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Nanoengineering of Structural,
Functional, and Smart Materials
Edited by
Mark J. Schulz, Ajit D. Kelkar,
and Mannur J. Sundaresan
Boca Raton London New York
A CRC title, part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the
Taylor & Francis Group, the academic division of T&F Informa plc.
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Published in 2006 by
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-8493-1653-7 (Hardcover)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-8493-1653-1 (Hardcover)
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Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Preface
Need for the Book. In most areas of science and engineering, there is research
underway related to nanotechnology. However, the research is in different
disciplines and the basic and applied research is often not in step. The intent of this
book is therefore to connect science and technology under the umbrella of
nanoengineering in order to design and build practical and innovative materials and
devices from the nanoscale upward. Nanoengineering is fast becoming a cross-cutting
field where chemists, physicists, medical doctors, engineers, business managers, and
environmentalists work together to improve society through nanotechnology. Nanoscale
materials such as nanotubes, nanowires, and nanobelts have extraordinary properties
and unique geometric features, but utilizing these properties at the nanoscale and
bringing these properties to the macroscale are very challenging problems. The
authors of the 24 chapters of the book explain these problems and have attempted to
develop well integrated coverages of the major areas where materials
nanotechnology has shown advances and where the potential to develop unique
structural, functional, and smart materials exists.
Structural materials are defined as load bearing and are designed mainly based
on mechanical properties. Examples where nanoscale materials can improve
mechanical properties include polymer and metallic materials reinforced with nano-
particles and thin films to increase the surface hardnesses of the materials. Functional
materials are designed to have special properties, and are not primarily used for their
mechanical characteristics. Functional materials can have tailored or functionally
graded physical attributes such as electrical and thermal conductivity, magnetic
properties, gas storage, and thermoelectric properties, and sometimes graded
mechanical properties such as hardness. Nanoscale functional materials can be used
in high-tech applications including magnetic devices, electronics conducting ther-
moplastics, anisotropic polymer nanocomposites, surface coatings, biomaterials,
sensor materials, catalysts, polymers, gels, ceramics, thin films, and membranes.
Smart or intelligent materials have sensing or actuation properties such as piezo-
electric or electrochemical transduction activities. Carbon nanotubes are smart mate-
rials because their electrochemical and elastic properties are coupled, and they have
higher theoretical actuation energy densities than existing smart materials.
Scope of the Book. Our goal is to provide readers with background in the various
areas of research that are needed to develop unique atomically precise multifunctional
materials that may be the strongest, lightest, and most versatile materials ever made.
The background needed to accomplish this encompasses synthetic chemistry, bio-
technology, self-organization, supramolecular self-assembly, nanophased particles,
films and fibers, chemical vapor deposition, oxide evaporation, and various
approaches to develop extraordinary strength, toughness, and net shape processing
of multifunctional materials and structures. In addition, molecular sensors, active
nanocomposites, thin film skins, power generation,, high thermal and electrical
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
conductivities, and biomimetics are all discussed with the aim of optimizing material
systems to monitor their performance and maintain their integrity. These processes
may exploit the large elastic and transduction properties of carbon nanotube materials
for developing extraordinary multifunctional capabilities. Moreover, because the
nanotube structure is not limited to carbon, the benefits of nanoscale inorganic
fullerene-like materials and nanotubes for developing multifunctional and polar
materials are also examined. Many elements and compounds are known to form
stable two-dimensional sheets, and hence create many exciting possibilities for
developing new types of nanoscale materials. Most materials that can be formed by
physical or chemical vapor deposition have the potential to form nanotubes, nano-
belts, nanowires, or some form of nanostructure, and many of these new materials
are discussed in this book. One goal of nanoscale research is to produce synthetic
analogic bionic materials that evolve their own nanostructures, sense and react to
their environments, self-monitor their conditions, and have super-elastic and self-
healing properties to provide enduring performance.
This book provides engineers and scientists the broad foundation needed to
attack barrier problems and produce high-payoff nanotechnology. As you will see,
this book contains quite a variety of research representing different approaches and
viewpoints about nanotechnology. Nanoengineering is a new field, and this book
serves as a focal point and reference that can be used to conceptualize and design
new materials and systems. It was made possible by the generous contributions of
scientists from around the world, and presents state-of-the-art nanoscience and
nanotechnology including comments on future directions for research. The book
will help researchers, students, managers, those working in industry, and investors
understand where we are and where we are headed in the area of nanoscale,
nanophase, and nanostructured materials and systems. Many figures and detailed
descriptions of the synthesis, processing, and characterization of nanoscale materials
are included so that the book serves as a learning tool for nanoengineering, and so
that readers can reproduce the results presented. Problems are included at the end
of each chapter to test understanding of the concepts presented and to provoke further
investigations into the subject. This book is also meant to be used as a textbook for
graduate level nanotechnology courses. It is hoped that the book will inspire students
of all ages and disciplines to study nanotechnology and to think of different ways
to use it to help humanity.
Multifunctional Materials. This book also explores the multifunctionality that is
common in nature. Multifunctional materials have several important properties
simultaneously, such as a structural material that can also sense and actuate. Pres-
ently, no smart material is also a structural material. Multifunctionality is actually
a universal trait of biological materials and systems. Since the beginning of time,
biological materials and systems have been designed by nature from the smallest
components upward, and they have capabilities unmatched by man-made materials.
Therefore, it makes sense to integrate biomimetics and nanoengineering; biomimetics
provides the architecture for materials design, whereas nanoengineering essentially
provides the route to build materials starting on the atomic scale, as in nature.
Biologically inspired nanotechnology or bionanotechnology can be described as
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
the process of mimicking the chemical and evolutionary processes found in nature
to synthesize unique almost defect-free multifunctional material systems starting
from the nanoscale up. Bionanotechnology is becoming a new frontier in the devel-
opment of advanced biomedical, structural, and other materials. Bionanotechnology
is exemplified through biological materials constructed in layered anisotropic and
self-assembled designs that provide strength and toughness at the same time and
biological systems in which sensing and actuation are performed using millions of
identical parallel nerves and muscle fibers. This architecture allows billions of bits
of sensory information to be processed in the neural, auditory, and visual systems
in an efficient hierarchical order and millions of identical micro-actuators to work
in harmony. In the book, initial concepts are discussed to mimic the basic functions
of nerves and muscles using nanoscale materials. These concepts may someday lead
to digitally controlled intelligent and enduring materials and structures.
Applications and Benefits. The socio-economic benefit of nanoengineering will be
ubiquitous and lead to improved safety, security, and standard of living throughout
the world. Future materials and structures will have vastly improved properties and
durability. Smart machines will control their own performance, preserve their integ-
rity, and partially self-repair when damaged, and when they are worn out or obsolete,
they will be programmed to demanufacture and be recycled into new machines.
Building without machining may be another outgrowth of nanoengineering.
Nanoengineering will produce new launch vehicles, lightweight agile aircraft, and
may allow the human exploration of space. Major areas of impact include future
space missions that will use hybrid nanocomposites to provide a wholesale reduction
in weight in space vehicle systems through material substitution, redesign, and
integration; autonomous reconfigurable structures will increase speeds, reduce fuel
consumption, reduce pollution, reduce noise, and provide lasting performance for
aircraft; intelligent materials will provide structural health and performance moni-
toring to prevent degradation and failure of structures in all types of critical appli-
cations; nanocoatings, fillers, sprays, and films will provide protection from abrasion,
EMI, heat, and provide artificial skins for materials. Commercial applications of
nanocomposite materials potentially include all composite material products, brake
disks, turbine engine shrouds, composite bushings, brake parts, metallic composites,
smart materials, biosensing, and power harvesting. New applications will emerge as
our knowledge increases. Nanoengineering is also important in fuel cells where
functionalized nanotubes may store hydrogen safely for use in automobiles. Elec-
tronics, medicine, and computing are other areas where nanotechnology promises
advances. Indeed, our vision of nanoengineering is to obtain nanoscale control over
the synthesis of matter to build designer materials that can be used to solve the most
difficult scientific and medical problems that face humanity.
Outline of the Book. The book is organized into an introduction and three parts
that cover the major areas of focus in nanoscale materials development. The Intro-
duction to Nanoengineering chapter gives an insightful overview of where we are in
understanding nanoscale phenomena, and possible future directions for research.
Part 1 of the book is focused on Synthesis of Nanoscale Materials and contains beautiful
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
microscopy images of different synthetic materials, a comprehensive exposition of
the properties and synthesis of carbon nanotubes and bismuth nanowires, unique
methods of producing zinc oxide nanobelts, advanced methods for carbon nanotube
synthesis, synthesis of self-assembled nanodots, and a ball milling-annealing method
to synthesize boron nitride nanotubes.
Part 2 concentrates on Manufacturing Using Nanoscale Materials and includes
a technique for functionalizing nanoscale materials for material property improve-
ments, techniques for producing structural and metal–ceramic nanocomposites, the
use of low-cost carbon nanofibers to form fibers and films, a comprehensive overview
of techniques for producing macroscopic fibers from single-walled carbon nano-
tubes, a means of fabricating microdevices through self-assembled monolayers,
using nanotubes to improve the strength of polymers, properties and applications of
nanoscale intelligent materials, thermal properties of nanostructured polymers, and
pultruded nanocomposite materials.
Part 3 of the book focuses on Modeling of Nanoscale and Nanostructured
Materials. Nanomechanics and modeling of nanoscale particles and their vibration
properties are discussed, along with methods of continuum and atomistic modeling
of the nanoindentation of thin films. Modeling of thin film heterostructures, polar-
ization in nanotubes, uneven stress distribution in nanocrystalline metals, carbon
nanotube polymer composites, and multi-scale heat transport are also discussed.
In summary, this book provides a broad synopsis of the nanomaterials research
conducted in university and government labs. Because the size of the book is limited,
much of the important research in the field could not be included. Readers are
therefore encouraged to use this book as a starting point from which to explore the
literature on nanotechnology, which is becoming more exciting every day.
The editors thank Cindy Carelli and Yulanda Croasdale of Taylor & Francis, and
Larry Schartman and Frank Gerner of the University of Cincinnati whose support
was instrumental in producing this book.
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Editors
Mark J. Schulz is an associate professor of mechanical engineering and co-director
of the Cincinnati Smart Structures Bio-Nanotechnology Laboratory. This laboratory
integrates nanotechnology and biomimetics to develop new smart materials and
devices for structural and medical applications. The laboratory includes a nanotube
synthesis lab, a processing lab for nanoscale materials, and a smart structures and
devices lab. Research in the labs focuses on building structural neural systems using
continuous piezoceramic and carbon nanotube neurons and electronic logic circuits
for structural health monitoring, carbon nanotube array biosensors for cancer
diagnostics, active catheters for diagnostics and surgery, reinforcing polymers using
carbon nanotubes and nanofibers, and developing wet and dry carbon nanofiber
hybrid actuators to control large structures. His contribution to the book is dedicated
to the memory of his parents, Jeanne and Joseph.
Ajit D. Kelkar is a professor of mechanical engineering and associate director of
the Center for Advanced Materials and Smart Structures (CAMSS) and the founding
member of Center for Composite Materials Research (CCMR) at North Carolina
Agricultural and Technical State University, Greensboro, NC. He is also a member
of the National Institute of Aerospace (NIA). His research interests include finite
element modeling, atomistic modeling, performance evaluation and modeling of thin
films, and nanomechanics. Some of the projects he is presently involved with include
continuum and atomistic modeling of thin films, nanoindentation studies of thin
films, low-cost manufacturing of ceramic composites using a nanoparticle alumina
matrix, and the effects of alumina nanoparticles on the mechanical behaviors of
epoxy resins. In addition he is involved in the low-cost manufacturing of composite
materials, damage characterization of thin and thick composite laminates subjected
to low-velocity impact loading, fatigue behavior of textile composites, and finite
element modeling of woven and braided textile composites.
Mannur J. Sundaresan is an associate professor of mechanical engineering and
the director of the Intelligent Structures and Mechanisms Laboratory at North Carolina
Agricultural and Technical State University. This laboratory is dedicated to develop-
ing novel sensors, instrumentation, and signal processing techniques applicable to
smart structures and structural health monitoring. It also integrates the microme-
chanics of damage evolution in heterogeneous materials and structural health mon-
itoring techniques for the life prediction of such materials. He has worked in the
areas of micromechanics of damage evolution, development of novel processing
techniques for carbon–carbon composite materials, and experimental mechanics.
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Contributors
Christian V.D.R. Anderson Richard O. Claus
Department of Mechanical Engineering Fiber and Electro-Optics Research
University of Minnesota Center
Minneapolis, Minnesota Virginia Polytechnics Institute and State
University
Debasish Banerjee Blacksburg, Virginia
Department of Physics
Boston College Saurabh Datta
Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts Smart Structures Bionanotechnology
Laboratory
F. James Boerio University of Cincinnati
Department of Chemical and Materials Cincinnati, Ohio
Engineering
University of Cincinnati Virginia A. Davis
Cincinnati, Ohio Department of Chemical Engineering
Rice University
Donald W. Brenner Houston, Texas
Department of Materials Science and
Engineering Mildred S. Dresselhaus
North Carolina State University Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Raleigh, North Carolina Cambridge, Massachusetts
Han Gi Chae Edward H. Glaessgen
School of Polymer, Textile, and Fiber Analytical and Computational Methods
Engineering Branch
Georgia Institute of Technology NASA Langley Research Center
Atlanta, Georgia Hampton, Virginia
Ying Chen Rahul Gupta
School of Physical Sciences and Department of Mechanical Engineering
Engineering North Carolina Agricultural and
The Australian National University Technical State University
Canberra, Australia Greensboro, North Carolina
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Peng He Ajit D. Kelkar
Smart Structures Bionanotechnology Department of Mechanical Engineering
Laboratory North Carolina Agricultural and
University of Cincinnati Technical State University
Cincinnati, Ohio Greensboro, North Carolina
Yun-Yeo Heung Goutham Kirkeria
Smart Structures Bionanotechnology Smart Structures Bionanotechnology
Laboratory Laboratory
University of Cincinnati University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio Cincinnati, Ohio
David Hui Joseph H. Koo
Department of Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of New Orleans University of Texas
New Orleans, Louisiana Austin, Texas
Douglas Hurd Dhanjay Kumar
Smart Structures Bionanotechnology Department of Mechanical Engineering
Laboratory North Carolina Agricultural and
University of Cincinnati Technical State University
Cincinnati, Ohio Greensboro, North Carolina
Farzana Hussain Satish Kumar
Department of Mechanical and School of Polymer, Textile, and Fiber
Aerospace Engineering Engineering
Oklahoma State University Georgia Institute of Technology
Tulsa, Oklahoma Atlanta, Georgia
Sachin Jain Young W. Kwon
Smart Structures Bionanotechnology Department of Mechanical Engineering
Laboratory and Energy Processes
University of Cincinnati Southern Illinois University
Cincinnati, Ohio Carbondale, Illinois
Ado Jorio Jingyu Lao
Federal University of Minas Gerais Department of Physics
Belo Horizonte, Brasil Boston College
Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts
Inpil Kang
Smart Structures Bionanotechnology Kin-Tak Lau
Laboratory Department of Mechanical Engineering
University of Cincinnati The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Cincinnati, Ohio Hong Kong, China
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Hongbing Lu Jagdish Narayan
Department of Mechanical and Department of Material Science and
Aerospace Engineering Engineering
Oklahoma State University North Carolina State University
Tulsa, Oklahoma Raleigh, North Carolina
John F. Maguire Marco Buongiorno Nardelli
Air Force Research Laboratory Computer Science and Mathematics
Wright–Patterson Air Force Base, Division
Ohio Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Hassan Mahfuz
Department of Ocean Engineering Sudhir Neralla
Florida Atlantic University Department of Mechanical
Boca Raton, Florida Engineering
North Carolina Agricultural and
David B. Mast Technical State University
Department of Physics Greensboro, North Carolina
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio Gregory M. Odegard
Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Vincent Meunier
Michigan Technological University
Computer Science and Mathematics
Houghton, Michigan
Division
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Sri Laxmi Pammi
Oak Ridge, Tennessee
Smart Structures Bionanotechnology
Laboratory
Atul Miskin University of Cincinnati
Smart Structures Bionanotechnology Cincinnati, Ohio
Laboratory
University of Cincinnati Matteo Pasquali
Cincinnati, Ohio Department of Chemical Engineering
Rice University
Serge M. Nakhmanson Houston, Texas
Department of Physics
North Carolina State University Dawn R. Phillips
Raleigh, North Carolina Lockheed Martin Space Operations
NASA Langley Research Center
Suhasini Narasimhadevara Hampton, Virginia
Smart Structures Bionanotechnology
Laboratory Louis A. Pilato
University of Cincinnati KAI, Inc.
Cincinnati, Ohio Austin, Texas
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Oded Rabin Donglu Shi
Massachusetts Institute of Nanoparticle Coating Laboratory
Technology University of Cincinnati
Cambridge, Massachusetts Cincinnati, Ohio
Zhifeng Ren Vishal Shinde
Department of Physics Smart Structures Bionanotechnology
Boston College Laboratory
Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, Ohio
Samit Roy
Department of Mechanical and Mannur J. Sundaresan
Aerospace Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering
Oklahoma State University North Carolina Agricultural and
Tulsa, Oklahoma Technical State University
Greensboro, North Carolina
Erik Saether
Lakshmi Supriya
Analytical and Computational Methods
Fiber and Electro-Optics Research
Branch
Center
NASA Langley Research Center
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State
Hampton, Virginia
University
Blacksburg, Virginia
Jagannathan Sankar
Department of Mechanical Engineering Kumar K. Tamma
North Carolina Agricultural and Department of Mechanical Engineering
Technical State University U.S. Army High Performance
Greensboro, North Carolina Computing Research Center
J. David Schall Ashutosh Tiwari
Department of Material Science and Department of Material Science and
Engineering Engineering
North Carolina State University North Carolina State University
Raleigh, North Carolina Raleigh, North Carolina
Mark J. Schulz Tetsuya Uchida
Smart Structures Bionanotechnology School of Polymer, Textile, and Fiber
Laboratory Engineering
University of Cincinnati Georgia Institute of Technology
Cincinnati, Ohio Atlanta, Georgia
Vesselin N. Shanov Kalivarathan Vengadassalam
Smart Structures Bionanotechnology Department of Mechanical and
Laboratory Aerospace Engineering
University of Cincinnati Oklahoma State University
Cincinnati, Ohio Tulsa, Oklahoma
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Xudong Wang Jim S. Williams
School of Materials Science and School of Physical Sciences and
Engineering Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology The Australian National University
Atlanta, Georgia Canberra, Australia
Zhong Lin Wang Vesselin Yamakov
School of Materials Science and National Institute of Aerospace
Engineering Hampton, Virginia
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia Sergey Yarmolenko
Department of Mechanical
Cindy K. Waters Engineering
Department of Mechanical Engineering North Carolina Agricultural and
North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
Technical State University Greensboro, North Carolina
Greensboro, North Carolina
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Contents
Chapter 1
Introduction to Nanoengineering
John F. Maguire and David B. Mast
PART 1 Synthesis of Nanoscale Materials
Chapter 2
Design of Nanostructured Materials
Debasish Banerjee, Jingyu Lao, and Zhifeng Ren
Chapter 3
Carbon Nanotubes and Bismuth Nanowires
Mildred S. Dresselhaus, Ado Jorio, and Oded Rabin
Chapter 4
Nanobelts and Nanowires of Functional Oxides
Xudong Wang and Zhong Lin Wang
Chapter 5
Advances in Chemical Vapor Deposition of Carbon Nanotubes
Vesselin N. Shanov, Atul Miskin, Sachin Jain, Peng He,
and Mark J. Schulz
Chapter 6
Self-Assembled Au Nanodots in a ZnO Matrix: A Novel Way to Enhance
Electrical and Optical Characteristics of ZnO Films
Ashutosh Tiwari and Jagdish Narayan
Chapter 7
Synthesis of Boron Nitride Nanotubes Using a Ball-Milling and Annealing
Method
Ying Chen and Jim S. Williams
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
PART 2 Manufacturing Using Nanoscale Materials
Chapter 8
Plasma Deposition of Ultra-Thin Functional Films on Nanoscale
Materials
Peng He and Donglu Shi
Chapter 9
Structural Nanocomposites
Hassan Mahfuz
Chapter 10
Synthesis and Characterization of Metal-Ceramic Thin-Film
Nanocomposites with Improved Mechanical Properties
Dhanjay Kumar, Jagannathan Sankar, and Jagdish Narayan
Chapter 11
Macroscopic Fibers of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes
Virginia A. Davis and Matteo Pasquali
Chapter 12
Carbon Nanofiber and Carbon Nanotube/Polymer Composite Fibers
and Films
Han Gi Chae, Tetsuya Uchida, and Satish Kumar
Chapter 13
Surface Patterning Using Self-Assembled Monolayers: A Bottom-Up
Approach to the Fabrication of Microdevices
Lakshmi Supriya and Richard O. Claus
Chapter 14
Enhancement of the Mechanical Strength of Polymer-Based
Composites Using Carbon Nanotubes
Kin-Tak Lau, Jagannathan Sankar, and David Hui
Chapter 15
Nanoscale Intelligent Materials and Structures
Yun Yeo-Heung, Inpil Kang, Sachin Jain, Atul Miskin,
Suhasini Narasimhadevara, Goutham Kirkeria, Vishal Shinde,
Sri Laxmi Pammi, Saurabh Datta, Peng He, Douglas Hurd,
Mark J. Schulz, Vesselin N. Shanov, Donglu Shi,
F. James Boerio, and Mannur J. Sundaresan
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Chapter 16
Thermal Properties and Microstructures of Polymer
Nanostructured Materials
Joseph H. Koo and Louis A. Pilato
Chapter 17
Manufacturing, Mechanical Characterization, and Modeling of a Pultruded
Thermoplastic Nanocomposite
Samit Roy, Kalivarathan Vengadassalam,
Farzana Hussain, and Hongbing Lu
PART 3 Modeling of Nanoscale
and Nanostructured Materials
Chapter 18
Nanomechanics
Young W. Kwon
Chapter 19
Continuum and Atomistic Modeling of Thin Films Subjected
to Nanoindentation
J. David Schall, Donald W. Brenner, Ajit D. Kelkar,
and Rahul Gupta
Chapter 20
Synthesis, Optimization, and Characterization of AlN/TiN Thin Film
Heterostructures
Cindy K. Waters, Sergey Yarmolenko, Jagannathan Sankar,
Sudhir Neralla, and Ajit D. Kelkar
Chapter 21
Polarization in Nanotubes and Nanotubular Structures
Marco Buongiorno Nardelli, Serge M. Nakhmanson, and Vincent Meunier
Chapter 22
Multiscale Modeling of Stress Localization and Fracture in Nanocrystalline
Metallic Materials
Vesselin Yamakov, Dawn R. Phillips, Erik Saether, and Edward H. Glaessgen
Chapter 23
Modeling of Carbon Nanotube/Polymer Composites
Gregory M. Odegard
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Chapter 24
Introduction to Nanoscale, Microscale, and Macroscale Heat Transport:
Characterization and Bridging of Space and Time Scales
Christianne V.D.R. Anderson and Kumar K. Tamma
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
1 Introduction
to Nanoengineering
John F. Maguire and David B. Mast
CONTENTS
1.1 Thermodynamic and Statistical Foundations of Small Systems
1.2 Definitions
1.2.1 Characterization and Metrology Needs
1.2.2 Computer Modeling Needs
1.3 Boundaries for Nanoscience and Technology
1.4 Some Final Thoughts
References
Nanoengineering offers the very real promise of a veritable cornucopia of enabling
new materials, devices, and products. Examples range from improved materials for
everyday uses such as self-cleaning paints and bathroom surfaces and deicing surface
treatments for aircraft and automobiles in northern climates to new forms of struc-
tural materials that might be stronger than steel yet lighter than Styrofoam. The
technology may also enable the development of adaptive soft materials like foams
and polymer composites that could enable fundamentally new sorts of products. For
example, imagine computers in which a CPU the size of a sugar cube has vastly
more computing power than all existing machines combined, or wallpapering a room
using “paper” that acts as a very-large-screen television. Similarly, work is under
way to produce very large mirrors from nanoengineered plastics so that huge,
lightweight plastic mirrors can be launched into space and used to see nearly the
beginning of time. Many major companies have recognized that this area of science
and technology holds the key to new products, processes, technologies, and medi-
cines, with multifaceted societal and economic benefits.
The above paragraph resonates with the kind of hyperbole that has become
the lingua franca of much of the nanoscience and technology (NST) discussed in
the popular press. Although many of these benefits may very well come true, and
some are already here, it would be exceedingly naive to expect that such major
innovations as quantum computing and advanced “smart” materials might be
developed without substantial scientific and technical breakthroughs on the one
hand, and concomitant major capital investment on the other.
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Whereas some of the key enabling advances — monumental discoveries such as
buckyballs, carbon nanotubes, and so forth — have already been made, some are still
coming down the pipeline. In particular, it will be necessary to develop fundamentally
new paradigms in nanoengineering if the great promise of nanoscience and technology
is to translate into concrete societal benefits and the creation of wealth. It is of critical
importance, therefore, to quantify as fully and realistically as possible the scale and
scope of the scientific, engineering, and manufacturing challenges that must be met
to make even a rough order of magnitude estimate of the return on investment.
What Maxwell1 once said about the field of classical thermodynamics is also appli-
cable to the development of the field of nanoengineering. Nanoengineering must meet
three essential criteria: there must be a solid scientific foundation, there must be clear
definitions, and there must be distinct boundaries. So, how about NST? How sound are
the foundations and where might they be strengthened? How good are the definitions
and standards and how might they be improved? And where indeed are the boundaries?
The remainder of this introduction will address these questions in the course of
providing a general and brief review of the background of NST. We should point
out that we make no effort to provide any kind of review of the field but simply
point out a few salient works. Our discussion also must focus on the non-bio aspects
of NST as related to the theme of this book.
In the broadest sense, NST represents the work of human minds expressed by
human hands to add value to and to create wealth from the natural resources of the
Earth. The subject is concerned with how to turn the very “dirt” of the Earth, the
metal ores and the crude oil, for example, into the automobiles, aircraft, aircraft
engines, computers, materials, and medicines of our advanced civilization. This cycle
requires the accumulated interdisciplinary knowledge of generations of scientists
and engineers and represents the real, or bedrock, “knowledge environment” on
which our economy is based and against which progress should be measured.
The essential basis for the ongoing NST revolution is the development of materials
and devices that operate over mesoscopic distance scales, where the material response
depends ultimately on the behavior of matter in what are called thermodynamically
small systems. The small is used here in a precise scientific sense that refers to a piece
of matter (or material system) where the size of the system is of the same order as some
relevant correlation length, [, such as the length scale related to interparticle interactions
or magnetic moment orientation. Behavior similar to that of thermodynamically small
granular systems often occurs near a critical point or phase transition or within a thin
interface between different materials, where the thickness of the interface is approxi-
mately equal to [. The importance of developing a deeper understanding of these types
of systems has long been recognized and as such has been demonstrated by the awarding
of several recent Nobel Prizes in Physics and Chemistry. 2
1.1 THERMODYNAMIC AND STATISTICAL
FOUNDATIONS OF SMALL SYSTEMS
In his now famous talk, “There’s plenty of room at the bottom,” Richard Feynman 3
essentially posed the nanomanufacturing problem in terms of a challenge for min-
iaturization. Feynman was very careful to dispose of the “normal” miniaturization
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
that had been ongoing, especially in the electronic industry from the early 1960s,
and made very clear that he was referring to the manipulation of matter over atomistic
distance scales. His foresight has captured the imagination of a generation of phys-
icists, engineers, and more recently chemists. It should not be forgotten, however,
that Professor Feynman’s lifelong interest and particular scientific expertise was in
the area of statistical mechanics of dense many-particle systems. One of his earliest
achievements was to show that superfluidity in liquid helium was due to long-range
quantum correlation effects. It can be presumed that Feynman was very well aware
that a search for the ultimate in miniaturization would, of necessity, reveal a world
of new physical phenomena in which the macroscopic physics of our everyday
experience would require significant revision.
A number of early workers have made pivotal contributions to the foundation
of NST. Indeed, Sir John S. Rowlinson 4 has pointed out that understanding the basic
science of how forces between molecules result in the observable properties of
matter, especially “soft” matter at interfaces,5 really represents a research effort of
almost 200 years in the making. However, there has been particularly significant
progress in our understanding of intermolecular forces and phase behavior over the
last 30 years with the award of the Nobel Prizes for the renormalization group theory
and the work in soft matter and polymers, as well as the discovery of nanoparticles.
For example, it is now well known that the correlation length is on the order of the
system size in three common situations (i.e., near a critical point, within an interface,
and in granular materials). Notice that it is the ratio of system size to the correlation
length that is important so that “nano” has nothing to do with a particular subdivision
of the meter, per se. In this regard, use of the term meso (in between) would seem
preferable to nano (dwarf). It is the ability to organize the mesoscopic structure of
matter and hold spatial coherence over macroscopic distance scales that lies at the
heart of nanoscience and technology.
These considerations have a number of examples. When machines become very
small, the van der Waals 6 forces become more significant, and the components tend
to undergo a jump to adhesion when they come close together.7 Similarly, if materials
are sheared over nanoscopic distance scales in low dimensionality they do not wear
by stripping individual atoms from the surface but set up complex long-ranged vortex
patterns in which solid matter tends to flow like a cold plastic solid.8 Even though one
might make a nanomachine, how would one lubricate it, and for how long would it
run? The alkanes that form the basis of everyday oils and lubricants crystallize into
two-dimensional structures at nanoscopic interfaces.9 Although it is straightforward
to build simple computer models of molecules that look like turbine engines, gears,
or trucks, it must never be forgotten that matter over these distance scales obeys the
laws of statistical mechanics (the bridge between classical mechanics and quantum
mechanics). It is the free energy (perhaps local free energy) that matters, and if an
attempt were made to make such a molecular machine, it would certainly show a
tendency to spontaneously jump into reverse and, at worst, might even separate into
two or more liquid phases. Similarly, imagine that one deposits a feature that is 10
atoms wide (~2 nm) and 5 atoms thick using a metal deposited on a semiconductor
surface. Would such a structure tend to diffuse over the surface, would it remain
stable as deposited, or would it tend to rearrange into some other nanostructure?
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Questions of thermodynamic and kinetic stability in nanoscopic structures are critically
important in this regard and will be ignored at our peril.
To achieve the promise of nano, it will be necessary to develop new nanoman-
ufacturing technologies that can actually produce materials and devices in large
quantities and at low cost in a reasonable time. Here it is important to recognize
that while it is possible at the moment to make nanoscopic structures and make
pictures (the famous IBM logo made from atoms is an excellent example), those
techniques that involve direct atomistic manipulation will be far too slow to produce
bulk products. If we could pick up and place an atom, perhaps with the tip of a
scanning microscope, at a rate of one per second, it would take ~10 23 s or longer
than the age of the universe to make a single mole of product. While this form of
nanoassembly might be appropriate for some applications involving atto-moles of
material, clearly, it will be necessary to manipulate phase transitions or directed
assembly techniques to arrange macroscopic matter in the required nanoscopic and
mesoscopic structures. The chemical physics of small nanoscopic and mesoscopic
systems is dominated by phase transitions that are largely driven by local entropic
contributions to the free energy. There has been a good deal of excellent theoretical
work in the chemical physics of small systems over the last 10 years, but little of it
has yet found its way into the current nano literature.
1.2 DEFINITIONS
The important point here is that before engaging in major real-world manufacturing
enterprises, it is absolutely essential that proper design tools be developed and tested.
The design tools in this case are the well-founded models (statistical physics–based)
and measurement techniques that will generate the database on which reliable design
and manufacturing plans can be established. There are few areas of technical
endeavor in which recent fundamental theory and experiment bear so directly on
emerging manufacturing practice as in NST.
To produce these nanomaterials and devices in the required quantities, quality,
and cost, it will be necessary to do the following:
(a) Develop new nanomaterials characterization and metrology techniques
that probe the relevant structural property of matter over an appropriate
domain of energy and momentum.
(b) Explore theoretical and computer-modeling approaches that can help
rationalize observed behavior and response and, more importantly, predict
materials response in situations where direct measurement would be difficult
or impossible.
(c) Integrate the experimental and theoretical knowledge gathered in (a) and
(b) above and provide a seamless transition of this knowledge into the
engineering and nanomanufacturing environment using advanced tech-
niques such as computational methods in artificial intelligence.10
It is, therefore, essential that methods be developed to predict and measure the
structure and properties of materials that are organized through directed assembly
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
techniques. These might be achieved by “templating” using a surface or near-surface
field or possibly by some combination of electric, magnetic (possibly of multipolar
symmetry), and flow fields. These and related approaches offer the possibility of
directing the nanoscopic and mesoscopic phase behavior and structure of matter in
ways that hold the promise of producing new forms of matter in quantities that will
be commercially viable.
1.2.1 CHARACTERIZATION AND METROLOGY NEEDS
There has been tremendous growth in the past 15 years in the development of tools
for the imaging and manipulation of nanometer-scale materials, even atoms. In truth,
the ability to image individual atoms with a Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM)
was one of the defining developments that gave birth to the nanoscience and
nanoengineering age. The STM, and its cousin, the Atomic Force Microscope
(AFM), have since become the grandparents of whole families of different Scanning
Probe Microscopes (SPM) that are now known by their initials: LFM (Lateral Force),
SCM (Capacitance), MFM (Magnetic Force), and so forth. Also of importance is
the ability to manipulate nanometer-scale objects and even single atoms. The previ-
ously mentioned IBM logo spelled out by moving individual xenon atoms on a nickel
surface and the building of “quantum corrals”11 for trapping atoms are well-known
examples of using an STM to manipulate single atoms. Equally impressive has
been the use of optical methods such as “laser tweezers”12 for the manipulation of
biological samples such as DNA and “optical traps”13 for the confinement and cooling
of atoms, for example in Bose-Einstein Condensation. 14 However, there are still
critical metrology requirements that need to be met and tools that need to be
developed before effective nanomanufacturing can take place. Some examples of
such requirements and tools are as follows:
• Rapid detection of individual functional groups over large-scale surface
areas and interfaces. Spectroscopic techniques have long been of critical
importance in many areas of science and engineering, and it is to be
expected that the use of such techniques will play a central role in the
continuing development of NST. For example, consider Raman spectros-
copy, a powerful tool for the determination of the vibronic properties of
solids and liquids. The usefulness of Raman spectroscopy was further
extended to small and even single molecular groups with the use of Surface
Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) techniques.15 With SERS, these
molecular groups can be studied by attaching them to or near the surface of
nanometer-sized gold particles and using laser-induced surface plasmon
modes to greatly enhance the local Raman scattering. Unfortunately,
SERS is not a spatially scanning technique like the STM and AFM
previously discussed. For scanned optical spectroscopy at spatial resolu-
tions on the order of 50 nm, various near-field techniques such as a Near-
field Scanning Optical Microscope (NSOM) or total internal reflection
using a Solid Immersion Lens have been widely used. Work to develop
scanning, nanometer-scale Raman probes that will further reduce the size
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
of the scattering volume so that individual functional groups or moieties can
be investigated with spatial resolution on the order of 1.0 nm will be of key
importance to many areas of NST, both wet and dry. Recent work by
Novosky16 using a scanned sharp metal tip, and Pettinger et al. and Mast,17
using a STM, have begun the development of such a scanning nano-Raman
system. As well as providing the ultimate in surface spectroscopy, it will be
recognized that such technology would also allow, for example, the very
rapid mapping of genomes using massively parallel fiber-optic nanoprobes.
This will clearly be of central importance in the health-care industry.
A cartoon depicting the STM-Raman approach is shown in Figure 1.1, with
a photograph of such a system in the authors’ (DBM) lab shown in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.3(a) shows the Raman spectrum of a thin sample of p-nitrobenzoic acid
taken with a conventional micro-Raman system, and Figures 1.3(b) and (c) show
the Raman spectra taken with the STM tip positioned over the sample and retracted
back from the sample.
• Determination of local and interfacial mechanical properties using non-
contact and light-scattering measurements. Of critical importance for
many areas of NST is controlling the mechanical properties at the interface
of composite materials. Central to obtaining this desired control is having
the capability of accurately measuring these properties. For example, if
accurate Rayleigh-Brillouin studies could be conducted using near-field
interfacial scattering at this level of spatial resolution, it may well prove
Spectrometer
Incident light Scattered light
Microscope objective
STM tip
Nanostructured
material
FIGURE 1.1 Cartoon of combined Raman-STM System.
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
FIGURE 1.2 (Color figure follows p. 12.) Photograph of miniature STM mounted on the
Raman microscope stage.
10000
Sample: p-nitrobenzoic acid
Accumulation time: 30 sec
Status: directly under microscope
1350.9
8000
1107.1
6000
Intensity (a.u.)
4000
2000 1596.6
1604.7
1177.8 1366.5 1627.2
1129.1 1279.2 1515.8 1540.3
1286.9 1385.2 1636.1
1405.3 1490.2
1320.4
1306.5 1438.7
0
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
−1
Raman shift (cm )
(a)
FIGURE 1.3(a) The Raman spectrum of the p-nitrobenzoic acid sample with the laser focused
directly onto the sample; the sample plane is perpendicular to the illumination/detection direction.
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
160 Sample: p-nitrobenzoic acid
Accumulation time: 100 sec
1349.8
Status: STM mode in STM stage
140
120
1104.6
100 1594.7
80
Intensity (a.u.)
60
40
20
−20
−40
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Raman shift (cm−1)
(b)
FIGURE 1.3(b) The Raman spectrum of the p-nitrobenzoic acid sample with the laser
focused directly onto the STM tip when the STM tip is close enough to the sample for actual
STM operation. The sample plane is parallel to the illumination/detection direction.
possible to measure experimentally the local free energy as a function of
position (at nanometer resolution) through an interface. Such experimental
information is absolutely vital if we are to understand materials transport
and reaction in interfaces and thin films, including the cell wall.
• Multiplexed sensor arrays for massively parallel detection. It is clear that
nanoengineered materials will be used in the near future to produce very
large structures. For example, if suitable nanoparticles are finely dispersed
in polymer films, it will be possible to engineer the microstructure such
that the films will conform to a particular shape on application of a stress.
Huge lightweight “inflatable” mirrors could be produced using this
approach. How does one measure such microstructure over meters and
even tens of meters in length? Although the single probe metrology tools
previously described are essential to characterize the initial development
of nanoengineered materials, they are many orders of magnitude too slow
for use on large systems. Tools will need to be developed that contain
arrays of large numbers of individual sensor probes for massively parallel
operation. In addition, software will be needed that will allow these
massively parallel tools to intelligently adapt their spatial resolutions for
the detection of defects at different spatial resolutions.
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
Sample: p-nitrobenzoic acid
Accumulation time: 100 sec
80 Status: STM stage; 0.5 micron away from the tip
60
40
Intensity (a.u.)
20
−20
−40
1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700
Raman shift (cm−1)
(c)
FIGURE 1.3(c) The Raman spectrum of the p-nitrobenzoic acid sample with the laser focused
directly onto the STM tip when the STM tip moved a fraction of a micron away from the
sample at the same point above the sample as in Figure 1.3(b). The sample plane is parallel
to the illumination/detection direction.
1.2.2 COMPUTER MODELING NEEDS
On the modeling front, our understanding of the fundamental nature of intermole-
cular and interparticulate forces has increased considerably over the last 20 years.
It can now be said with some justification that the essential physics of simple dense
systems with rapid (~10 –12 s) relaxations are reasonably well understood. This is,
however, not the case for complex molecular fluids or polymers. Here the relaxation
times can be relatively slow (>10–3 s), and the phenomena may be highly cooperative
and long range. Prior to the development of recent methods based on the application
of artificial intelligence in statistical mechanics, 18 such systems were quite outside
the realm of exact, albeit numeric, machine calculations. With the development of
new machine simulation techniques,19 such systems are now amenable to more
rigorous treatment, and many interesting results will undoubtedly follow. The
coupling of artificial intelligence techniques with massively parallel machines
brings the solution of a number of realistic nanomaterial simulations within reach
if not yet quite within grasp. This should allow, for example, the first direct
simulations of nucleation and crystal growth from equilibrium along the melting
curve.
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
FIGURE 1.4 Showing the results of a computer simulation on the “thermodynamics” of
fluidized powders investigating gravitational effects on mixing and segregation. This sim-
ulation is on a system comprising two dissimilar hard spheres under vibration. These
simulations show that the system forms an ordered two-component solid near the bottom
of the column, followed sequentially upward by a two-component fluid, an ordered single-
component “solid,” a single-component fluid, and finally a single-component “gas.” (Image
courtesy of L.V. Woodcock.)
Similarly, early work has shown the potential importance of external fields on
surfaces and how the presence of a surface affects the conformation and adsorption
of individual molecules.20 In addition, the mechanical properties and functionality
of advanced nanocomposite materials critically depend on the processes that produce
the mesoscale structure at the nanoparticle–host matrix interface. This is especially
true for granular nanomaterials.
Mesoscale simulations can be used to predict process dependence of properties
for granular nanomaterials and will enable electronic prototyping of new continuous
production processes to tailor and characterize the properties of nanomaterials. For
example, Figure 1.4 shows the results of a numerical simulation, of a two-component,
hard, spherical, granular material under the combined influence of gravity and a
sinusoidal vibration. This figure shows the positions of each particle in the ensemble
after a large number of vibration cycles and reveals the wide variation of “order” that
has developed.21 Again, new methods will allow the study of larger ensembles where
the fully coupled nature of the phenomena, possible near phase transitions, will
undoubtedly enable serious investigation in systems ranging from catalysis to the
nature of protein interaction on cell walls or the formation of mesoscale entropically
driven structures.
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
1.3 BOUNDARIES FOR NANOSCIENCE
AND TECHNOLOGY
One of the very important issues that scientists and engineers need to keep in mind
is that, like the well-known proverb, “All that glitters is not gold,” “not all that is
small is nano.” Scientists and engineers, as individuals and as part of groups and
institutions, feel a strong pull to join in, to be a part of all exciting fields of endeavor;
this has been especially true for all things nano. The National Nanotechnology
Initiative, directed funding from NSF, DOD, and DOE, and national, regional, and
local nanoresearch centers have all contributed to the rush to add the word nano
to many well-established, existing fields of research and engineering. We must be
very selective with the use of nano lest we dilute its meaning and over-hype
expectations of the benefits of what nanoscience and nanoengineering can contrib-
ute to society. If we are not careful, this saturation of the field with inappropriate
uses of nano may likely result in a dilution of research funding below the amounts
necessary for success.
1.4 SOME FINAL THOUGHTS
The interdisciplinary nature of nanoscience technology and manufacturing is a
recurring theme. As evidence of the fruitfulness of the interdisciplinary approach,
we can cite the spectacularly successful work that has resulted at the interface
between chemistry and biology, called molecular biology. Work in this field has
given rise to the new discipline of molecular science, which has resulted in tre-
mendous advances in medicine, genetics, and agriculture. At the interface between
chemistry and physics there has also been a fusion of new ideas in an area variously
called materials chemistry, soft matter, and sometimes surface and interfacial
science. Here the focus is to understand the forces between atoms and molecules
in a dense medium and to use this knowledge to design new and useful forms of
matter. As Philip Ball writes in Made to Measure (quoted by Dr. Rita Colwell,
Director, National Science Foundation (NSF) in her address to the Materials
Research Society), “We can make synthetic skin, blood, and bone. We can make
an information superhighway from glass. We can make materials that repair them-
selves, that swell and flex like muscles, that repel any ink or paint, and that capture
the energy of the sun.” There is hardly a better example of how the old barriers
have crumbled. The power and momentum of NST lie in no small measure in its
porous boundary between physics, chemistry, and biology. Thus in the real world
of today we routinely turn chemists into physicists and physicists into materials
scientists and nanomanufacturing engineers, no longer recognizing divisions that
are not nature-made but man-made. It is this “nanoengineering,” done by chemists,
physicists, materials scientists, and engineers “to put nanoscience into technology,”
that is the theme of this book.
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
REFERENCES
1. Gibbs, J.W., Collected Works, Vol. 2, Longmans, New York, 1928, p. 262.
2. For example, Steven Chu, Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, and William D. Phillips, Physics;
1997; Ernst Ruska, Gerd Binnig, and Heinrich Rohrer, Physics 1986; Robert F. Curl
Jr., Sir Harold Kroto, and Richard E. Smalley, Chemistry; 1996.
3. Feynman, Richard P., “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom,” Talk at the annual
meeting of the American Physical Society at the California Institute of Technology,
December 29, 1959
4. Rowlinson, J.S., Faraday Lecture, “The Molecular Theory of Small Systems,” Chem-
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of Capillarity, Dover Publications, Mineola, NY, 1982 (2002 ed.).
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096101, 2004; D. Mast, Final Report, SBIR Phase I, Contract Number: #504624-
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Maguire, J. and Benedict, M., Phys. Rev. B, 70, 174 112, 2004.
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Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
2 Design
of Nanostructured
Materials
Debasish Banerjee, Jingyu Lao, and Zhifeng Ren
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Motivation, Background, and Strategies
2.3 Experimental Setup
2.4 Results and Discussion
2.4.1 ZnO Nanostructures and Their Properties
2.4.2 The In2O3 Nanocrystal Chain and Nanowire Circuit
2.4.3 Zn-In-O Hierarchical Nanostructures
2.4.4 Zn-Sn-O Hierarchical Nanostructures
2.4.5 Zn-In-Ge-O Quaternary Hierarchical Nanostructures
2.5 Large Quantity Nanostructures
2.6 Concluding Remarks
Problems
References
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Downsizing of existing microstructures to nanostructures (those structures in which
at least one dimension lies between 1 and 100 nanometers1 (nm)) is found in widely
varied research fields. It possesses the potential to become one of the most fruitful
and farsighted scientific and technological innovations of recent decades. The
journey toward nanoscale science began in 1905, when Albert Einstein published
a paper estimating the diameter of a sugar molecule to be about 1 nm. In spite of
several important developments and a vague understanding of small-scale science,
this field remained dormant until critical technological progress was achieved.
Progress includes developments such as significant improvements in high-magni-
fication electron microscopy, the development of digital electronics, and greatly
improved chemical and physical control and manipulation capabilities. Although
development of the electron microscope, which enabled subnanometer imaging,
emerged around 1931, interest in nanotechnology was stimulated only later on the
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
occasion of Richard Feynman’s 2 remarks in his 1959 landmark talk on aspects of
miniaturization entitled, “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom.” Feynman’s
prediction of an age of nanoscience served as a lightning rod for innovative thinking
and set the pace for the evolution of today’s nanotechnology. Among the early
milestones, the design in 1981 by Binnig and Rohrer of the tunneling scanning
microscope (STM), which can image an individual atom, provided further encour-
agement to researchers everywhere. This development led to accelerated studies in
small-scale science, stimulated further by the discovery of C60 by Curl, Kroto, and
Smalley3 and the discovery of the carbon nanotube by Iijima4 in the mid-1980s and
early 1990s, respectively.
Contemporary scientists, engineers, futurists, and investors foresee nanoscale
science as a pathway to a vast field of smaller, faster, more energy-efficient tech-
nology through the expansion of their successes in downsizing microelectronics
and other cutting-edge developments. The unique properties 5 of miniaturization
have already demonstrated benefits in information storage, 6 in energy storage, 7
in chemical storage, 8 in chemical and biological sensing devices,9 and over the
entire areas of electronics, photonics, and communication. 10 These technological
efforts have simultaneously enriched our understanding of physical phenomena
through direct observation of novel behavior in low-dimensional systems, includ-
ing size dependence, size-dependent photon emission (or photo-excitation),11
coulomb blockage (or single electron tunneling),12 metal-insulator transitions,13
and quantized (or ballistic) conductance.14 Quantum confinement 15 of electrons
in nanometer-sized structures may provide a powerful tool for controlling and
functionalizing the electric, optical, magnetic, and thermoelectric properties of these
advanced materials. Several unique nanostructures, including nanotubes, 16 nano-
wires, nanobelts,17 and nanodots,18 have been synthesized in laboratories worldwide.
They serve as building blocks for prototypes of many high-performance and ultra-
fast devices.5,17,18
Here we provide a brief account of the strategies for growing various non-carbon-
based nanostructures and a description of our contributions to their synthesis and
characterization. We present the findings of recent measurements of some of the
physical and chemical properties 22,23 of complex hierarchical nanostructures,19–21
nanowalls,22 nanowires,21,23 and the self-assembly of nanocrystal chains and nanow-
ire circuits 24 in various systems. In a separate section, we consider a strategy for the
production of large quantities of these structures in freestanding versions to meet
the challenges of practical applications.25,26 Lastly, we consider some possible future
applications.
2.2 MOTIVATION, BACKGROUND, AND STRATEGIES
Developments in contemporary microelectronics have reached a point where further
progress is limited by requirements for faster computing capabilities and by funda-
mental issues with the conventional top-down approach to fabrication, as well as with
its high cost. Significant advances toward improved production efficiency and precise
control over the morphology and microstructure of nanoscale materials through self-
assembly have been achieved. This opens a totally new, more cost-effective, more
Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
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