UNIT

3
Problem Solving
 3.1
Section Inductive and Deductive
Reasoning
Inductive Reasoning

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Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that forms a conclusion based on the
examination of specific examples is called inductive
reasoning. The conclusion formed by using inductive
reasoning is a conjecture, since it may or may not be
correct.

When you examine a list of numbers and predict the next

number in the list according to some pattern you have
observed, you are using inductive reasoning.
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Example 1 – Use Inductive Reasoning to Predict a Number

Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number in each

of the following lists.

a. 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, ? b. 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, ?

Solution:
a. Each successive number is 3 larger than the preceding
number. Thus we predict that the next number in the list
is 3 larger than 15, which is 18.

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

b. The first two numbers differ by 2. The second and the

third numbers differ by 3.

It appears that the difference between any two numbers

is always 1 more than the preceding difference.

Since 10 and 15 differ by 5, we predict that the next

number in the list will be 6 larger than 15, which is 21.

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Counterexamples

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Counterexamples
A statement is a true statement provided that it is true in all
cases.

If you can find one case for which a statement is not true,
called a counterexample, then the statement is a false
statement.

In Example 4 we verify that each statement is a false

statement by finding a counterexample for each.

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Example 4 – Find a Counterexample
Verify that each of the following statements is a false
statement by finding a counterexample.
For all numbers x:

Solution:
A statement may have many counterexamples, but we
need only find one counterexample to verify that the
statement is false.

a. Let x = 0. Then |0| = 0. Because 0 is not greater than 0,

we have found a counterexample.
Thus “for all numbers x, |x| > 0” is a false statement.
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Example 4 – Solution cont’d

b. For x = 1 we have 12 = 1. Since 1 is not greater than 1,

we have found a counterexample. Thus “for all numbers
x, x2 > x” is a false statement.

c. Consider x = –3. Then . . Since 3 is not

equal to –3, we have found a counterexample. Thus “for
all numbers x, is a false statement.

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Deductive Reasoning

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Deductive Reasoning
Another type of reasoning is called deductive reasoning.

Deductive reasoning is distinguished from inductive

reasoning in that it is the process of reaching a conclusion
by applying general principles and procedures.

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Example 5 – Use Deductive Reasoning to Establish a Conjecture

Use deductive reasoning to show that the following

procedure produces a number that is four times the original
number.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 8, add

6 to the product, divide the sum by 2, and subtract 3.

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Example 5 – Solution
Let n represent the original number.

Multiply the number by 8:

Add 6 to the product:

Divide the sum by 2:

Subtract 3:

We started with n and ended with 4n. The procedure given

in this example produces a number that is four times the
original number.

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Inductive Reasoning vs.
Deductive Reasoning

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Inductive Reasoning vs. Deductive Reasoning

In the next Example we will analyze arguments to determine

whether they use inductive or deductive reasoning.

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Example 6 – Determine Types of Reasoning

Determine whether each of the following arguments is an

example of inductive reasoning or deductive reasoning.

a. During the past 10 years, a tree has produced plums

every other year. Last year the tree did not produce
plums, so this year the tree will produce plums.

b. All home improvements cost more than the estimate.

The contractor estimated that my home improvement will
cost $35,000. Thus my home improvement will cost
more than $35,000.

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Example 6 – Solution
a. This argument reaches a conclusion based on specific
examples, so it is an example of inductive reasoning.

b. Because the conclusion is a specific case of a general

assumption, this argument is an example of deductive
reasoning.

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Logic Puzzles

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Logic Puzzles
Logic puzzles, similar to the one in Example 7, can be solved
by using deductive reasoning and a chart that enables us to
display the given information in a visual manner.

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Example 7 – Solve a Logic Puzzle
Each of four neighbors, Sean, Maria, Sarah, and Brian, has
a different occupation (editor, banker, chef, or dentist).
From the following clues, determine the occupation of each
neighbor.

1. Maria gets home from work after the banker but before
the dentist.

2. Sarah, who is the last to get home from work, is not the
editor.

3. The dentist and Sarah leave for work at the same time.

4. The banker lives next door to Brian.

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Example 7 – Solution
From clue 1, Maria is not the banker or the dentist. In the
following chart, write X1 (which stands for “ruled out by clue
1”) in the Banker and the Dentist columns of Maria’s row.

From clue 2, Sarah is not the editor. Write X2 (ruled out by

clue 2) in the Editor column of Sarah’s row.

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Example 7 – Solution cont’d

We know from clue 1 that the banker is not the last to get
home, and we know from clue 2 that Sarah is the last to get
home; therefore, Sarah is not the banker. Write X2 in the
Banker column of Sarah’s row.

From clue 3, Sarah is not the dentist. Write X3 for this

condition. There are now Xs for three of the four occupations
in Sarah’s row; therefore, Sarah must be the chef.
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Example 7 – Solution cont’d

Place a in that box. Since Sarah is the chef, none of the

other three people can be the chef. Write X3 for these
conditions. There are now Xs for three of the four
occupations in Maria’s row; therefore, Maria must be the
editor.

Insert a to indicate that Maria is the editor, and write X3

twice to indicate that neither Sean nor Brian is the editor.
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Example 7 – Solution cont’d

From clue 4, Brian is not the banker. Write X4 for this

condition. See the following table. Since there are three Xs
in the Banker column, Sean must be the banker.

Place a in that box. Thus Sean cannot be the dentist.

Write X4 in that box. Since there are 3 Xs in the Dentist
column, Brian must be the dentist. Place a in that box.
Sean is the banker, Maria is the editor, Sarah is the chef,
and Brian is the dentist. 25
 3.2 Problem-Solving Strategies
Section

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Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy

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Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a
study of problem solving was George Polya (1887–1985).
He was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in
1940.

The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya advocated

consisted of the following four steps.

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Polya’s Problem-Solving Strategy
In Example 1 we apply Polya’s four-step problem-solving
strategy to solve a problem involving the number of routes
between two points.

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Example 1 – Apply Polya’s Strategy
Consider the map shown in Figure 1.2. Allison wishes to
walk along the streets from point A to point B. How many
direct routes can Allison take?

City Map
Figure 1.2

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Example 1 – Solution
Understand the Problem: We would not be able to
answer the question if Allison retraced her path or traveled
away from point B.

Thus we assume that on a direct route, she always travels

along a street in a direction that gets her closer to point B.

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Devise a Plan: The map in

Figure 1.2 has many extraneous
details.

City Map
Figure 1.2

Thus we make a diagram that

allows us to concentrate on the
essential information. See the
figure at the right. A simple diagram of the
street map in Figure 1.2
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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Because there are many routes, we consider the similar but

simpler diagrams shown below.

Simple street diagrams

The number at each street intersection represents the

number of routes from point A to that particular intersection.

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Look for patterns. It appears that the number of routes to

an intersection is the sum of the number of routes to the
adjacent intersection to its left and the number of routes to
the intersection directly above.

For instance, the number of routes to the intersection

labeled 6 is the sum of the number of routes to the
intersection to its left, which is 3, and the number of routes
to the intersection directly above, which is also 3.

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Carry Out the Plan: Using the pattern discovered earlier in

the example, we see from the figure below that the number
of routes from point A to point B is 20 + 15 = 35.

A street diagram with the number of

routes to each intersection labeled

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Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Review the Solution: Ask yourself whether a result of 35

seems reasonable.

If you were required to draw each route, could you devise a

scheme that would enable you to draw each route without
missing a route or duplicating a route?

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Reading and Interpreting Graphs

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Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Graphs are often used to display numerical information in a
visual format that allows the reader to see pertinent
relationships and trends quickly.

Three of the most common types of graphs are the bar

graph, the broken-line graph, and the circle graph.

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Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 1.3 is a bar graph that displays the average U.S.
movie theatre ticket prices for the years from 2008 to 2014.
The years are displayed on the horizontal axis. Each
vertical bar is used to display the average ticket price for a
given year. The higher the bar, the greater the average
ticket price for that year.

Average U.S. movie theatre ticket prices

Figure 1.3
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Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 1.4 shows two broken-line graphs. The red
broken-line graph displays the median age at first marriage
for men for the years from 2005 to 2013.

U.S. median age at first marriage

Figure 1.4

The green broken-line graph displays the median age at

first marriage for women during the same time period. The
symbol on the vertical axis indicates that the ages between
0 and 25 are not displayed. 40
Reading and Interpreting Graphs
This break in the vertical axis allows the graph to be
displayed in a compact form.

The segments that connect points on the graph indicate

trends. Increasing trends are indicated by segments that
rise as they move to the right, and decreasing trends are
indicated by segments that fall as they move to the right.

The blue arrows in Figure 1.4 show that the median age at
which men married for the first time in 2006 was 27.5 years,
rounded to the nearest half of a year.

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Reading and Interpreting Graphs
Figure 1.5 is a circle graph or pie chart that uses circular
sectors to display the percentage of the 180,000,000 U.S.
Facebook users in selected age groups as of January 2014.

Classification of the 180,000,000 U.S.

Facebook users by age: January 2014
Figure 1.5
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Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve Problems

a. Use Figure 1.3 to determine the minimum average U.S.

movie theatre ticket price for the years from 2008 to
2014.

Average U.S. movie theatre ticket prices

Figure 1.3
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Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve Problems cont’d

b. Use Figure 1.4 to estimate the median age at which

women married for the first time in 2011. Round to the
nearest half of a year.

U.S. median age at first marriage

Figure 1.4

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Example 8 – Use Graphs to Solve Problems cont’d

c. Use Figure 1.5 to estimate the number of U.S. Facebook

users in the 18–24 age group. Round to the nearest
hundred thousand.

Classification of the 180,000,000 U.S.

Facebook users by age: January 2014
Figure 1.5
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Example 8(a) – Solution
The minimum of the average ticket prices is displayed by
the height of the shortest vertical bar in Figure 1.3.

Average U.S. movie theatre ticket prices

Figure 1.3

Thus the minimum average U.S. movie theatre ticket price

for the years from 2008 to 2014 was $7.18. 46
Example 8(b) – Solution cont’d

To estimate the median age at which women married for

the first time in 2011, locate 2011 on the horizontal axis of
Figure 1.4 and then move directly upward to a point on the
green broken-line graph.

U.S. median age at first marriage

Figure 1.4

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Example 8(b) – Solution cont’d

The height of this point represents the median age at first

marriage for women in 2011, and it can be estimated by
moving horizontally to the vertical axis on the left.

Thus the median age at first marriage for women in 2011

was 26.5 years, rounded to the nearest half of a year.

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Example 8(c) – Solution cont’d

Figure 1.5 indicates that 23.3% of the 180,000,000 U.S.

Facebook users were in the 18–24 age group.

0.233  180,000,000 = 41,940,000

Thus, rounded to the nearest

hundred thousand, the number of
U.S. Facebook users in this age
group was 41,900,000 in
January 2014.

Classification of the 180,000,000 U.S.

Facebook users by age: January 2014
Figure 1.5
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