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Collection Highlights

Women Feminism and Religion in Early Enlightenment England

Sarah Apetrei

Critical Alliances Economics and Feminism in English Women

s Writing 1880 1914 1st Edition S. Brooke Cameron

The Business of Women Female Enterprise and Urban

Development in Northern England 1760 1830 1st Edition
Barker

Music Theater and Cultural Transfer Paris 1830 1914 1st

Edition Annegret Fauser
The Headscarf Controversy Secularism and Freedom of
Religion 1st Edition Hilal Elver

Women s Voices and Feminism in Polish Cultural Memory 1st

Edition Urszula Chowaniec

Privacy Domesticity and Women in Early Modern England 1st

Edition Corinne S. Abate

Feminism and Its Fictions The Consciousness Raising Novel

and the Women s Liberation Movement Lisa Maria Hogeland

Women in Medicine An Encyclopedia Laura Windsor

Infidel feminism Secularism religion and women s
emancipation England 1830 1914 Laura Schwarz Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Laura Schwarz
ISBN(s): 9780719085826, 0719085829
Edition: Illustrated
File Details: PDF, 8.48 MB
Year: 2013
Language: english
 GENDER in HISTORY

Series editors:
Lynn Abrams, Cordelia Beattie, Pam Sharpe and Penny Summerfield

••
The expansion of research into the history of women and gender since the 1970s
has changed the face of history. Using the insights of feminist theory and of
historians of women, gender historians have explored the configuration in the
past of gender identities and relations between the sexes. They have also inves-
tigated the history of sexuality and family relations, and analysed ideas and
ideals of masculinity and femininity. Yet gender history has not abandoned the
original, inspirational project of women’s history: to recover and reveal the lived
experience of women in the past and the present.
The series Gender in History provides a forum for these developments.
Its historical coverage extends from the medieval to the modern periods, and
its geographical scope encompasses not only Europe and North America but
all corners of the globe. The series aims to investigate the social and cultural
constructions of gender in historical sources, as well as the gendering of histor-
ical discourse itself. It embraces both detailed case studies of specific regions
or periods, and broader treatments of major themes. Gender in History titles
are designed to meet the needs of both scholars and students working in this
dynamic area of historical research.

Infidel feminism
 ALSO AVAILABLE
IN THE SERIES

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Susan Johns
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The independent man: citizenship and gender politics in Georgian England
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woman
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 INFIDEL FEMINISM

I F L FEM
SECULARISM, N SM
RELIGION AND
WOMEN’S EMANCIPATION,
ENGLAND
LA I M R 1830–1914
IG ON

G Laura
• N Schwartz
3 •

Manchester University Press

Copyright © Laura Schwartz 2013

The right of Laura Schwartz to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted
by her in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Published by Manchester University Press

Altrincham Street, Manchester M1 7JA, UK
www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data is available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available

ISBN 978 0 7190 9728 7 paperback

First published by Manchester University Press in hardback 2013

The publisher has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for any external or third-
party internet websites referred to in this book, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
 Contents

list of figures page vi

acknowledgements vii

Introduction 1
1 Freethinking feminists: women in the Freethought movement 41
2 Counter-conversion: Freethinking feminists and the
renunciation of religion 73
3 Preachers of truth: women’s activism in the
Secularist movement 101
4 Infidel feminism: feminism in the Freethought movement 129
5 Freethinking feminists and the women’s movement 154
6 Freethought and Free Love? Marriage, birth control and
sexual morality 178
Conclusion 217

select bibliography 227

index 251

• v •
 Figures

1 Annie Besant page 54

[Secular Chronicle, 10 February 1878, Bishopsgate Library,
George Jacob Holyoake Archive]
2 Leicester Secular Hall 112
[Insert into Secular Chronicle vol. VIII (1877) bound volume,
George Jacob Holyoake Archive, Bishopsgate Library]
3 Hyde Park during 1866 Reform Bill Agitation 169
[Bishopsgate Library]
4 Mary Wollstonecraft as headline news 193
[Secular Chronicle, 10 February 1878, p. 145, Bishopsgate
Library, George Jacob Holyoake Archive]
5 Advertisement for contraception 206
[A. Besant, The Law of Population: Its Consequences and its
Bearing upon Human Conduct and Morals (London:
Freethought Publishing Company, 1889), Bishopsgate Library]

• vi •
 Acknowledgements

I should like to thank the University of East London and the Arts and
Humanities Research Council, for funding the PhD thesis upon which
this book is based, and St Hugh’s College, University of Oxford for the
Career Development Fellowship which made it possible to transform it
into a monograph. I am also very grateful to Kate Hodgkin and Maggie
Humm, for reading and commenting on many early drafts; Anna Davin,
Cath Fletcher and Jane Garnett, for their thoughts and encouragement;
Kathryn Gleadle, Deborah Lavin, Phyllis Mack, Janette Martin, Helen
Rogers, Marie Terrier, Will Van Reyk and Maureen Wright, for sharing
their work in progress with me; and to Jane Miller, for kindly letting me
to look at the Collet family papers. The History of Feminism Network
provided a crucial intellectual forum throughout the research, so my
special thanks to Madisson Brown, Marc Calvini Lefebvre, Esme Cleall,
Erin Cullen, Daniel Grey, Angela Grainger and Naomi Hetherington
for being such good friends and colleagues. One of my greatest debts is
to my supervisor, Barbara Taylor, who was endlessly generous with her
time, her advice, her support and her ideas. I was also lucky to have as
examiners Lucy Bland and David Nash, whose insight and encourage-
ment enabled my first venture into the twentieth century.
Infidel Feminism was originally conceived amidst protests against
the Iraq war and the intense discussions on religion and gender that it
generated. The book was finally completed in a moment of fundamental
transformation in (and potential decimation of) Higher Education
in Britain. Such events inevitably informed the questions this book
asks about what it means to be a political actor, a feminist subject and
a producer of knowledge. They also changed the kinds of relationships
that could be expected to be forged during a period of research, so that
staff at the Women’s Library also became friends on a picket line, while
the Bishopsgate Institute offered not only a wonderful archive but also
much-needed space for collectives to meet and organise. A different kind
of thanks should therefore go to Indy Bhullar, Gail Cameron and Dianne
Shepherd at the WL and especially to Stefan Dickers at the BI. This book is
dedicated with love to all those involved in Feminist Fightback, XTalk and
The Paper, who taught me that reading and writing is best done together.
laura schwartz
London, 2011

• vii •
 Introduction

I
n the spring of 1869 Mrs Harriet Law climbed onto a platform in
Newcastle upon Tyne to defend Eve’s rebellion against God. Law
informed her audience that, instead of ‘cursing’ our Biblical mother
for bringing about the Fall of Mankind, she in fact deserved our ‘rever-
ence’. For Eve’s ‘partaking of the forbidden fruit’ had brought knowledge
into the world against the will of an authoritarian God.1 For Harriet
Law, Eve’s refusal to remain in ignorance was inspiration for a growing
number of Victorian women, who, like Law herself, had rejected the
authority of religion as part of their struggle for emancipation. Law’s
deliberately provocative speech was typical of a longstanding tradition of
‘Freethinking feminists’ who combined their campaigning for women’s
rights with a militant and antagonistic renunciation of Christianity. Such
women often proudly referred themselves ‘infidels’ – reclaiming a title
initially employed as a term of abuse by their Christian opponents. Such
a name implied a refusal of faith and a betrayal of God’s law – acts which
Freethinking feminists believed to be essential to ending the subjuga-
tion of their sex.2 For them, religion, particularly Christianity, was the
primary cause of women’s oppression.
The question of ‘religion’ versus ‘secularism’ and which offers a better
guarantee of women’s rights has a long history. As currently discussed by
twenty-first-century feminists, religious leaders and world governments
such concerns are, of course, the product of a post-9/11 world, but they are
far from being new. In fact, the issue of women’s rights was integral to the
creation of modern definitions of ‘religion’ and ‘secularism’ in the nine-
teenth and early twentieth centuries, when feminists and anti-feminists,
Christians and Freethinkers battled over who had women’s best interests
at heart. Such contests were fundamental to the development of femi-
nist thought in England, but have been almost entirely passed over in
the historiography of the women’s movement. This book examines these

• 1 •
Other documents randomly have
different content
 Architecture - Exercise Book
Spring 2023 - College

Prepared by: Prof. Davis

Date: August 12, 2025

Review 1: Ethical considerations and implications

Learning Objective 1: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Practical applications and examples
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 3: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 4: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 5: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 7: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 9: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Summary 2: Learning outcomes and objectives
Practice Problem 10: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 13: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 14: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 15: Literature review and discussion
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 19: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Background 3: Interdisciplinary approaches
Example 20: Key terms and definitions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 21: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 25: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 28: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 29: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Conclusion 4: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 33: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Conclusion 5: Key terms and definitions
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 42: Current trends and future directions
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 44: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 48: Key terms and definitions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Discussion 6: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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