, he left but died on the way in 1385. His body was taken to Khuttalan (now in
Tajikistan), but many of his trained disciples remained in Kashmir.
 These disciples followed Iranian Sufi chivalric traditions (futuwwa) and often used force
in their conversions. They also brought with them the brotherhood spirit of Iranian and
Anatolian dervishes, who were often linked to craft and merchant guilds. In Kashmir,
this network gave them opportunities to advance both religious and commercial
interests. They also looted temples to benefit themselves and their allies.
 In 1393, Sayyid ‘Ali’s son, Mir Muhammad, came to Srinagar and revived the aggressive
missionary spirit. Sultan Sikandar (r. 1389–1413) became his follower and built a
khanqah (Sufi lodge) where the original prayer platform stood. A powerful noble, Suha
Bhatta, also became a disciple, converted to Islam as Sayfuddin, and gave his daughter
in marriage to Mir Muhammad.
 Under their influence, Sultan Sikandar demolished many Hindu temples, passed strict
religious laws, and imposed the jizya tax on non-Muslims for the first time in Kashmir.
Brahmans were persecuted, removed from high government posts, and replaced by
Iranian immigrants. This pressure led many elite Brahmans to convert to Islam in order
to keep their power and status.
 Eventually, Sultan Sikandar realized the damage caused by this extreme policy.
According to the Brahman historian Jonaraja, Sikandar tried to halt the spread of
Muslim domination and abolished the jizya. Disappointed by this shift, Mir Muhammad
left Kashmir after twelve years. However, many of his disciples remained and
strengthened the influence of Persian officials in the administration.
 Later, another group of Iranian immigrants called the Bayhaqi Sayyids, who were also
Kubrawiyyas, came to Kashmir. Under Sultan Zayn-ul-‘Abidin (r. 1420–1470), they
supported efforts to suppress Sunni fanaticism and promote harmony between Hindus
and Muslims.
 In 1481, the Timurid ruler of Herat, Husayn Mirza, sent Mir Shamsuddin Iraqi to
Kashmir. He initially spread the Nur Bakhshiyya Sufi teachings and became close to the
Kubrawiyyas. He returned to Kashmir in 1501, this time promoting Twelver Shi’ism (Isna
‘Ashari). Many top nobles converted.
 However, the spread of Shi’ism was actively resisted by the Kashmiri Suhrawardiyya
Sufi, Shaykh Hamza Makhdum, and his disciple Baba Dawud. After the Mughal emperor
Akbar annexed Kashmir in 1586, the religious situation stabilized, and Shi’ism was kept
in check.

The Qalandars
 The origins of the Qalandariyya movement are unclear, but it began to take shape in the
11th and 12th centuries. Persian poetry from this period praises the spiritual
achievements of the Qalandars—wandering dervishes who lived unconventional, ascetic
lives. The movement spread across regions like Syria, eastern Iran, and Transoxiana. In
India, the earliest references to the Qalandars appear in records of the Chishtiyya Sufi
order.
 The Qalandars were sharply critical of mainstream Sufi practices. They rejected the
structured life of the khanqah (Sufi lodge), seeing it as contrary to true spirituality. They
accused conventional Sufis of turning into idols themselves and refused to follow Islamic
sharī‘a law.
 Qalandars were known for their extreme practices: they used intoxicants like hemp,
shaved all body hair including eyebrows, and carried razors at all times. They wore iron
rings in their ears, hands, and other parts of the body. Sufi texts often record strange
and miraculous deeds performed by Qalandars.
 Major Sufi leaders such as Shaykh Baha’u’d-Din Zakariyya and Baba Farid were
frequently criticized by the Qalandars. Despite this antagonism, the Qalandars traveled
extensively—even reaching Bengal. During the reign of Sultan Balban, his rebellious
governor Tughril became so devoted to a Qalandar that he gifted him and his
companions enough gold to replace their iron ornaments with gold ones.
 The Qalandars were not a single unified group. One prominent subgroup was the
jawāliqīs, who wore blankets, while others went nearly naked. The Haydari Qalandars,
named after their founder from Turbat-i Haydar near Mashhad in Iran, were especially
extreme. According to the poet Jamali, they adopted the custom—borrowed from Hindu
Naga sannyasis—of inserting iron rods through their genitals as a vow of celibacy. They
also pierced their ears and wore iron rings like the kanphata yogis.
 One prominent Haydari, Shaykh Abu Bakr Tusi Haydari, settled near the Yamuna in Delhi
and built a khanqah. Though admired by Sufi masters like Shaykh Nizamuddin Awliya,
Abu Bakr also participated in violent political intrigue. At the urging of Sultan Jalaluddin
Khalji, he attacked and fatally wounded the dervish Sidi Mawla, who was popular among
nobles but viewed by the Sultan as a political threat.
 In 1342, the famous traveler Ibn Battuta encountered a group of Haydaris in Amroha. He
described how they danced on burning coals and even rolled in the fire during a musical
performance. Their leader wore a fine shirt Ibn Battuta had gifted him and emerged
from the flames without a single burn mark—an act that greatly astonished the traveler.
 Among the most well-known Qalandars was Abu (Bū) ‘Ali Qalandar, who died in 1324
and lived in Panipat. Originally trained in Islamic scholarship, he abandoned his books
during a moment of spiritual ecstasy and became a Qalandar. However, unlike many
others, he continued to observe Islamic law. While not all writings attributed to him are
genuine, the authentic ones reflect deep spirituality. A later Chishti writer claimed that
Abu ‘Ali had been spiritually initiated into the Chishtiyya order by the spirit of Khwaja
Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, which led to the development of a hybrid Chishtiyya-
Qalandariyya tradition.
 Interestingly, although Shaykh Baha’u’d-Din Zakariyya opposed the Qalandars, his son-
in-law, Shaykh Fakhruddin ‘Iraqi, once followed Qalandari practices in his youth. He
eventually settled into the khanqah lifestyle but retained his independent spirit. Another
famous Qalandar, Lal Shahbaz Qalandar, who became a disciple of Shaykh Baha’u’d-Din
Zakariyya, is still revered today, and many miraculous stories are linked to his shrine at
Sihwan in Sindh.

Contribution of Qalandars to Medieval Indian Culture

 Syncretic Practices: the Haydari Qalandars, a prominent subgroup, adopted practices
from Hindu Naga sannyasis, such as inserting iron rods through their genitals as a vow of
celibacy and piercing their ears and wearing iron rings. This demonstrates a cultural
 exchange and blending of religious ascetic practices between Islamic and Hindu
traditions in India.
 Unique Sufi Movement: While they were criticized by mainstream Sufi orders like the
Chishtiyya for their extreme practices, the Qalandars were a distinct and influential part
of the medieval Sufi landscape in India. Their rejection of the structured life of the
khanqah (Sufi lodge) and conventional Sufism set them apart.
 Individualistic Spirituality/Challenging Orthodoxy: The Qalandars' focus on individual,
unconventional, and often extreme asceticism influenced the spiritual landscape. They
were known for their wandering lifestyle and rejection of mainstream societal norms,
which represented a different path to spiritual enlightenment than that of other Sufi
orders.
 Noteworthy Figures: several Qalandars who became known in India, such as Abu (Bü)
'Ali Qalandar and Shahbaz Qalandar. These figures contributed to the spiritual and
cultural fabric of the time, with Abu 'Ali Qalandar's story of leaving his books to follow a
spiritual path and Shahbaz Qalandar being linked to miracles in Sindh.
 Hybrid Tradition: the Qalandariyyah order played a role in the development of a "hybrid
Chishtiyya-Qalandariyya tradition," indicating their influence on other, more established
Sufi orders and the creation of new spiritual lineages.

The Mahdawi Movement

 Messianic movements in Islam began soon after the death of Prophet Muhammad.
These ideas were partly influenced by Zoroastrianism and Christianity. In Islamic
tradition, the messianic figure is known as the Mahdi, meaning "the guided one" or "one
who guides others."
 The historian Ibn Khaldun noted that it was a common belief among Muslims that, near
the end of time, a man from the Prophet’s family would appear to revive Islam and bring
justice. This Mahdi would lead the Muslim community, defeat its enemies, and be
followed by the coming of the Antichrist (Dajjal) and the descent of Jesus (Isa), who
would kill the Antichrist and support the Mahdi.
 Sayyid Muhammad of Jaunpur and the Mahdawi Movement - A major Mahdist
movement in India was led by Sayyid Muhammad of Jaunpur (b. 1443), during the reign
of Sultan Mahmud Shah Sharqi. Mahdawi sources describe his birth as miraculous, like
that of the Prophet, and claim he began his education at the age of four years and
completed it by twelve. Legends credit him with a military victory against a Hindu ruler
of Gaur, although historical records do not confirm this.
 In 1489, Sayyid Muhammad traveled to Mecca with 360 followers. Though his followers
already believed him to be the Mahdi, he formally declared his mission there around
1495–96. Upon returning to India, he visited Ahmadabad in Gujarat, where many people
accepted him as the Mahdi. Even Sultan Mahmud Begarha considered meeting him, but
his nobles dissuaded him. The Sayyid’s public claims in Gujarat angered orthodox
scholars (‘ulama’), and he was exiled. He then traveled to Thatta and eventually settled
in Farah, Afghanistan, where he died in 1505.
 His followers came from all walks of life—soldiers, religious scholars, sufis, artisans, and
commoners. They believed that Sayyid Muhammad was the final Mahdi and that no
other would come. Although many Sunni scholars acknowledged his learning and
spiritual stature, most avoided recognizing his messianic claims.
 Mahdawi Beliefs and Practices - Sayyid Muhammad was succeeded by his son, Sayyid
Mahmud (d. 1512), and then by Khwandamir, his brother-in-law, who died in battle in
 1524. Khwandamir wrote seven treatises in Persian and Hindi, which document
Mahdawi teachings.
 As Mahdi, Sayyid Muhammad claimed divine authority to restore Islam to its original
form. He encouraged zikr (remembrance of God) and discouraged earning a living or
engaging in worldly activities. Although he believed non-Mahdawis were unbelievers, he
did not impose the poll tax on them, as he claimed no divine order to do so. Mahdawis
were forbidden from praying behind non-Mahdawis and usually traveled in groups to
ensure communal prayers.
 They lived in special settlements called da’iras, which included a jama’at khana
(community hall) for men and separate quarters for women. They followed only the
shari‘a (Islamic law) and lived on voluntary contributions (futuh). Those who worked
contributed a tenth of their earnings to the community, and all resources were equally
distributed each evening. Nothing was saved for the next day, reflecting their deep faith
in divine providence.
 Mahdawis did not mix socially with non-followers. New members had to undergo a year
of probation before marriage into the community. They practiced public confession of
sins every week, and offenders were punished according to shari‘a. Armed Mahdawis
actively prevented un-Islamic practices in their localities.
 Spread and Suppression of the Movement - The Mahdawi movement spread widely,
especially in Gujarat, Sindh, Rajasthan, and the Deccan. During Islam Shah Suri’s reign,
the prominent Mahdawi leader Shaykh ‘Abdullah Niyazi and his disciple Shaykh ‘Ala’i
attracted many followers. Shaykh ‘Ala’i was accused of rebellion and was executed in
1550. His death made him a martyr, and the movement persisted.
 In Gujarat, Mahdawis clashed with Sunni scholars like Shaykh ‘Ali Muttaqi (d. 1567), who
eventually moved to Mecca. His disciple Shaykh Muhammad bin Tahir also failed to
suppress Mahdawi influence.
 Under Emperor Akbar, the Mahdawis were not persecuted. Though Akbar’s governor in
Gujarat, Mirza ‘Aziz Koka, offered help to Shaykh Tahir, the latter was assassinated en
route to Agra. Akbar, tolerant of religious diversity, allowed the Mahdawis to spread
their beliefs, especially in the south.
 Later rulers like Aurangzeb also failed to eliminate the Mahdawis. To this day,
Mahdawis remain a small but significant Muslim community in regions like Hyderabad
and Mysore.

The Shattariyyas
 During the 15th and 16th centuries, several new Sufi orders developed in India, and
among the most popular was the Shattariyya order. This order traced its spiritual roots
back to Shaykh Bayazid Bistami, a famous mystic. In Central Asia and Iran, it was called
‘Ishqiyya (after Shaykh Abu Yazid ‘Ishqi), and in Turkey, it was known as Bistamiyya.
 In India, the order was founded by Shah ‘Abdu’llah, who earned the title Shattar,
meaning "Fast Runner," because he claimed to help his disciples achieve spiritual
perfection quickly and efficiently.
 Shah ‘Abdu’llah came from Transoxiana and arrived in India in the early 15th century.
He traveled in a grand style, wearing royal clothes, while his followers dressed like
soldiers, marched with drums, and carried banners. He boldly challenged other Sufis to
either learn the philosophy of Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of Being) from him or teach him
if they could. According to Shattariyya records, no Sufi accepted his challenge.
 He traveled across northern India, reached Bengal, and converted a respected Sufi
named Shaykh Muhammad ‘Ali (Shaykh Qazin of Hajjipur) to his order. Later, he went
to Mandu, where Sultan Ghiyasu’d-Din Shah (r. 1469–1500) became his disciple. In
Jaunpur, one of his followers, Shaykh Buddhan Shattari, had many distinguished Sufis
among his disciples. Shah ‘Abdu’llah died in Mandu in 1485.
 The most prominent figure in the Shattariyya order was Shaykh Ghaws Shattari. His
brother, Shaykh Phul, a favorite of Emperor Humayun, was killed by Humayun’s
rebellious brother Mirza Hindal in 1539. Shaykh Ghaws spent many years practicing
intense spiritual disciplines in the caves of Chunar, near the Ganges. When Sher Shah
captured Agra in 1540, he fled to Gujarat to avoid persecution, but he stayed in touch
with Humayun.
 After Akbar became emperor, Shaykh Ghaws returned to Gwalior. Though Akbar did not
show much interest in him, the Shaykh lived comfortably due to his large estates and
livestock. He died in 1563.
 Shaykh Ghaws wrote several books, some of which stirred controversy. In one, he
claimed to have experienced a spiritual ascent close to God—similar to what Prophet
Muhammad experienced. He also translated a yogic text called Bahru’l Hayat and wrote
his most famous work, Jawahir-i Khamsa, which described mystical and magical
practices, exorcism, and ways to invoke divine names for material and spiritual benefits.
Many of these techniques were influenced by Hindu yogic traditions and appealed to
both Muslims and Hindus.
 One of Shaykh Ghaws's most important disciples was Shaykh Wajihu’d-Din Ahmad of
Gujarat (d. 1589/90), a learned scholar in hadith and Islamic law (fiqh). His conversion
made the Shattariyya order popular across Gujarat and Burhanpur. His followers even
spread the order to Mecca, Medina, and from there, to Syria, Indonesia, and Malaysia
in the 17th century.
 During the reigns of Shahjahan and Aurangzeb, the main centers of the Shattariyya
order were Gujarat, Gwalior, Mandu, and Burhanpur. The Burhanpur branch gained
fame due to scholars like Shaykh ‘Isa, a commentator on Ibn al-‘Arabi, and his student
Shaykh Burhanu’d-Din. This Shaykh avoided wealthy people and rulers. He even refused
to meet Prince Aurangzeb, who was then the viceroy of the Deccan. Later, he agreed to
bless Aurangzeb during prayer but still kept his distance. He died in 1678–79, mourned
by many.
 The Shattariyya order attracted both scholars and ordinary people, who were drawn to
the mystical teachings of Jawahir-i Khamsa and the unique blend of Sufi and yogic
practices.

The Qadiriyyas
 The Qadiriyya Sufi order was founded by the renowned Sufi saint ‘Abdul-Qadir Jilani (d.
1166). One of his descendants, Shaykh Muhammad al-Husayni, settled in Uch (in
present-day Pakistan), and his son, Shaykh ‘Abdu’l-Qadir (d. 1533), helped spread the
Qadiriyya order across Punjab and Sindh. His own son, Shaykh Hamid, also became well
known. After Shaykh Hamid's death in 1571, his two sons—Shaykh ‘Abdu’l-Qadir and
Shaykh Musa—disputed who should inherit his spiritual leadership.
 Emperor Akbar was asked to decide. Shaykh ‘Abdu’l-Qadir offended the Emperor by
praying in the royal audience hall at Fatehpur Sikri rather than the mosque, so Akbar
chose Shaykh Musa, who accepted a mansab (imperial rank), supported Akbar
throughout his life, and became close to court figures like Abu’l-Fazl. He died in 1602
 while suppressing a rebellion. Shaykh ‘Abdu’l-Qadir withdrew to Uch and continued
leading the order from there.
 Shaykh Hamid’s disciple, Shaykh Dawud, gained fame in Lahore for his zealous
missionary work. Chronicler Bada’uni exaggerated his impact, claiming he converted
50–100 Hindus daily—clearly an overstatement, but it reflects his enthusiasm for
spreading Islam.
 In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Qadiriyyas became known in Delhi for promoting the
mystical concept of Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of Being). A major proponent of this idea
was Shah ‘Abdu’r-Razzaq (d. 1542) of Jhanjhana. His disciple, Shaykh Aman Panipati (d.
1550), wrote several treatises on the subject and claimed he could prove its truth to any
unbiased listener. One of his key disciples was Shaykh Sayf al-Din, father of the later
celebrated scholar, Shaykh ‘Abdu’l-Haqq Muhaddis Dehlawi.
 Born in 1551, ‘Abdu’l-Haqq received early training from his father and was initiated into
the Qadiriyya by Shaykh Musa in 1577. Although he respected Musa, he disliked Akbar
and his courtiers, considering them enemies of Islam. In 1586, he went on pilgrimage to
Mecca and returned in 1592. He kept his distance from the Mughal court and hoped
Jahangir, Akbar’s successor, would bring back stricter Islamic rule. To support this vision,
he wrote Nuriya-i Sultaniya, a political treatise, and later presented his biographical
dictionary of Indian Sufis, Akhbar al-Akhyar, to Jahangir in 1619–20. However, the
Emperor grew suspicious of his ties with Prince Khurram (later Shah Jahan) and exiled
‘Abdu’l-Haqq’s son, Nuru’l-Haqq, to Kabul. ‘Abdu’l-Haqq was summoned to Kashmir, but
Emperor Jahangir died before he arrived. Shah Jahan restored both father and son to
favor; Nuru’l-Haqq became Qazi of Agra, and ‘Abdu’l-Haqq lived in Delhi until his death
in 1642.
 ‘Abdu’l-Haqq’s writings on hadith are widely respected. His famous work Madarij al-
Nubuwwah aimed to clarify the Prophet Muhammad’s exalted status for both mystics
and rationalists. His goal was to reconcile Islamic law (shari‘a) with Sufism, and he
emphasized that Sufis must be grounded in Islamic scholarship. He believed that true
mysticism required a balance of learning, spiritual experience, and gnosis (ma‘rifa)—
though he admitted this ideal was rarely achieved.
 He criticized two extreme theological schools:
 The Jabriyya, who believed humans have no control over their actions (only God
does).
 The Qadariyya, who believed humans had full control, ignoring divine will.
 He also opposed antinomian Sufis who used Wahdat al-Wujud to justify immoral
behavior, calling them hypocrites. He believed that worship and obedience to shari‘a
applied to all, including mystics.
 In a letter to the reformer Mujaddid Alf-i Sani, ‘Abdu’l-Haqq criticized Ibn al-‘Arabi, the
major philosopher of Wahdat al-Wujud. He believed only the clear and understandable
parts of Ibn al-‘Arabi’s writings should be accepted, as they were speculative and not
based on revelation.
 His sons and disciples remained loyal to his teachings. However, a more emotional and
ascetic form of Qadiriyya Sufism emerged through Miyan Mir and his followers. Miyan
Mir, whose family came from Sindh, studied in Lahore and adopted a life of Sufi retreat.
He and his disciples would meditate alone in the forest after visiting Sufi tombs. Known
for his piety, Miyan Mir avoided fame and lived simply. In 1620, when Jahangir met him
on his way to Kashmir, he gifted him only the skin of a white antelope in recognition of
his ascetic life. Miyan Mir died in 1635.
 His most famous disciple was Mulla Shah, a scholar from Badakhshan who settled in
India in 1614–15. His writings, including a Qur’anic commentary (1647–8), contained
controversial Sufi ideas. He argued that true faith involves recognizing spiritual truth,
even if expressed in unorthodox terms. He distinguished between love (‘ishq), which
implies duality, and gnosis (‘irfan), which transcends the ego and all opposites.
 In 1639–40, Prince Dara Shukoh and his sister Jahan Ara became Mulla Shah’s disciples.
Dara, Shah Jahan’s favored son, was deeply drawn to Sufism and viewed it as central to
both spiritual and political life. He wrote works like Sakinat al-Awliya’ (biography of
Miyan Mir and others), Hasanat al-‘Arifin, and the famous Majma‘ al-Bahrayn (“The
Mingling of Two Oceans”), comparing Hindu and Muslim mystical traditions. He also
translated the Upanishads into Persian, believing they contained hidden Sufi wisdom.
Orthodox scholars used these writings to accuse him of heresy and justify his execution.
 His sister, Jahan Ara Begum, also contributed to Sufi literature. Early in life, she admired
the Chishtiyya order and wrote a biography of Mu‘inuddin Chishti. Her Sahibiya, written
in 1641, documents Mulla Shah’s life. Though she never married, she cared for her
imprisoned father, Shah Jahan, and tried to reduce his animosity toward Aurangzeb,
who came to respect her and consulted her on state matters. She died in 1681.
 Though the Qadiriyya order lost royal patronage under Aurangzeb, it remained popular
among the people.

The Naqshbandiyyas
 The Naqshbandiyya order, also known as the Order of the Khwajas, began in
Transoxiana (Central Asia). Its distinct teachings were shaped by Khwaja 'Abdu'l-Khaliq
of Ghujduwan (d. 1220). The order emphasized:
 Control of breathing and silent (mental) zikr (remembrance of God)
 Strict observance of the Islamic law (shari‘a)
 It was later named Naqshbandiyya after Khwaja Baha’u’d-Din Naqshband (d. 1389).
 Spread to India - The order was brought to India by Babur, the first Mughal emperor,
who was deeply devoted to the Naqshbandi leader Khwaja ‘Ubaydu’llah Ahrar (d.
1490). Ahrar was both a religious and political figure. Some of his spiritual followers
supported Babur in his campaigns and later settled in India.
 One such figure was Khwaja Khawand Mahmud, who lived in Kashmir and visited the
courts of Akbar and Jahangir. His anti-Shi‘a sermons and strict orthodoxy caused
tensions. Jahangir and later Shahjahan expelled him from Kashmir. He eventually settled
and died in Lahore in 1642. His son Mu‘inu’d-Din was a scholar of both Islamic law and
Sufism.
 Khwaja Baqi Billah and Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi - The most important figure in the rise
of Naqshbandiyya in India was Khwaja Baqi Billah of Kabul (b. 1563/64), who settled in
Delhi in 1599. Despite staying for only four years before his death in 1603, he had a
lasting impact on India's spiritual and intellectual life. Many nobles from Akbar’s court
became his followers.
 His greatest disciple was Shaykh Ahmad Sirhindi (b. 1564), later known as the Mujaddid
(Renewer) of the second Islamic millennium. Originally trained in the Chishtiyya and
Qadiriyya orders, he was disturbed by the philosophical atmosphere of Akbar’s court
and criticized thinkers like Abu’l-Fazl.
 Shaykh Ahmad believed: Rational sciences had limited religious value. Akbar’s court
undermined the importance of prophethood. Shi‘ism and other non-Sunni influences
were harmful to Islam.
 He wrote several influential treatises, such as:
 Ishat al-Nubuwwa – emphasizing the importance of prophets
 Radd-i-Rawafiz – a harsh critique of Shi‘ism
 He was initiated into the Naqshbandiyya by Baqi Billah and became a strong proponent
of Wahdat al-Shuhud (unity of witness), rejecting Wahdat al-Wujud (unity of being), a
popular mystical doctrine.
 Conflict and Controversy - Shaykh Ahmad criticized Akbar’s religious policies and urged
Jahangir to: Reinstate jizya (tax on non-Muslims), Resume cow slaughter, Remove
Shi‘as and Hindus from financial administration
 In one letter, he wrote that Shi‘as were worse than unbelievers and should not be
shown honor. His claim to have spiritually ascended to heaven angered Jahangir, who
imprisoned him in Gwalior Fort for a year. After release, he chose to live near the
imperial camp, where he preached and wrote extensively.
 He died in 1624, and his mission was carried on by his sons, especially Muhammad
Ma'sum and Muhammad Sa‘id, who supported the Mughal prince Aurangzib and urged
him to promote strict Sunni orthodoxy.
 Later Developments
 In 1665, Aurangzib was formally initiated into the Naqshbandiyya. However,
opposition to the Mujaddidiyya (followers of Shaykh Ahmad) grew. In 1679,
Aurangzib had to ban the Mujaddid’s letters from being taught in Aurangabad
due to pressure from orthodox scholars. Scholars in Mecca and Medina also
rejected Shaykh Ahmad's teachings, declaring him an infidel in a letter to
Aurangzib.
 Despite this, the movement saw a revival in the 18th century, through figures like:
Mirza Mazhar Jan-e-Janan, Khwaja Mir Dard
 Opposition within the Order - Ironically, sons of Baqi Billah, Khwaja Kalan and Khwaja
Khwurd, turned against the Mujaddid’s strict version of Naqshbandiyya. They supported
Wahdat al-Wujud, wrote treatises to promote it, and did not oppose sufi music, which
the Mujaddid had condemned.
 Later scholars like Shah Waliullah Dihlawi (d. 1762) followed Khwaja Khwurd’s more
flexible interpretation of Naqshbandi teachings.

HINDU IMPACT ON SUFISM (INDIAN THOUGHT AND YOGIC PRACTICES)

 Sufi and Yogic Ideas about the Soul - Al-Biruni, a famous scholar, noticed that some Sufi
ideas were similar to those in Patanjali’s Yoga Sutra. Both believed that the body is like a
trap for the soul, meant to help it earn spiritual rewards. Al-Biruni also compared the
Sufi idea of divine love—losing the sense of self—to similar teachings in the Bhagavad
Gita.
 Hujwiri’s Criticism of “Brahmanical” Ideas - Not all Sufis agreed with such views.
Hujwiri, a well-known Sufi who later settled in Lahore, criticized earlier Sufis for
following what he called “Brahmanical” beliefs. He disagreed with the idea that fana
(annihilation) meant the complete destruction of the self, or that baqa (subsistence)
meant God living inside a person. According to him:
 Fana means realizing the world’s imperfections and not desiring it anymore.
 Baqa means always remembering God.
 These debates about fana and baqa continued among Sufis for a long time.
 Interaction with Nath Yogis - By the 13th century, Sufis in India were in contact with
Nath yogis, followers of Gorakhnath. Shaykh Nizamuddin Auliya described his respectful
conversations with them. He admired their belief that:
 The upper body (head to navel) is spiritual (linked to Shiva).
 The lower body is physical (linked to Shakti).
He also found their idea interesting that a child’s character depends on the day
of the month they were conceived. Some Sufis even adopted yogic herbs to
grow long hair.
 Yogic Texts and Breathing Practices - The yogic text Amrita-Kunda was translated into
Arabic and Persian in the 13th century and had a strong impact on Sufi thinking. Shaykh
Nasiruddin Chiragh of Delhi stressed the importance of controlled breathing—a key
yogic technique. He advised people to practice deliberate breathing until it becomes
natural and praised yogic masters (siddhas) for their skill in this.
 Eventually, yogic breathing and postures became part of Sufi practice, especially among
the Chishtis. However, the Naqshbandis did not accept these methods.
 Wahdat al-Wujud and Yogic Influence - The Sufi concept of Wahdat al-Wujud (Unity of
Being) was also close to yogic ideas. Shaykh Hamiduddin Nagauri even wrote verses in
Hindi showing this influence. Nath teachings deeply affected Shaykh ‘Abd al-Quddus
Gangohi (d. 1537), a major Chishti Sufi.
 He:
 Used the term Alakh (meaning “Imperceptible”), a Nath name for God.
 Wrote Hindi verses in his Rushd-nama to explain Wahdat al-Wujud.
 Described God (Khuda) as Alakh Niranjan, the unseen Lord.
 Even treated Gorakhnath as a symbol of Absolute Truth or the “Perfect Man.”
 He explained one symbolic yogic practice—praying while hanging upside down—as a
symbol of the union between Shiva (moon) and Shakti (sun), showing Tantric influence.
 Kashmiri Fusion: Lalla and the Rishi Movement - In Kashmir, Sufi ideas blended with the
teachings of the Shaivite woman saint Lalla (Lal Ded or Lalla Yogeshwari). This
influenced the Rishi movement led by Shaykh Nuruddin Rishi (d. 1439), who wrote in
Kashmiri in a style similar to Lalla.
 His followers:
 Called themselves Rishis (a Hindu term for sages), not Sufis.
 Taught universal love and service, regardless of caste or religion.
 Planted trees, helped travelers, and supported the poor.
 Became vegetarians, believing that though Islam allows meat, it causes animal
suffering.
 Yogic Influence in Bengal - In Bengal during the 15th century, Nath teachings were very
popular. The Amritakunda had been translated into Arabic in the 13th century. Later, in
1498–99, Shaykh Zahid wrote a Bengali book called Adya-Parichaya based on it.
 Other works include:
 Yoga-Qalandar by Sayyid Murtaza (d. 1662), comparing Qalandari Sufis to yogis.
 Sayyid Sultan (d. 1668) from Chittagong wrote Bengali texts mixing Islamic,
Hindu, and yogic ideas.
 Using Hindu Imagery in Sufi Poetry - A famous work, Haqa’iq-i-Hinaz by ‘Abdu’l-Wahid
of Bilgram (d. 1608), defended the Chishti practice of using Hindi Vaishnavite poetry in
spiritual gatherings. He argued that Hindu symbols like Krishna, Radha, the gopis, Braj,
Ganga, Mathura, and the flute could be used to express Islamic spiritual ideas.
 Even the major Sufi Gisu Daraz believed that Hindi poetry created a more powerful
spiritual experience than Persian poetry. By the 16th century, Hindi poetry became
popular in many Sufi circles. Mir ‘Abdu’l-Wahid supported this by offering Islamic
meanings for Krishna-related symbols.
 Vedanta and Sufism under the Mughals - During Emperor Akbar’s reign, many Sanskrit
texts were translated into Persian. This allowed Muslim thinkers to explore Vedanta
philosophy. His son Jahangir believed that the highest form of Sufism was very similar
to Vedanta.

SOCIAL ROLE OF THE SUFIS

Sufis and the State
 With the exception of the early Chishti sufis and the Chishtis of the Shahpur Hillock in
the Bijapur Kingdom, the sufis belonging to most of the other silsilah, including the later
Chishtis, were involved in the affairs of the state and accepted state endowments.
 There are instances of expression of disagreement by Chishti sufis over the policies
pursued by individual Sultans as during the reign of Muhammad Tughlaq. While the
sufis be longing to other sufi groups served the state machinery by becoming an integral
part of it, the early Chishtis helped the state by creating a milieu in which people
belonging to different classes and religious communities could live in harmony.
 The sufis, including the great Chishti masters of the early period, never questioned the
existing political system and the class structure. At the most, they advised the state
officials to show leniency in collecting land revenue from the peasants. On the other
hand, they did not forbid their ordinary followers from seeking state favours and
involvement in the affairs of the court. It was perhaps due to these limitations of the
otherwise radical sufi order that the later transition within the Chishti silsilah to the
acceptance of state patronage and involvement in court politics was a smooth process

Sufis and the Ulema

 The ulama continued to show their disapproval of the sufis despite various attempts
made by al-Ghazzali to effect a reconciliation between the two. The attitude of mutual
distrust between the two continued during the Sultanate period, though orthodox sufi
orders such as the Suhrawardi, the Qadiri, etc. gratified the ulama.
 The ulama were in particular hostile to the early Chishti sufis and their practices. They
pronounced against the Chishti practice of sama and objected to the Chishti quest for
religious synthesis. However, Chishti sufis, such as Shaikh Nasiruddin (Chiragh-i Delhi)
and Gesudaraz gave an orthodox orientation to the Chishti order to mitigate the
hostility of the ulama towards the Chishti practices. It appears that as the Chishtis
began to involve themselves in court politics and accept state endowments, they
adopted doctrinal attitudes similar to those of the ulama.

Sufis and Conversions

 During the Sultanate period, Sufis have often been regarded as key figures in the
spread of Islam in India. Many later traditions and legends depict them as active
missionaries. Hagiographies of Shaikh Muinuddin Chishti, for instance, portray him as
deeply involved in converting non-Muslims to Islam. Similarly, the early Sufis who
arrived in the Deccan during the late 13th and early 14th centuries were later described
as militant champions of Islam, engaged in jihad (religious warfare) against non-
Muslims. Among the Suhrawardi Sufis, some were indeed active evangelists. In
 Kashmir, Mir Saiyyid Ali Hamadani and his followers entered in the 14th century with
strong missionary zeal, though their success was limited.
 However, not all Sufis were involved in conversion efforts. In reality, Shaikh Muinuddin
Chishti was not a missionary and did not take an active role in conversions. He and his
spiritual successors maintained a tolerant attitude towards non-Muslims. Shaikh
Nizamuddin Auliya once remarked that although many Hindus viewed Islam as a true
religion, they still did not adopt it. He believed that each religious community had its
own distinct path, beliefs, and practices. Furthermore, there is little historical evidence
to support the idea that the early Sufis in the Deccan were warriors promoting Islam
through force.
 Nevertheless, many non-Muslims, particularly those from lower castes, were drawn to
the Sufis and their dargahs (shrines). Over time, their continued association with the
Sufi community brought them under the influence of Islamic teachings, eventually
leading to their conversion. In later generations, the descendants of these converts
often claimed that their ancestors had been converted by renowned Sufis. These claims
likely served to affirm their long-standing ties to the Sufi shrines and their established
place within the Islamic community.

Life in the Khanqahs

 There were instances where khanqahs became prosperous due to state endowments,
with some Sufis forming close ties with ruling authorities and even becoming part of the
landed elite. However, in their ideal form, especially in the case of the early Chishti Sufis,
khanqahs remained physically and socially distant from the royal court and the
established social hierarchy. Life within these khanqahs was based on principles of
equality and simplicity.
 Although the early Chishtis accepted the existing class structure in society and politics,
they built a very different environment within their khanqahs—one that rejected
hierarchy. Both the residents and the visiting pilgrims were treated as equals. These
khanqahs operated without relying on state support, instead sustaining themselves
through futuh, or voluntary and unsolicited charity.
 The Chishti khanqahs welcomed people from all communities and backgrounds. Ascetics
like qalandars and jogis often visited and were offered shelter. Khanqahs also played a
role in the local economy. Some were involved in reclaiming and cultivating unused
land, while others constructed religious and public buildings or planted gardens. As
institutions, khanqahs contributed to urban development. The urs—the annual
festival marking the death anniversary of a Sufi saint—also stimulated trade,
commerce, and the production of local handicrafts.

EXTERNAL INFLUENCES ON INDIAN SUFISM

 Although the growth and expansion of the sufi movement in India was primarily
determined by the Indian environment, it continued to be influenced by various
developments in sufism in the Islamic world. The sufi thought of great masters such as
al-Ghazzali continued to influence successive generations of Indian sufis belonging to
various silsilahs.
 The ideas and poetic imagery of the Persian sufis like Faiduddin Attar (d. 1220) and
Jalaluddin Rumi (d. 1273) also inspired Indian sufis of the Sultanate period. The Chishtis
of this period are generally believed to have been influenced by the work of the
Spanish-born mystic, Ibn Arabi (d. 1240) who propounded the doctrine of wahdat al-
 wujud (unity of the phenomenal and noumenal world) which was opposed by the
ulama and orthodox sufis.
 However, it should be noted that most of the sufis, including the Chishtis, did not
consider doctrines such as wahdat al-wujud of primary importance in the sufi way of
life. For them, sufism was not so much a doctrine but a practical activity of traversing
the sufi path. The ideas of Alauddaula Simnani (1261-1336), an Iranian who opposed Ibn
Arabi’s doctrine, also influenced some Indian sufis. Gesudaraz came under the influence
of Simnani’s orthodox ideas and denounced the views of Ibn Arabi and Jalaluddin Rumi

BHAKTI-SUFI CULTURAL SYNTHESIS

 The interaction between Sufism and the Bhakti movement is evident in the deep
similarities they shared. Both emphasized monotheism, the guidance of a spiritual
teacher (pir in Sufism and guru in Bhakti), and the pursuit of mystical union with God.
Additionally, both movements were critical of rigid orthodox practices within their
respective religions—Hinduism and Islam. A striking example of Bhakti’s influence on
Sufism is found in Kashmir’s Rishi order, where the ideas of the 14th-century Bhakti
saint and poetess Lal Ded profoundly shaped the teachings of its founder, Shaikh
Nuruddin Wali.
 Another notable instance of interaction is the connection between the Chishti Sufis and
Nathpanthi yogis during the Delhi Sultanate period. The Nathpanthi movement was
especially popular among the lower social groups in northern India during the 13th and
14th centuries. Nathpanthi yogis often visited Chishti khanqahs and engaged in
discussions on mystical philosophy. Even before Sufism became firmly rooted in India,
the yoga treatise Amritkund was translated from Sanskrit into Persian, allowing Sufis to
adopt several yogic meditative practices. The Chishtis respected many of the
Nathpanthis' ethical values and their collective way of life. Like the Chishtis, the
Nathpanthis welcomed people from all castes and backgrounds, creating a shared space
for spiritual exploration that bridged religious divides.
 The Chishti order's ability to adapt to India’s predominantly non-Muslim environment
encouraged a spirit of syncretism and cultural fusion. Many early Chishti saints spoke
and composed poetry in Hindawi, fostering the growth of mystical literature in regional
languages. Works like Chandayan by Mulla Daud (late 14th century) blended Islamic
mysticism with Hindu mythology and philosophy. Later Sufi folk literature combined
basic Islamic teachings and Sufi concepts with popular local imagery and language,
helping shape a diverse and inclusive religious culture, especially in rural areas. The
Chishti tradition of sama (spiritual music) also laid the groundwork for syncretic musical
forms like qawwali, a devotional genre said to have been initiated by Amir Khusrau.

RULES OF DIFFERENT SUFI ORDERS

 Sufi orders, known as tariqas, are spiritual paths within Islam.While they all share a core
belief in seeking a direct, personal experience of God, they differ in their specific rules,
practices, and philosophical emphasis.
 Chishti Order - The Chishti order, one of the most prominent in the Indian subcontinent,
is known for its emphasis on love, tolerance, and openness.Key practices include:
 Sama: A practice of listening to music and poetry, often Qawwali, to achieve a
state of spiritual ecstasy and forget the self in the love of God.
  Renunciation: Early Chishtis emphasized detachment from worldly goods and
power.They were instructed to avoid the courts of kings and rely solely on God
for sustenance.
 Service to humanity: The order's founder, Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, taught his
followers to have "river-like generosity, sun-like affection, and earth-like
hospitality."
 Qadiri Order - The Qadiri order, founded by Abdul Qadir Gilani in the 12th century, is
one of the oldest and most widespread Sufi orders.Its rules and beliefs center on:
 Strict adherence to Islamic law (Sharia): The Qadiri path harmonizes deep inner
spirituality with a strong commitment to the external legal dimensions of Islam.
 Dhikr: The remembrance of God is a central practice, often involving the loud
recitation of specific prayers, invocations, and the names of Allah.
 Personal piety and asceticism: Followers are encouraged to live a life of
devotion, humility, and detachment from worldly pleasures to purify the soul.
 Suhrawardi Order - The Suhrawardi order, established by Sufi Diya al-din Abu 'n-Najib
as-Suhrawardi, took a different approach from the Chishtis, particularly in its
relationship with worldly authority.
 Acceptance of wealth and royal patronage: Unlike the Chishtis, Suhrawardis did
not believe in extreme poverty and often accepted gifts and grants from
rulers.They argued that this wealth was necessary to better serve the poor.
 Integration of scholarship and mysticism: The order emphasized a structured
approach to Sufism, advocating for a blend of scholarly knowledge ("ilm") and
mystical experience.
 Community engagement: Suhrawardi saints actively participated in politics and
religious ceremonies.
 Naqshbandi Order - The Naqshbandi order, founded by Bahauddin Naqshband, is
known for its silent practices and emphasis on the inner journey.Key principles include:
 Silent dhikr (dhikr-i khafi): This is a distinguishing feature of the order, where
the remembrance of God is performed silently within the heart rather than
audibly.
 "Solitude in the crowd" (khalwat dar anjuman): This principle teaches the
ability to be inwardly with God while outwardly engaged in the world and its
activities.
 Awareness of breathing (hush dar dam): A practice of being conscious of one's
breath while remembering God.
 Kubrawiyya Order - The Kubrawiyya order, founded by Najm al-Din Kubra, is known for
its focus on the phenomenology of spiritual visions.
 Emphasis on spiritual visions and inner light: The order is particularly known for
its mystical theory of light and color, which followers experience during
meditation and spiritual exercises.
 Dhikr and seclusion: The Kubrawiyya order places a special emphasis on the
practice of dhikr and periods of seclusion (khalwa) to achieve spiritual closeness
to God.
 Strict discipline: The order is a teaching of truth, the aspiration to attain
conviction and intimacy with God through service and adherence to Sharia.
 Qalandars - The Qalandars were not a single organized order in the traditional sense,
but a loosely-knit group of wandering ascetics known for their antinomian (anti-
establishment) behavior.
  Rejection of social norms: They were notorious for their contempt for the
customs of Muslim society, often shaving their heads, beards, and eyebrows.
 Nomadic lifestyle: Qalandars led a wandering life, rejecting family and social
structures.
 Rejection of bookish knowledge: They prioritized direct, personal experience of
God over intellectual or textual understanding.
 Mahdawi Movement - The Mahdawi movement was founded by Syed Muhammad
Jaunpuri, who proclaimed himself the Mahdi, a messianic figure in Islam.
 Belief in the founder as the Mahdi: This is the central tenet of the movement,
with followers believing that Jaunpuri was the promised Mahdi who would
restore the true path of Islam.
 Strict adherence to Sunnah and Sharia: Mahdavis follow the Five Pillars of
Islam, Sunnah, and Sharia with great strictness.
 Emphasis on remembrance of God: They attach great significance to dhikr,
especially after the Fajr (dawn) and Asr (afternoon) prayers.
 Shattariyya Order - The Shattariyya order, meaning "lightning-quick," is known for its
direct and rapid approach to spiritual advancement.
 "Self-affirmation" over "self-negation": Unlike some other orders, the
Shattariyya do not subscribe to the concept of fana (annihilation of the ego).
Instead, they believe in the seeker's descent into knowledge while maintaining a
sense of self.
 Integration of yogic practices: A notable feature of the Shattariyya is its
incorporation of practices from Nath Yoga, such as specific visualization
techniques and the use of mantras.
 Emphasis on speed and directness: The name itself reflects the order's belief in
a fast path to spiritual completion, where the master immediately elevates the
disciple to a higher spiritual station.

SUMMARIES
 The Bhakti and Sufi movements shared significant similarities that created a fertile
ground for religious syncretism in medieval India. Both were mystical, devotional, and
reform-oriented movements that emphasized a personal and direct connection with
God, bypassing rigid orthodoxies and established religious institutions. This shared ethos
 led to a mutual exchange of ideas and practices, contributing to a period of cultural and
spiritual fusion.
 Similarities and Religious Syncretism - The core similarities between the two
movements made them highly compatible and fostered a unique blend of Hindu and
Islamic spiritual traditions.
 Emphasis on Devotion and Divine Love: Both movements centered on the idea
of a deep, emotional, and personal relationship with God. The Sufi concept of
ishq (divine love) and fana (dissolution of self in God) mirrored the Bhakti idea
of viraha (longing for God) and intense devotion (bhakti) as the primary means
of salvation.
 Rejection of Orthodoxy and Ritualism: Both the Bhakti saints and Sufi mystics
challenged the authority of religious priests, complex rituals, and rigid
scriptures. They argued that these practices were unnecessary barriers between
the devotee and God. Instead, they promoted a simple and heartfelt path to
spirituality accessible to all, regardless of caste or creed.
 Universalism and Social Equality: The movements' teachings transcended social
hierarchies. Bhakti saints like Kabir and Guru Nanak openly condemned the
caste system, while Sufi saints preached the universal brotherhood of humanity,
believing that everyone is equal in the eyes of God. This shared egalitarian
outlook attracted followers from all strata of society.
 Use of Music and Poetry: A key element of their spiritual practice was the use
of music (sama in Sufism and kirtan or bhajan in Bhakti) and poetry to express
divine love and achieve a state of ecstasy. This led to a rich legacy of devotional
songs and poems that became a common cultural link between Hindus and
Muslims.
 Bhakti and Sufi Contribution in Vernaculars - The Bhakti and Sufi movements played a
crucial role in the development of vernacular languages, which was essential for their
widespread appeal. By abandoning the elite languages of Sanskrit and Persian, they
made their messages accessible to the common people and, in turn, enriched regional
literature.
 Bhakti Movement: Saints composed their devotional hymns and philosophical
thoughts in local languages. For example, Tulsidas wrote the Ramcharitmanas in
Awadhi, making the story of Rama accessible to millions. Surdas composed his
poems about Krishna in Braj Bhasha, and Chaitanya Mahaprabhu popularized
his teachings in Bengali. These contributions not only made spirituality more
democratic but also gave rise to a rich body of regional literature.
 Sufi Movement: Sufi mystics also used local languages to connect with the
masses. Amir Khusrau, a prominent Sufi poet, wrote in Hindawi (an early form
of Hindi-Urdu) and Persian, blending the two traditions. Other Sufi saints
composed poetry in Punjabi, Sindhi, and Bengali, incorporating local idioms and
folk traditions. This facilitated a shared literary and cultural landscape and
promoted inter-community dialogue.
 Bhakti and Sufi Movements as a Precursor to the Indian Renaissance - The Bhakti and
Sufi movements can be seen as a form of "Indian Renaissance" because they brought
about a profound socio-religious and cultural transformation.
 Social Reform: By challenging the rigid caste system and religious orthodoxy,
they laid the groundwork for a more inclusive and egalitarian society. Their
 emphasis on love, compassion, and service to humanity helped to create a more
harmonious social environment.
 Cultural and Literary Awakening: The use of vernacular languages by both
movements led to a cultural renaissance in which local traditions, music, and
literature flourished. The fusion of Hindu and Islamic artistic and literary forms
gave rise to new syncretic traditions, like the devotional music form of Qawwali,
that continue to be celebrated today.
 Promotion of Religious Tolerance: By emphasizing the unity of God and the
importance of inner spirituality over external labels, Bhakti and Sufi saints like
Kabir, Guru Nanak, and Baba Farid created a climate of religious tolerance.
Their teachings directly influenced later rulers, such as Akbar, who adopted
liberal religious policies.