Table of Contents

INTRODUCTION TO DRUGS 1

DRUG 1 – PAN 40 2-8

DRUG 2 - DOXORUBICIN9-21

DRUG 3 - CARBAMAZEPINE 22-27

DRUG-4 - PENICILLIN 28-32

What are drugs?

Drugs are substances that interact with the body’s biological systems to produce a range of
effects, from therapeutic benefits to psychoactive experiences.

They can be derived from natural sources, such as plants and fungi, or created synthetically
in laboratories. The use of drugs spans across various domains, including medicine,
recreation, and research, each with distinct implications for health and society.

In medicine, drugs play a crucial role in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of
diseases, improving the quality of life for countless individuals. However, the misuse and
abuse of certain drugs can lead to addiction, health complications, and social issues,
highlighting the fine line between beneficial use and potential harm.

Why is it important?
Understanding drugs is crucial for several interconnected reasons, primarily related to
public health and safety. Informed decisions about drug use, whether for medical
treatment or recreational purposes are essential for ensuring safety and minimizing risks.

Knowledge about potential benefits, side effects, and the addictive nature of certain
substances enables individuals to navigate their choices more effectively. This awareness
plays a vital role in preventing misuse and addiction, as education and prevention programs
can help reduce the incidence of drug-related issues, such as overdoses and chronic health
problems.

In the medical field, ongoing research into drugs is pivotal for advancing treatment options.
Discoveries in pharmacology lead to innovative medications and therapies, which can
significantly improve health outcomes for various conditions. Additionally, the rise of
personalized medicine, informed by pharmacogenomics—the study of how genetic
differences affect responses to drugs which allows for tailored treatments that enhance
efficacy while minimizing adverse reactions.

From a regulatory and policy perspective, a thorough understanding of drugs informs public
legislation and regulatory frameworks. It supports the development of laws that effectively
balance public health needs with individual freedoms. Finally, awareness of drug trends is
essential for emergency preparedness. Knowledge about the rise of specific substances,
such as synthetic opioids, equips healthcare professionals and emergency responders to
manage and respond effectively to drug-related crises and overdoses.
 Thesis on Pan 40

Introduction
IUPAC NAME: 6-(difluoromethoxy)-2-[(3, 4-dimethoxypyridin-2-yl) methyl sulfinyl]-1 H-
benzimidazole
MOLECULAR FORMULA: C16H15F2N3O4S (For structure refer fig.1)

Pan 40 contains pantoprazole sodium sesquihydrate as its active ingredient. The typical
composition of Pan 40 mg includes:

1. Active Ingredient:
 Pantoprazole sodium sesquihydrate equivalent to 40 mg of pantoprazole.

2. Excipients (inactive ingredients), which can vary slightly depending on the manufacturer,
but generally include:

,
Excipients (inactive ingredients)
Sodium
Mannitol
carbonate
Titanium dioxide, Iron Magnesium stearate
Hydroxypropyl
oxide yellow (for Hypromellose (used in
cellulose
color) tablet coating

These excipients help in stabilizing

the drug, enhancing absorption, and
forming the tablet.

Composition of PAN 40
Every drug, either single or compound is made up of various constituents that are
responsible for the properties of drugs. Pan 40 contains pantoprazole sodium sesquihydrate
as its active ingredient. The typical composition of Pan 40 mg includes:
1. Active Ingredient:
Pantoprazole sodium sesquihydrate equivalent to 40 mg of pantoprazole.

2. Excipients (inactive ingredients), which can vary slightly depending on the manufacturer,
but generally include:

 Mannitol

 Sodium carbonate

 Crospovidone

 Hydroxypropyl cellulose

 Titanium dioxide (for colour)

 Magnesium stearate

 Hypromellose (used in tablet coating)

 Iron oxide yellow (for colour)

These excipients help in stabilizing the drug, enhancing absorption, and forming the tablet.

How to Use the Pan 40 Tablet?

The Pan 40 Tablet(fig.3) is a commonly used medication for treating stomach and
oesophagus problems like acid reflux(fig.2). The recommended dosage of the Pan 40 Tablet
for adults usually starts at one tablet per day. However, your doctor may adjust it depending
on the severity of your condition. It's essential to follow your doctor’s instructions on the
dosage and not alter the
quantity without
consulting them first.
The Pan 40 Tablet should be taken before meals, ideally in the morning. The reason for this
is that pantoprazole works best when there's no food in your stomach. Taking it half an hour
before breakfast can help manage symptoms more effectively throughout the day.

Mechanism of Action
Hydrochloric acid (HCl) secretion into the gastric lumen is a process regulated mainly by the
H (+)/K(+)-ATPase of the proton pump, expressed in high quantities by the parietal cells of
the stomach.
ATPase is an enzyme on the parietal cell membrane that
facilitates hydrogen and potassium exchange through the cell, which normally results in the
extrusion of potassium and formation of HCl (gastric acid).
Proton pump inhibitors such as pantoprazole are substituted _benzimidazole_ derivatives,
weak bases, which accumulate in the acidic space of the parietal cell before being converted
in the _canaliculi_ (small canal) of the gastric parietal cell, an acidic environment, to active
_sulfenamide_ derivatives.
This active form then makes disulphide bonds with important cysteines on the gastric acid
pump, inhibiting its function. Specifically, pantoprazole binds to the _sulfhydryl group_ of
H+, K+-ATPase, which is an enzyme implicated in accelerating the final step in the acid
secretion pathway.
The enzyme is inactivated, inhibiting gastric acid secretion. The inhibition of gastric acid
secretion is stronger with proton pump inhibitors such as pantoprazole and lasts longer than
with the H (2) antagonists.
Pantoprazole is a proton pump inhibitor. It accumulates in the acidic compartment of
parietal cells and is converted to the active form, a sulphanilamide, which binds to
hydrogen-potassium-ATP-ase at the secretory surface of gastric parietal cells.
Inhibition of hydrogen-potassium-ATPase blocks the final step of gastric acid production,
leading to inhibition of both basal and stimulated acid secretion.
The duration of inhibition of acid secretion does not correlate with the much shorter
elimination half-life of pantoprazole. /Pantoprazole sodium/

Potential Side Effects of The Pan 40

Tablet
You may sometimes experience a few common Pan 40 Tablet side effects with its use. These
include:

Headaches:
 A very common issue, but if they persist, consult your doctor.

Diarrhoea or constipation:
 Changes in bowel habits are typical, but if it's causing discomfort, seek medical help.

Stomach pain or wind (flatulence):

 This may occur, and simple dietary changes can often help.

Rare but Serious Side Effects

While most people only experience the common side effects, some rare but serious side
effects of Pan 40 Tablet use may occur. These are:
Yellowing of the skin or eyes (jaundice):
 This may indicate liver problems.

Unexpected weight loss:

 If you're losing weight without trying, it might be a cause for concern.

Blood in your vomit or black stools:

 These signs could mean there's bleeding in your stomach.

Precautions While Using the Pan 40

Tablet
While the Pan 40 Tablet has proved beneficial for many, there are specific precautions one
should observe before administration.
Certain medicines can adversely interact with the ingredients in Pan 40 Tablet's
composition. These include drugs such as warfarin, methotrexate, or HIV medications.
Combining these drugs with the Pan 40 Tablet may enhance their side effects or decrease
their efficacy.
Pan 40 Tablet's use should ideally be minimised during pregnancy and breastfeeding stages.
Always consult your doctor before using the Pan 40 Tablet during pregnancy or
breastfeeding.
Finally, lifestyle factors also play a substantial role in how well the drug works. It's advisable
to limit alcohol intake as it can exacerbate stomach issues and potentially counteract the
effectiveness of pantoprazole.
Also, maintaining a balanced diet aids in overall digestive health. Always inform your doctor
of all medications you're currently on and any lifestyle changes you make while on this
medicine.

DRUG WARNINGS
You should avoid taking PANTOPRAZOLE if you are allergic to PANTOPRAZOLE or proton
pump inhibitors, have gastric cancer, liver disease, low magnesium level (osteoporosis), low
vitamin B12, pregnant or planning for pregnancy and breastfeeding mothers.
PANTOPRAZOLE may interact with a blood thinner (warfarin), antifungal (ketoconazole),
anti-HIV drug (atazanavir, nelfinavir), iron supplements, ampicillin antibiotic, anti-cancer
drug (methotrexate).
Let your doctor know if you are taking these medicines. Prolonged intake of
PANTOPRAZOLE may cause lupus erythematosus (an inflammatory condition in which the
immune system attacks its own tissues), Vitamin B12, and magnesium deficiency. Intake of
PANTOPRAZOLE may mask the symptoms of gastric cancer, so if you have any severe
stomach pain or gastric bleeding (blood in mucous or stool), immediately consult the doctor.
 Thesis on
Doxorubicin

INTRODUCTION
IUPAC NAME : (7S,9S)-7-[(2R,4S,5S,6S)-4-amino-5-hydroxy-6-methyloxan-2-yl]oxy-6,9,11-
trihydroxy-9-(2-hydroxyacetyl)-4-methoxy-8,10-dihydro-7H-tetracene-5,12-dione;hydron

MOLECULAR FORMULA: C27H29NO11

Active Ingredient: Doxorubicin hydrochloride

 Fig.4

Doxorubicin(fig.4) is an anthracycline antibiotic and chemotherapy drug, essential in

treating various cancers. Discovered in the early 1960s from Streptomyces peucetius,
doxorubicin has proven highly effective due to its unique mechanisms that target rapidly
dividing cells. It intercalates into DNA strands, disrupting replication and transcription,
inhibits topoisomerase II—essential for

DNA replication—and generates free radicals, causing oxidative damage to cancer cells.

The drug’s active ingredient, doxorubicin hydrochloride (C₂₇H₂₉NO₁₁·HCl), works alongside

excipients like sodium chloride, lactose, and hydrochloric acid, which enhance its stability
and solubility. Doxorubicin is usually available as a red, lyophilized powder for intravenous
use or as a ready-to-use solution for clinical administration.

Despite its effectiveness against cancers like breast cancer, lymphoma, leukemia, and
sarcomas, doxorubicin requires careful monitoring due to side effects such as nausea, hair
loss, and especially cardiotoxicity, which increases with cumulative dosing and necessitates
regular heart assessments. This thesis provides an overview of doxorubicin’s composition,
uses, formulation, and side effects, underscoring its crucial role in cancer treatment today.

Composition
Doxorubicin's composition is crucial to its effectiveness as a chemotherapy agent.

Active Ingredient:
  Doxorubicin hydrochloride (C₂₇H₂₉NO₁₁·HCl) is the primary compound responsible for
its anti-cancer activity. The structure of doxorubicin includes:
 A tetracyclic ring system, which is essential for its intercalation into DNA.
 A sugar (daunosamine) component, contributing to the drug's solubility and cellular
uptake.

Excipients:
These are inactive ingredients included in the formulation to enhance the drug's stability,
solubility, and bioavailability. Common excipients include:
 Sodium Chloride: Used in injectable forms to maintain isotonicity.
 Lactose: Included in powder formulations to improve stability.
 Hydrochloric Acid or Sodium Hydroxide: Used to adjust the pH of the formulation.

Structure
Doxorubicin has a complex chemical structure (fig.5) that is the key to its function as an
anti-cancer agent.

Chemical Structure:
 The tetracyclic ring system allows doxorubicin to intercalate into the DNA
double helix, leading to inhibition of replication and transcription.
 The sugar component, daunosamine, facilitates cellular uptake, making
doxorubicin more effective in reaching its target sites within cancer cells.

The structure-activity relationship of doxorubicin reveals how its specific chemical

properties contribute to its therapeutic effects and toxicity. Understanding this relationship
can guide the development of new analogs with improved efficacy and reduced side
effects.

Fig.5 Structure of doxorubicin

How should I use Doxorubicin?

Doxorubicin comes as a solution (liquid) or as a powder to be mixed with liquid to be
injected intravenously (into a vein) (fig.6) by a doctor or nurse in a medical facility. It is
usually given once every 21 to 28 days.

The length of treatment depends on the types of drugs you are taking, how well your body
responds to them, and the type of cancer you have.

Fig.6

Mechanism Of Action
Doxorubicin’s mechanism of action (fig.7) primarily involves interference with DNA
synthesis, which ultimately disrupts cancer cell growth and replication. The key components
of its mechanism are as follows:

1. DNA Intercalation: Doxorubicin inserts itself between the base pairs of DNA (fig.8),
which disrupts the structure of the DNA helix. This intercalation prevents DNA from
unwinding properly, inhibiting essential processes like replication and transcription.
2. Topoisomerase II Inhibition: Doxorubicin inhibits the enzyme topoisomerase II, which
is necessary for DNA replication and transcription. Topoisomerase II normally relaxes
DNA supercoils by creating temporary breaks in the DNA strands and then resealing
them. When doxorubicin inhibits this enzyme, it leads to DNA strand breaks that
cannot be properly repaired, causing cell death.
3. Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS): Doxorubicin undergoes redox cycling,
which generates reactive oxygen species (ROS) such as superoxide and hydrogen
peroxide. These ROS cause oxidative damage to cellular components, including lipids,
proteins, and DNA, leading to cell death. However, this ROS generation is also
associated with doxorubicin’s cardiotoxicity, as heart cells are especially vulnerable to
oxidative stress.
 4. Apoptosis Induction: Through the DNA damage it causes, doxorubicin activates
pathways that lead to apoptosis (programmed cell death). This is particularly effective
against rapidly dividing cancer cells.

Doxorubicin's effectiveness comes from this multi-faceted approach to disrupting cancer cell
function. However, its ability to damage normal cells as well, especially heart cells,
necessitates careful dosing and monitoring during treatment.

Fig.7
 Fig.8

Why is Doxorubicin Used?

Doxorubicin is commonly used as a chemotherapy drug because it effectively targets rapidly
dividing cancer cells. The drug's mechanism of action disrupts DNA replication, which is
crucial for cancer cell proliferation.
 Clinical Effectiveness: Numerous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of
doxorubicin in treating various cancers. For instance, clinical trials have shown
significant response rates in breast cancer, with doxorubicin often being a key
component in combination therapies.
 Combination Therapy: Doxorubicin is frequently used in conjunction with other
chemotherapeutic agents to enhance treatment efficacy. Regimens such as FOLFOX and
ABVD combine doxorubicin with other drugs to target cancer cells from multiple angles,
minimizing the chances of resistance.

Doxorubicin is a vital tool in oncology due to its ability to effectively treat a wide range of
cancers, its role in combination therapies, and its proven track record of improving patient
outcomes.

Uses of Doxorubicin
Doxorubicin is utilized to treat various cancers, including:
Breast Cancer:
 Doxorubicin is often used in combination with other agents for early-stage and
metastatic breast cancer. Studies show improved survival rates when doxorubicin
is part of the treatment regimen.
Lymphoma:
 Effective for Hodgkin’s and non-Hodgkin lymphoma, doxorubicin is a key component
in many chemotherapy protocols.
Leukemia:
  Used in certain types, such as acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) and acute myeloid
leukemia (AML), doxorubicin plays a critical role in multi-drug treatment strategies.
Sarcomas:
 Doxorubicin is indicated for soft tissue sarcomas and osteosarcoma, often in
combination with other agents for enhanced efficacy.
Bladder Cancer:
 Administered intravesically for superficial bladder tumors, doxorubicin helps to
reduce recurrence rates.
Gastric Cancer:
 Doxorubicin is used in combination regimens for advanced gastric cancer, showing
improved response rates.
Ovarian Cancer:
 Often part of combination therapy for advanced cases, doxorubicin is crucial in
treating this aggressive cancer.
Other Cancers:
 Doxorubicin is being explored for use in multiple myeloma, thyroid
cancer, and endometrial cancer.

Formulation of Doxorubicin
Doxorubicin is available in several formulations, each designed to optimize its delivery and
effectiveness:
Injectable Solution:
 A sterile hydrochloride solution (fig.9) for intravenous (IV) administration allows for
rapid entry into the bloodstream, facilitating effective cancer treatment.
Lyophilized Powder:
 This formulation (fig.10) requires reconstitution with a diluent before use, enhancing
stability and shelf life, making it suitable for various clinical settings.
Dosage Forms:
 Doxorubicin can be administered in different dosages, including bolus Injections
or continuous infusions, depending on the patient's treatment needs.
Liposomal Formulation:
 Encapsulated in lipid spheres, this formulation improves the delivery of
Doxorubicin to cancer cells while reducing systemic side effects.
Stability and Storage:
 Doxorubicin formulations are designed for stability under specific storage conditions,
often requiring protection from light and refrigeration to maintain efficacy.
 Fig.9 Fig.10

Side Effects
While doxorubicin is effective in cancer treatment, it is associated with various side effects
that require careful monitoring and management. Common side effects include:
Nausea and Vomiting:
 These effects are prevalent with chemotherapy, but anti-nausea medications
can significantly mitigate symptoms.
Hair Loss:
 Often temporary, hair loss can affect patients' self-esteem and quality of life.
Mouth Sores:
 Stomatitis can affect eating and drinking, leading to discomfort and nutritional
challenges.
Fatigue:
 Generalized tiredness can worsen as treatment progresses, impacting daily
activities.
Skin Changes:
 Patients may experience changes, including darkening along veins where the
drug is infused or increased sensitivity to sunlight.

Nausea and Vomiting Hair Loss

 Fatigue

Serious Side Effects

Cardio toxicity:

 A major risk, especially with cumulative dosing, necessitating regular heart

monitoring to prevent long-term damage.

Low Blood Cell Counts:

 Increases susceptibility to infections, causes fatigue, and results in easy

bruising and bleeding.

Secondary Leukemia:
 Although rare, prolonged use of doxorubicin may increase the risk of
developing leukemia.

Anemia Cardio toxicity

Each patient’s experience with doxorubicin can vary based on factors such as dosage,
treatment length, and individual health conditions, making personalized monitoring
essential for safe and effective care.

Toxicity
Doxorubicin hydrochloride treatment can increase the risk of secondary malignancies based
on postmarketing reports. Doxorubicin hydrochloride decreased fertility in female rates at
doses of 0.05 and 0.2 mg/kg/day (approximately 0.005 and 0.02 times the recommended
human dose, based on body surface area). In females of reproductive potential,
Doxorubicin hydrochloride may cause infertility and result in amenorrhea. Premature
menopause (fig.11)can occur. Recovery of menses and ovulation is related to age at
treatment.
A single intravenous dose of 0.1 mg/kg doxorubicin hydrochloride (approximately 0.01
times the recommended human dose based on body surface area) was toxic to male
reproductive organs in animal studies, producing testicular atrophy, diffuse degeneration of
the seminiferous tubules, and oligospermia/hypospermia in rats.
Long-term periodic cardiovascular monitoring is recommended for all pediatric patients
who have received doxorubicin hydrochloride. Doxorubicin hydrochloride, as a component
of intensive chemotherapy regimens administered to pediatric patients, may contribute to
prepubertal growth failure and may also contribute to gonadal impairment, which is usually
temporary.
 Fig.11

Precautions to Be Taken For Doxorubicin

Doxorubicin is a potent chemotherapy drug that requires careful management due to
potential side effects. Key precautions include:

Heart Monitoring:

 Regularly check heart function through echocardiograms or MUGA scans,

especially for those with a history of heart disease.

Dose Management:

 Adhere to prescribed doses, adjusting for liver function if necessary.

Infection Prevention:

 Maintain good hygiene and avoid crowded places to reduce infection risk due
to lowered white blood cell counts.

Blood Count Monitoring:

  Regular blood tests are essential to track red and white blood cell levels and
platelets.

Side Effect Management:

 Use anti-nausea medications and maintain hydration to manage common side

effects like nausea and mouth sores.

Avoid Live Vaccines:

 Patients should not receive live vaccines during treatment.

Drug Interactions:

 Inform healthcare providers about all medications and supplements to avoid

interactions.

Pregnancy and Breastfeeding:

 Avoid pregnancy and discuss breastfeeding options due to potential risks to

the fetus and infant.

Watch for Allergic Reactions:

 Be alert for signs of allergic reactions and report them immediately.

Lifestyle Considerations:

 Discuss lifestyle factors, such as alcohol use and smoking, with healthcare
providers.

Conclusion
In conclusion, doxorubicin stands as a cornerstone in the treatment of various malignancies,
employing multiple mechanisms to effectively combat cancer. Its ability to intercalate into
DNA, inhibit critical enzymes, and generate free radicals allows it to target rapidly dividing
cancer cells, making it valuable for treating cancers such as breast, lung, and ovarian
cancers.

Despite its effectiveness, doxorubicin is not without challenges, particularly regarding its
side effect profile. Cardiotoxicity is a significant concern, necessitating careful monitoring
during treatment. Ongoing research aims to balance the drug’s therapeutic benefits with its
safety, ensuring optimal patient care.
Future research is crucial to address doxorubicin resistance and explore its role within
combination therapies. By deepening our understanding of doxorubicin’s
pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics, the medical community can improve treatment
strategies and patient outcomes.

Overall, doxorubicin’s enduring significance in oncology highlights its effectiveness and

adaptability, offering hope for better cancer treatment and management in the years to
come.In summary, the importance of understanding drugs extends beyond individual
health; it encompasses societal, cultural, and economic dimensions. As drug use evolves in
response to changing social norms and scientific advancements, fostering a comprehensive
understanding of their implications is essential for promoting public health, guiding policy,
and enhancing community well-being.
 Carbamazepine for seizures

Carbamazepine :

Carbamazepine is a synthetic compound with the chemical formula C15H12N2O.

Here is a breakdown of its composition and structure:
1. Chemical Structure: Carbamazepine is a dibenzazepine compound,
structurally similar to tricyclic antidepressants. It has a three-ring structure and
is part of the iminostilbene class of compounds.

2. Molecular Weight: The molecular weight of carbamazepine is approximately

236.27 g/mol.

3. Mechanism of Action: While the exact mechanism isn’t fully understood,

carbamazepine is thought to work by inhibiting sodium channels in neurons.
This inhibition stabilizes the hyper-excited nerve cell membranes, preventing
repetitive firing and reducing the spread of seizure activity.

4. Formulations Available:

Tablets (Immediate-release and Extended-release): Often in dosages like 200 mg

or 400 mg.

Chewable Tablets: Commonly available as 100 mg doses.

Suspension: A liquid form that can be taken orally, often for individuals who
have difficulty swallowing pills.

Extended-Release Capsules: Designed to release carbamazepine slowly over

time, often used for maintaining stable blood levels.
5. Inert Ingredients (in Tablets): In tablets, carbamazepine may contain
fillers, binders, and other inactive ingredients to ensure stability and ease of
absorption. These can include:
Lactose monohydrate

Magnesium stearate

Sodium starch glycolate

Hypromellose (in extended-release tablets)

Silicon dioxide

Always check with a pharmacist or consult the medication’s package insert for
specific details on excipients if you have concerns about allergies or sensitivities.

Carbamazepine is used for several medical conditions, primarily related to

its ability to stabilize nerve cell activity. Here are its main uses:

1. Epilepsy and Seizure Disorders

Focal (Partial) Seizures: Often used as a first-line treatment for focal seizures.

Generalized Tonic-Clonic Seizures: Can be effective, though other medications

might be preferred for certain types of generalized seizures.

Mixed Seizure Types: Sometimes prescribed when a person has more than one
type of seizure, although it’s not typically used for absence or myoclonic
seizures.
Mixed Seizure Types: Sometimes prescribed when a person has more than one
type of seizure, although it’s not typically used for absence or myoclonic
seizures.

2. Trigeminal Neuralgia

Trigeminal Neuralgia: One of the most common non-epileptic uses.

Carbamazepine helps reduce the pain associated with this nerve disorder, which
causes severe facial pain.

3. Bipolar Disorder (Mania)

Bipolar I Disorder: Often used as a mood stabilizer to manage manic

episodes in bipolar disorder. It can be an alternative to lithium or valproate,
especially if these treatments are ineffective or not well-tolerated.

4. Other Neuropathic Pain Conditions

Diabetic Neuropathy and Central Pain Syndromes: Sometimes used off-

label for neuropathic pain not responding to other treatments, though it’s not a
first-line medication for these conditions.
Off-Label and Less Common Uses:

Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS): Occasionally used if standard treatments don’t

work.
Alcohol Withdrawal: Can be used as part of a managed alcohol withdrawal
program, though it’s less common. Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
Sometimes used as an adjunct therapy for reducing intrusive symptoms,
although more research is needed.
Carbamazepine’s effectiveness across these conditions is due to its ability to
reduce abnormal electrical activity in the brain, stabilize nerve cells, and manage
certain types of neuropathic pain. It’s important to work with a healthcare
provider to ensure it’s appropriate and safe for a given condition, as the drug
has a range of side effects and interactions.

What is the most common side effect of carbamazepine?

The most common side effects of carbamazepine include dizziness, drowsiness,
ataxia, nausea, and vomiting. Although rarer in occurrence, this comes with a
black box warning for several severe dermatologic reactions.
 Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD): Sometimes used as an adjunct
therapy for reducing intrusive symptoms, although more research is needed.
Carbamazepine’s effectiveness across these conditions is due to its ability to
reduce abnormal electrical activity in the brain, stabilize nerve cells, and manage
certain types of neuropathic pain. It’s important to work with a healthcare
provider to ensure it’s appropriate and safe for a given condition, as the drug
has a range of side effects and interactions.

What is the most common side effect of carbamazepine?

The most common side effects of carbamazepine include dizziness, drowsiness,
ataxia, nausea, and vomiting. Although rarer in occurrence, this comes with a
black box warning for several severe dermatologic reactions.
Thesis on Penicillium
WHAT IS PENICILLIN?

Penicillin is effective against a variety of infections, including those caused by streptococci and
staphylococci. However, some bacteria have developed resistance to penicillin, which can limit its
effectiveness. There are several derivatives of penicillin, such as amoxicillin and oxacillin, that have been
developed to overcome some of these resistance issues and broaden the range of treatable infections. He
immune system attacks its own tissues), Vitamin B12, and magnesium deficiency. Intake of
PANTOPRAZOLE may mask the symptoms of gastric cancer, so if you have any severe stomach pain or
gastric bleeding (blood in mucous or stool), immediately

consult the doctor .

Discovery and History
• Discovered by: Alexander Fleming in 1928.
• First used: Mass production began during World War II, significantly
reducing infection-related deaths.

Mechanism of Action
How it works: Penicillin targets the bacterial cell wall, specifically inhibiting
enzymes that are essential for cell wall synthesis. This causes the cell to burst due to
osmotic pressure, leading to bacterial death.

Types of Penicillin
Natural Penicillin:

• Penicillin G: Administered intravenously or intramuscularly; effective against many gram-positive

bacteria.
• Penicillin V: Orally administered; similar to Penicillin G but more stable in acidic conditions.
Aminopenicillins:

• Amoxicillin: Broader spectrum, often used for respiratory infections.

• Ampicillin: Similar to amoxicillin but can be given intravenously.

Penicillinase-resistant Penicillin:

• Methicillin: Originally developed to treat staphylococcal infections resistant to other penicillin.

• Nafcillin: Used for infections caused by penicillinase-producing staphylococci.

Extended-spectrum Penicillin:

• Piperacillin: Effective against a broader range of bacteria, often used in hospital settings.

Uses
• Effective against infections like pneumonia, strep throat, syphilis, and some skin infections.
• Often used in combination with other antibiotics to treat polymicrobial infections.

Resistance
• Mechanisms of Resistance: Bacteria can produce beta-lactamase enzymes that break down penicillin,
leading to resistance.
• Concerns: The rise of resistant strains, such as methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA),
limits treatment options.

Side Effects
• Common side effects: Allergic reactions (rashes, anaphylaxis), gastrointestinal disturbances (nausea,
diarrhoea), and yeast infections.
• Some individuals may have a true allergy, which can be serious.

The structure of penicillin:

How to use penicillin?

1. Prescription and Dosage

Consult a Healthcare Provider: Penicillin should only be used
under the supervision of a healthcare professional. A doctor will determine if penicillin is appropriate for
your condition and prescribe the correct type and dosage.
Follow Dosage Instructions: Adhere strictly to the prescribed dosage and schedule. Do not skip doses or stop
taking the medication early, even if you start feeling better.

2. Forms of Administration
Oral Penicillin: Taken in tablet or liquid form.
Take with Water: Swallow tablets with a full glass of water. If it's a liquid, shake well before measuring.
Timing: Take on an empty stomach, usually 1 hour before or 2 hours after meals for optimal absorption,
unless otherwise instructed.
Injectable Penicillin: Administered by a healthcare provider.
Intravenous (IV): Given directly into a vein, usually in a hospital setting.
Intramuscular (IM): Injected into a muscle, which can sometimes be done at home if trained.

3. Monitoring and Side Effects

Watch for Allergic Reactions: If you have a known allergy to penicillin, inform your healthcare provider.
Symptoms of an allergic reaction can include rash, itching, swelling, and difficulty breathing.
Report Side Effects: Common side effects can include nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal pain. Report severe
or unusual side effects to your doctor.

4. Completing the Course

Finish the Entire Course: Even if you feel better, complete the entire course of penicillin to ensure the
infection is fully treated and to help prevent antibiotic resistance.

5. Interactions and Precautions

Inform Your Doctor of Other Medications: Certain drugs may interact with penicillin, so provide a full list of
medications, supplements, and over-the-counter drugs you're taking.
Consider Medical History: Discuss any medical conditions, especially kidney issues, with your healthcare
provider.

6. Storing Penicillin
Follow Storage Instructions: Keep penicillin in its original container, and store it as directed (usually in a
cool, dry place). Liquid forms may require refrigeration.
If you have any specific concerns or questions about using penicillin, it's best to consult directly with a
healthcare professional for personalized guidance.

The iupac name of penicillin:

The IUPAC name for penicillin is (2S,5R)-[(2S)-2-[(4-ethenylphenyl) carbonyl] amino]-3,3-dimethyl-7-oxo-
4-thia-1-azabicyclo [3.2.0] heptane-2-carboxylic acid.

Conclusion of penicillin:
Penicillin remains a crucial antibiotic in modern medicine, though its use must be carefully managed to
combat resistance. It has paved the way for the development of many other antibiotics and is considered one
of the most significant medical discoveries of the 20th century.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Primarily I would like to thank the almighty for being able to complete
the project with success
Then I would like to thank my chemistry teacher Mrs.Sujitha, who
guided me and served as the major contributor towards the completion
of the project. I extend my gratitude to our academic coordinator
Mrs.Sujitha and our principal Mr.Arockia Jerald for extending their
support to me.
I thank my friends who motivated and encouraged me with their
valuable suggestions and helped me a lot in various phases of the
project.
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Dhanvanth.P of class XI – A has done the

chemistry project entitled “DRUGS IN OUR LIFE” Him/Her self and under my

guidance during the year 2024-2025 in partial fulfilment of chemistry

practical examination.

Internal examiner External examiner

Co-ordinator Principal
SUBBIAH CENTRAL SCHOOL
SESSION 2024-2025
(DRUGS IN OUR LIFE)

CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT BY – (DHANVANTH P)
GRADE – 11 A

SUBMITTED TO

MRS. Sujitha

PGT- CHEMISTRY
SUBBIAH CENTRAL
SCHOOL TIRUPPUR