Topology Through Inquiry

Michael Starbird and Francis Edward Su

January 18, 2023

c Michael Starbird and Francis Edward Su, 2004-2018. All rights reserved.

This is a DRAFT. DO NOT DISTRIBUTE without explicit permission of the authors.

2
Contents

I Point-Set Topology 5

1 Cardinality: To Infinity and Beyond 7

2 Topological Spaces: Fundamentals 51

3 Bases, Subspaces, Products: Creating New Spaces 85

4 Separation Properties: Separating This from That 127

5 Countable Features of Spaces: Size Restrictions 161

6 Compactness: The Next Best Thing to Being Finite 187

7 Continuity: When Nearby Points Stay Together 229

8 Connectedness: When Things Don’t Fall into Pieces 301

9 Metric Spaces: Getting Some Distance 365

II Algebraic and Geometric Topology 427

11 Classification of 2-Manifolds: Organizing Surfaces 429

12 Fundamental Group: Capturing Holes 477

13 Covering Spaces: Layering It On 543

14 Manifolds, Simplexes, Complexes, and Triangulability: Building Blocks 591

15 Simplicial Z2 -Homology: Physical Algebra 651

3
16 Applications of Z2 -Homology: A Topological Superhero 701

17 Simplicial Z-Homology: Getting Oriented 739

18 Singular Homology: Abstracting Objects to Maps 787

19 The End: A Beginning—Reflections on Topology and Learning 813

A Appendix - Group Theory Background 815

4
 Part I

Point-Set Topology

5
Chapter 1

Cardinality: To Infinity and Beyond

Exercise 1.1. For sets A1 , A2 ⊂ X show that

X − (A1 ∪ A2 ) = (X − A1 ) ∩ (X − A2 ).

7
Theorem 1.2. (DeMorgan’s Laws) Let X be a set, and let {Ak }N
k=1 be a finite collection of sets such that
Ak ⊂ X for each k = 1, 2, . . . , N . Then
N N
!
[ \
X− Ak = (X − Ak )
k=1 k=1

and
N N
!
\ [
X− Ak = (X − Ak ).
k=1 k=1

8
Exercise 1.3. For a function f : X → Y , and sets A, B ⊂ Y , show that f −1 (A ∪ B) = f −1 (A) ∪ f −1 (B)
and f −1 (A ∩ B) = f −1 (A) ∩ f −1 (B).

9
Exercise 1.4. If f : X → Y is injective and y ∈ Y , then f −1 (y) contains at most one point.

10
Exercise 1.5. If f : X → Y is surjective and y ∈ Y , then f −1 (y) contains at least one point.

11
Theorem 1.6. Let 2N denote the even positive integers {2, 4, 6, . . .}. Then 2N has the same cardinality as
N, that is, |2N| = |N|.

12
Theorem 1.7. The set Z has the same cardinality as N, that is, |Z| = |N|.

13
Theorem 1.8. Every subset of N is either finite or has the same cardinality as N.

14
Theorem 1.9. Every infinite set has a countably infinite subset.

15
Theorem 1.10. A set is infinite if and only if there is an injection from the set into a proper subset of itself.

16
Theorem 1.11. The union of two countable sets is countable.

17
Theorem 1.12. The union of countably many countable sets is countable.

18
Theorem 1.13. The set Q is countable.

19
Theorem 1.14. The set of all finite subsets of a countable set is countable.

20
Exercise 1.15. Suppose a submarine is moving in the plane along a straight line at a constant speed such
that at each hour, the submarine is at a lattice point, that is, a point whose two coordinates are both integers.
Suppose at each hour you can explode one depth charge at a lattice point that will hit the submarine if it is
there. You do not know the submarine’s direction, speed, or its current position. Prove that you can explode
one depth charge each hour in such a way that you will be guaranteed to eventually hit the submarine.

21
Theorem 1.16 (Cantor’s Theorem). The cardinality of the set of natural numbers is not the same as the
cardinality of the set of real numbers. That is, the set of real numbers is uncountable.

22
Exercise 1.17. Suppose A = {a, b, c}. Explicitly write out 2A , the power set of A.

23
Theorem 1.18. If a set A is finite, then the power set of A has cardinality 2|A| , that is, |2A | = 2|A| .

24
Theorem 1.19. For any set A, there is an injection from A into 2A .

25
Theorem 1.20. For a set A, let P be the set of all functions from A to the two point set {0, 1}. Then
|P | = |2A |.

26
Theorem 1.21. There is a one-to-one correspondence between 2N and the set of all infinite sequences of 0’s
and 1’s.

27
Theorem 1.22 (Cantor’s Power Set Theorem). There is no surjection from a set A onto 2A . Thus for
6 |2A |.
any set A, the cardinality of A is not the same as the cardinality of its power set. In other words, |A| =

28
Exercise 1.23. Consider A = [0, 1] and B = [0, 1) and injections f (x) = x/3 from A to B and g(x) = x
from B to A. Construct a bijection h from A to B such that on some points of A, h(x) = f (x), and for the
other points of A, h(x) = g −1 (x).

29
Exercise 1.24. Consider A = [0, 1] and B = [0, 1) and injections f (x) = x/3 from A to B and g(x) = x/2
from B to A. Construct a bijection h from A to B such that on some points of A, h(x) = f (x), and for the
other points of A, h(x) = g −1 (x).

30
Theorem 1.25 (Schroeder-Bernstein). If A and B are sets such that there exist injections f from A into
B and g from B into A, then |A| = |B|.

31
Theorem 1.26 (Schroeder-Bernstein). If A and B are sets such that there exist a surjective function
f : A → B and a surjective function g : B → A, then |A| = |B|.

32
Theorem 1.27. |R| = |(0, 1)| = |[0, 1]|.

33
Theorem 1.28. Let [0, 1] × [0, 1] denote the Cartesian product of two closed unit intervals. Then

|[0, 1] × [0, 1]| = |[0, 1]|.

34
Theorem 1.29. The set of all functions f : R → R has the same cardinality as 2R .

35
Theorem 1.30. |R| = |2N |.

36
Theorem 1.31. There are infinitely many different infinite cardinalities.

37
Continuum Hypothesis. There is no uncountable set whose cardinality is greater than the cardinality of
N yet less than the cardinality of R.

38
Exercise 1.32. Given a set X, consider the poset P of all subsets of X partially ordered by inclusion. Show
that X is the unique maximal element of P , and show that the empty set is the unique least element of P .

39
Exercise 1.33. Construct an example of a poset with several maximal elements and several least elements.

40
Exercise 1.34. Show that R with the ≤ relation is totally ordered but not well-ordered.

41
Zorn’s Lemma. Let X be a partially ordered set in which each totally ordered subset has an upper bound
in X. Then X has a maximal element.

42
 S
Axiom of Choice. Let {Aα }α∈λ be a set of non-empty sets. Then there is a function f : λ → α∈λ Aα
such that for each α in λ, f (α) is an element of Aα .

43
Well-Ordering Principle. Every set can be well-ordered. That is, every set can be put in one-to-one
correspondence with a well-ordered set.

44
Theorem 1.35. Zorn’s Lemma, the Axiom of Choice, and the Well-Ordering Principle are equivalent.

45
Theorem 1.36. 1. If α is an ordinal number, then any element of α is also an ordinal.

2. S(α) := α ∪ {α}, the successor of α, is also an ordinal.

3. The union of any set of ordinals is an ordinal.

4. The ordinal numbers are naturally ordered by inclusion.

5. The intersection of any set of ordinals is an ordinal contained in that set of ordinals and is the least
element in the set. Hence, any set of ordinal numbers has a least element. Hence, ordinals are well-
ordered.

46
Theorem 1.37. Let {αi }i∈ω0 be a countable set of countable ordinal numbers; that is, each αi < ω1 . Then
there is an ordinal β such that αi < β for each i and β < ω1 .

47
Theorem 1.38. For any countable set of countable ordinals {αi }i∈ω0 , there is a countable limit ordinal γ
such that for every ordinal β < γ, there exists an αi such that β < αi < γ.

48
Theorem 1.39. Let A and B be unbounded sets of ordinals in ω1 , that is, for every ordinal δ ∈ ω1 , there is
an ordinal α ∈ A such that δ < α and an ordinal β ∈ B such that δ < β. Then there exists a limit ordinal
γ in ω1 such that γ is a limit of ordinals from A and is also a limit of ordinals from B.

49
50
Chapter 2

Topological Spaces: Fundamentals

Tn
Theorem 2.1. Let {Ui }ni=1 be a finite collection of open sets in a topological space (X, T). Then i=1 Ui
is open.

51
Exercise 2.2. Why does your proof not prove the false statement that the infinite intersection of open sets
is necessarily open?

52
Theorem 2.3. A set U is open in a topological space (X, T) if and only if for every point x ∈ U , there
exists an open set Ux such that x ∈ Ux ⊂ U .

53
Exercise 2.4. Verify that Tstd is a topology on Rn ; in other words, it satisfies the four conditions of the
definition of a topology.

54
Exercise 2.5. Verify that the discrete, indiscrete, finite complement, and countable complement topologies
are indeed topologies for any set X.

55
Exercise 2.6. Describe some of the open sets you get if R is endowed with the topologies described above
(standard, discrete, indiscrete, finite complement, and countable complement). Specifically, identify sets
that demonstrate the differences among these topologies, that is, find sets that are open in some topologies
but not in others. For each of the topologies, determine if the interval (0, 1) is an open set in that topology.

56
Exercise 2.7. Give an example of a topological space and a collection of open sets in that topological space
that show that the infinite intersection of open sets need not be open.

57
Exercise 2.8. Let X = R and A = (1, 2). Verify that 0 is a limit point of A in the indiscrete topology and
the finite complement topology, but not in the standard topology nor the discrete topology on R.

58
Theorem 2.9. Suppose p 6∈ A in a topological space (X, T). Then p is not a limit point of A if and only if
there exists a neighborhood U of p such that U ∩ A = ∅.

59
Exercise 2.10. If p is an isolated point of a set A in a topological space X, then there exists an open set U
such that U ∩ A = {p}.

60
Exercise 2.11. Give examples of sets A in various topological spaces (X, T) with

1. a limit point of A that is an element of A;

2. a limit point of A that is not an element of A;

3. an isolated point of A;

4. a point not in A that is not a limit point of A.

61
Exercise 2.12.

1. Which sets are closed in a set X with the discrete topology?

2. Which sets are closed in a set X with the indiscrete topology?

3. Which sets are closed in a set X with the finite complement topology?

4. Which sets are closed in a set X with the countable complement topology?

62
Theorem 2.13. For any topological space (X, T) and A ⊂ X, A is closed. That is, for any set A in a
topological space, A = A.

63
Theorem 2.14. Let (X, T) be a topological space. Then the set A is closed if and only if X − A is open.

64
Theorem 2.15. Let (X, T) be a topological space, and let U be an open set and A be a closed subset of X.
Then the set U − A is open and the set A − U is closed.

65
Theorem 2.16. Let (X, T) be a topological space. Then:

i) ∅ is closed.

ii) X is closed.

iii) The union of finitely many closed sets is closed.

T
iv) Let {Aα }α∈λ be a collection of closed subsets in (X, T). Then α∈λ Aα is closed.

66
Exercise 2.17. Give an example to show that the union of infinitely many closed sets in a topological space
may be a set that is not closed.

67
Exercise 2.18. Give examples of topological spaces and sets in them that:

1. are closed, but not open;

2. are open, but not closed;

3. are both open and closed;

4. are neither open nor closed.

68
Exercise 2.19. State whether each of the following sets are open, closed, both, or neither.

1. In Z with the finite complement topology: {0, 1, 2}, {prime numbers}, {n | |n| ≥ 10}.

2. In R with the standard topology: (0, 1), (0, 1], [0, 1], {0, 1}, {1/n | n ∈ N}.

3. In R2 with the standard topology: {(x, y) | x2 +y 2 = 1}, {(x, y) | x2 +y 2 > 1}, {(x, y) | x2 +y 2 ≥ 1}.

69
Theorem 2.20. For any set A in a topological space X, the closure of A equals the intersection of all closed
sets containing A, that is,
\
A= B
B⊃A,B∈C

where C is the collection of all closed sets in X.

70
Exercise 2.21. Pick several different subsets of R, and find their closures in:

1. the discrete topology;

2. the indiscrete topology;

3. the finite complement topology;

4. the standard topology.

71
Theorem 2.22. Let A and B be subsets of a topological space X. Then

1. A ⊂ B implies A ⊂ B.

2. A ∪ B = A ∪ B.

72
Exercise 2.23. Let {Aα }α∈λ be a collection of subsets of a topological space X. Then is the following
statement true?
[ [
Aα = Aα .
α∈λ α∈λ

73
Exercise 2.24. In R2 with the standard topology, describe the limit points and closure of each of the follow-
ing two sets:

1



1. S = x, sin x | x ∈ (0, 1) . The closure of the set S is called the topologist’s sine curve.
S∞  1


2. C = {(x, 0) | x ∈ [0, 1]} ∪ n=1 n, y | y ∈ [0, 1] . The closure of the set C is called the topolo-
gist’s comb.

74
Exercise 2.25. In the standard topology on R, there exists a non-empty subset C of the closed unit interval
[0, 1] that is closed, contains no non-empty open interval, and where no point of C is an isolated point.

75
Theorem 2.26. Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Then p is an interior point of A if and only if
there exists an open set U with p ∈ U ⊂ A.

76
Exercise 2.27. Show that a set U is open in a topological space X if and only if every point of U is an
interior point of U .

77
Theorem 2.28. Let A be a subset of a topological space X. Then Int(A), Bd(A) and Int(X − A) are
disjoint sets whose union is X.

78
Exercise 2.29. Pick several different subsets of R, and for each one, find its interior and boundary using:

1. the discrete topology;

2. the indiscrete topology;

3. the finite complement topology;

4. the standard topology.

79
Theorem 2.30. Let A be a subset of the topological space X and let p be a point in X. If {xi }i∈N ⊂ A and
xi → p, then p is in the closure of A.

80
Theorem 2.31. In standard topology on Rn , if p is a limit point of a set A, then there is a sequence of points
in A that converge to p.

81
Exercise 2.32. Find an example of a topological space and a convergent sequence in that space, where the
limit of the sequence is not unique.

82
Exercise 2.33. 1. Consider sequences in R with the finite complement topology. Which sequences con-
verge? To what value(s) do they converge?

2. Consider sequences in R with the countable complement topology. Which sequences converge? To
what value(s) do they converge?

83
84
Chapter 3

Bases, Subspaces, Products: Creating

New Spaces

Theorem 3.1. Let (X, T) be a topological space and B be a collection of subsets of X. Then B is a basis for
T if and only if:

1. B ⊂ T, and

2. for each set U in T and point p in U there is a set V in B such that p ∈ V ⊂ U .

85
Exercise 3.2. 1. Let B1 = {(a, b) ⊂ R | a, b ∈ Q}. Show that B1 is a basis for the standard topology
on R.

2. Let B2 = {(a, b) ∪ (c, d) ⊂ R | a < b < c < d are distinct irrational numbers}. Show that B2 is also
a basis for the standard topology on R.

86
Theorem 3.3. Suppose X is a set and B is a collection of subsets of X. Then B is a basis for some topology
on X if and only if:

1. each point of X is in some element of B, and

2. if U and V are sets in B and p is a point in U ∩ V , there is a set W in B such that p ∈ W ⊂ (U ∩ V ).

87
Exercise 3.4. Show that the basis proposed above for the lower limit topology is in fact a basis.

88
Theorem 3.5. Every open set in Rstd is an open set in RLL , but not vice versa.

89
Exercise 3.6. Give an example of two topologies on R such that neither is finer than the other, that is, the
two topologies are not comparable.

90
Exercise 3.7. Check that the collection of sets that we specify as a basis in the Double Headed Snake actually
forms the basis for a topology.

91
Exercise 3.8. In the Double Headed Snake, show that every point is a closed set; however, it is impossible
to find disjoint open sets U and V such that 00 ∈ U and 000 ∈ V .

92
Exercise 3.9. 1. In the topological space Rhar , what is the closure of the set H = {1/n}n∈N ?

2. In the topological space Rhar , what is the closure of the set H − = {−1/n}n∈N ?

3. Is it possible to find disjoint open sets U and V in Rhar such that 0 ∈ U and H ⊂ V ?

93
Exercise 3.10. 1. In Hbub , what is the closure of the set of rational points on the x-axis?

2. In Hbub , which subsets of the x-axis are closed sets?

3. In Hbub , let A be a countable set on the x-axis and let z be a point on the x-axis not in A. Then
there exist disjoint open sets U and V such that A ⊂ U and z ∈ V . (Do you need the countability
hypothesis on A?)

4. In Hbub , let A and B be countable sets on the x-axis such that A and B are disjoint. Then there exist
disjoint open sets U and V such that A ⊂ U and B ⊂ V .

5. In Hbub , let A be the rational numbers and let B be the irrational numbers. Do there exist disjoint
open sets U and V such that A ⊂ U and B ⊂ V ?

94
Exercise 3.11. Check that the arithmetic progressions form a basis for a topology on Z.

95
Theorem 3.12. There are infinitely many primes.

96
Exercise 3.13. A basis for a topology is also a subbasis for that topology.

97
Theorem 3.14. Let (X, T) be a topological space and let S be a collection of subsets of X. Then S is a
subbasis for T if and only if

1. S ⊂ T, and

2. for each set U in T and point p in U there is a finite collection {Vi }ni=1 of elements of S such that
n
T
p∈ Vi ⊂ U .
i=1

98
Exercise 3.15. Let S be the following collection of subsets of R: {x | x < a for some a ∈ R} and {x | a < x
for some a ∈ R}. Then S is a subbasis for R with the standard topology.

99
Theorem 3.16. Suppose X is a set and S is a collection of subsets of X. Then S is a subbasis for some
topology on X if and only if every point of X is in some element of S.

100
Exercise 3.17. Let S be the following collection of subsets of R: {x | x < a for some a ∈ R} and {x | a ≤ x
for some a ∈ R}. For what topology on R is S a subbasis?

101
Exercise 3.18. Let X be a set totally ordered by <. Let S be the collection of sets of the following forms

{x ∈ X | x < a} or {x ∈ X | a < x}

for a ∈ X. Then S forms a subbasis for the order topology on X.

102
Exercise 3.19. Verify that the order topology on R with the usual < order is the standard topology on R.

103
Exercise 3.20. In the lexicographically ordered square find the closures of the following subsets:
  
1
A = ,0 | n ∈ N .
n
  
1 1
B = 1− , |n∈N .
n 2
C = {(x, 0) | 0 < x < 1} .
  
1
D = x, |0<x<1 .
2
  
1
E = ,y | 0 < y < 1 .
2

104
Exercise 3.21. Assume that N has the usual order. Let Nω denote the Cartesian product of a countable
number of copies of the space N. It can be endowed with the dictionary order in a natural way. Show that
Nω with the dictionary order topology is uncountable, is not well-ordered, and any set that does not have a
least element does have a limit point.

105
Theorem 3.22. Consider the topological space ω1 consisting of all ordinals less than ω1 , the first uncount-
able ordinal, with the order topology. Let A be an infinite set of ordinals in ω1 . Then there is an ordinal
β < ω1 that is a limit point of A.

106
Theorem 3.23. Let A and B be unbounded closed sets in the topological space ω1 . Then A ∩ B 6= ∅.

107
Theorem 3.24. Let (X, T) be a topological space and Y ⊂ X. Then the collection of sets TY is in fact a
topology on Y .

108
Exercise 3.25. Consider Y = [0, 1) as a subspace of Rstd . In Y , is the set [1/2, 1) open, closed, neither, or
both?

109
Exercise 3.26. Consider a subspace Y of the topological space X. Is every subset U ⊂ Y that is open in Y
also open in X?

110
Theorem 3.27. Let (Y, TY ) be a subspace of (X, T). A subset C ⊂ Y is closed in (Y, TY ) if and only if
there is a set D ⊂ X, closed in (X, T), such that C = D ∩ Y .

111
Corollary 3.28. Let (Y, TY ) be a subspace of (X, T). A subset C ⊂ Y is closed in (Y, TY ) if and only if
ClX (C) ∩ Y = C.

112
Theorem 3.29. Let (X, T) be a topological space, and (Y, TY ) be a subspace. If B is a basis for T, then
BY = {B ∩ Y |B ∈ B} is a basis for TY .

113
Exercise 3.30. Consider the following subspaces of the lexicographically ordered square:

x, 21 | 0 < x < 1 .


1. D =

1


2. E = 2, y |0<y<1 .

3. F = {(x, 1) | 0 < x < 1}.

As sets they are all lines. Describe their relative topologies, especially noting any connections to topologies
you have seen already.

114
Exercise 3.31. Verify that the collection of basic open sets above satisfies the conditions of Theorem 3.3,
thus confirming that this collection is the basis for a topology.

115
Exercise 3.32. Draw examples of basic and arbitrary open sets in R2 = R × R using the standard topology
on R. Find (i) an open set in R × R that is not the product of open sets, and (ii) a closed set in R × R that
is not the product of closed sets.

116
Exercise 3.33. Is the product of closed sets closed?

117
Exercise 3.34. Show that the product topology on X × Y is the same as the topology generated by the
−1
subbasis of inverse images of open sets under the projection functions, that is the subbasis is {πX (U ) |
U open in X} ∪ {πY−1 (V ) | V open in Y }.

118
Exercise 3.35. Using the standard topology on R, is the product topology on R×R the same as the standard
topology on R2 ?

119
Exercise 3.36. A basis for the product topology on Πα∈λ Xα is the collection of all sets of the form
Πα∈λ Uα where Uα is open in Xα for each α and Uα = Xα for all but finitely many α.

120
Exercise 3.37. Let T be the topology on 2X with basis generated by the subbasis S.

1. Every basic open set in 2X is both open and closed.

2. Show that if a collection of subbasic open sets of 2X has the property that every point of 2X lies in at
least one of those subbasic open sets, then there are two subbasic open sets in that collection such that
every point of 2X lies in one of those two subbasic sets.

3. Show that if a collection of basic open sets of 2X has the property that every point of 2X lies in at least
one of those basic open sets, then there are a finite number of basic open sets in that collection such
that every point of 2X lies in one of those basic sets.

121
Exercise 3.38. In the product space 2R , what is the closure of the set Z consisting of all elements of 2R that
are 0 on every rational coordinate, but may be 0 or 1 on any irrational coordinate? Equivalently, thinking
of 2R as subsets of R, what is the closure of the set Z consisting of all subsets of R that do not contain any
rational?

122
Exercise 3.39. Find a subset A of 2R and a limit point x of A such that no sequence in A converges to x.
For an even greater challenge, determine whether you can find such an example if A is countable.

123
Exercise 3.40. Let Rω be the countable product of copies of R. So every point in Rω is a sequence
(x1 , x2 , x3 , ...). Let A ⊂ Rω be the set consisting of all points with only positive coordinates. Show
that in the product topology, 0 = (0, 0, 0, ...) is a limit point of the set A, and there is a sequence of points
in A converging to 0. Then show that in the box topology, 0 = (0, 0, 0, ...) is a limit point of the set A, but
there is no sequence of points in A converging to 0.

124
Exercise 3.41. Show that the set 2N in the box topology is a discrete space, whereas the set 2N in the product
topology has no isolated points.

125
126
Chapter 4

Separation Properties: Separating This

from That

Theorem 4.1. A space (X, T) is T1 if and only if every point in X is a closed set.

127
Exercise 4.2. Let X be a space with the finite complement topology. Show that X is T1 .

128
Exercise 4.3. Show that Rstd is Hausdorff.

129
Exercise 4.4. Show that Hbub is regular.

130
Exercise 4.5. Show that RLL is normal.

131
Exercise 4.6. 1. Consider R2 with the standard topology. Let p ∈ R2 be a point not in a closed set A.
Show that inf{d(a, p) | a ∈ A} > 0. (Recall that inf E is the greatest lower bound of a set of real
numbers E.)

2. Show that R2 with the standard topology is regular.

3. Find two disjoint closed subsets A and B of R2 with the standard topology such that

inf{d(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B} = 0.

4. Show that R2 with the standard topology is normal.

132
Theorem 4.7. 1. A T2 -space (Hausdorff) is a T1 -space.

2. A T3 -space (regular and T1 ) is a Hausdorff space, that is, a T2 -space.

3. A T4 -space (normal and T1 ) is regular and T1 , that is, a T3 -space.

133
Theorem 4.8. A topological space X is regular if and only if for each point p in X and open set U contain-
ing p there exists an open set V such that p ∈ V and V ⊂ U .

134
Theorem 4.9. A topological space X is normal if and only if for each closed set A in X and open set U
containing A there exists an open set V such that A ⊂ V , and V ⊂ U .

135
Theorem 4.10. A topological space X is normal if and only if for each pair of disjoint closed sets A and B,
there are disjoint open sets U and V such that A ⊂ U , B ⊂ V , and U ∩ V = ∅.

136
Theorem 4.11 (The Incredible Shrinking Theorem). A topological space X is normal if and only if for
each pair of open sets U , V such that U ∪ V = X, there exist open sets U 0 , V 0 such that U 0 ⊂ U and
V 0 ⊂ V , and U 0 ∪ V 0 = X.

137
Exercise 4.12. 1. Describe an example of a topological space that is T1 but not T2 .

2. Describe an example of a topological space that is T2 but not T3 .

3. Describe an example of a topological space that is T3 but not T4 .

138
Exercise 4.13. Construct a table, listing our previous examples of topological spaces as column titles, and
listing the separation properties as row titles. In each box, answer the question of whether the example of
the column has the property of the row. Here are the spaces to use as column titles:

1. Rstd

2. Rnstd

3. indiscrete topology

4. discrete topology

5. finite complement topology

6. countable complement topology

7. lower limit topology, RLL

8. double headed snake, R+00

9. Rhar

10. Sticky Bubble Topology, Hbub

11. arithmetic progression topology, Zarith

12. lexicographically ordered square

13. 2X

Here are the properties to use as row titles:

1. T1

2. Hausdorff

3. regular

4. normal

139
Exercise 4.14. Show that Hbub is not normal.

140
Theorem 4.15. Order topologies are T1 , Hausdorff, regular, and normal.

141
Theorem 4.16. Let X and Y be Hausdorff. Then X × Y is Hausdorff.

142
Theorem 4.17. Let X and Y be regular. Then X × Y is regular.

143
Exercise 4.18. Show that RLL × RLL is not normal. It may help to consider the “negative diagonal” line
L.

144
Theorem 4.19. Every Hausdorff space is hereditarily Hausdorff.

145
Theorem 4.20. Every regular space is hereditarily regular.

146
Exercise 4.21. 1. Prove that the space 2R is normal.

2. Prove that if you remove a single point from 2R , the resulting subspace is not normal.

147
Exercise 4.22. (Walking the Tychonoff Plank, or Mutiny on the Boundary)

1. Show that the Tychonoff Plank is normal.

2. Show that the Tychonoff Plank minus the single point (ω0 , ω1 ) is not normal.

148
Theorem 4.23. Let A be a closed subset of a normal space X. Then A is normal when given the relative
topology.

149
Exercise 4.24. 1. Prove that for any set X, 2X is normal. (This part is not really different from showing
that 2R is normal, which you did in a previous exercise.)

2. Recall that there is a one-to-one correspondence between the points of 2X and subsets of X, as follows:
recall that each point of 2X is a function f : X → {0, 1}, so f −1 (1) is a subset of X. Let C ⊂ 2X
consist of those points that take on the value 1 on only a countable set of coordinates, that is, C is
the set of functions f : X → {0, 1}, for which f −1 (1) is countable. Prove that C with the subspace
topology is normal.

150
Exercise 4.25. Let Y be a subspace of a topological space X, and let A and B be two disjoint closed subsets
of Y in the subspace topology. Show that both A ∩ B = ∅ and A ∩ B = ∅, where the closures are taken in
X.

151
Theorem 4.26. The space X is a completely normal space if and only if X is hereditarily normal.

152
Exercise 4.27. 1. Recall that R is an order topology. Find a subset of R where the subspace topology is
not the order topology on the subset.

2. Find a line in the lexicographically ordered square whose relative topology is the discrete topology on
this line, but this is not the order topology on the subset.

3. Notice that RLL is not an order topology. Find a line in the lexicographically ordered square whose
relative topology is the lower limit topology.

153
Theorem 4.28. Order topologies are hereditarily normal.

154
Theorem 4.29 (The Normality Lemma). Let A and B be subsets of a topological space X and let {Ui }i∈N
and {Vi }i∈N be two collections of open sets such that
S
1. A ⊂ i∈N Ui ,
S
2. B ⊂ i∈N Vi ,

3. for each i in N, U i ∩ B = ∅ and V i ∩ A = ∅.

Then there exist open sets U and V such that A ⊂ U , B ⊂ V , and U ∩ V = ∅.

155
Theorem 4.30. If X is normal and C = ∪i∈N Ki is the union of closed sets Ki in X, then the subspace C
is normal.

156
Theorem 4.31. Suppose a space X is regular and countable. Then X is normal.

157
Theorem 4.32. Suppose a space X is regular and has a countable basis. Then X is normal.

158
Theorem 4.33. Let X be a perfectly normal space. Then X is completely normal.

159
160
Chapter 5

Countable Features of Spaces: Size

Restrictions

Exercise 5.1. Show that A is dense in X if and only if every non-empty open set of X contains a point of
A.

161
Exercise 5.2. Show that Rstd is separable. With which of the topologies on R that you have studied is R not
separable?

162
Exercise 5.3. Add ’separable’ as a new property in your chart, and complete your chart by deciding which
of the spaces we’ve studied are separable.

163
Exercise 5.4. Find a separable space that contains a subspace that is not separable in the subspace topology.

164
Theorem 5.5. If X and Y are separable spaces, then X × Y is separable.

165
Theorem 5.6. The space 2R is separable.

166
Exercise 5.7. Let {Xβ }β∈µ be a collection of separable spaces where |µ| ≤ 2ω0 , then
Q
β∈µ Xβ is separable.

167
 N
Exercise 5.8. If X is a separable, Hausdorff space, then |X| ≤ 22 .

168
Theorem 5.9. Let X be a 2nd countable space, then X is separable.

169
Exercise 5.10. 1. The space Rstd is 2nd countable (and hence separable).

2. The space RLL is separable but not 2nd countable.

3. The space Hbub is separable but not 2nd countable.

170
Theorem 5.11. Every uncountable set in a 2nd countable space has a limit point.

171
Exercise 5.12. A 2nd countable space is hereditarily 2nd countable.

172
Exercise 5.13. If X and Y are 2nd countable spaces, then X × Y is 2nd countable.

173
Theorem 5.14. Let X be a 2nd countable space. Then X is 1st countable.

174
Theorem 5.15. If X is a topological space, p ∈ X, and p has a countable neighborhood basis, then p has a
nested countable neighborhood basis.

175
Exercise 5.16. 1. The space RLL is 1st countable.

2. The space Hbub is 1st countable.

3. The space 2R is not 1st countable.

176
Exercise 5.17. You may as well extend your table of spaces and properties by adding new rows for the
properties 1st countable and 2nd countable and determining those properties for each of your spaces.

177
Theorem 5.18. Suppose x is a limit point of the set A in a 1st countable space X. Then there is a sequence
of points {ai }i∈N in A that converges to x.

178
Exercise 5.19. A 1st countable space is hereditarily 1st countable.

179
Exercise 5.20. If X and Y are 1st countable spaces, then X × Y is 1st countable.

180
Exercise 5.21. Show that the real line with the standard topology is Souslin.

181
Theorem 5.22. A separable space has the Souslin property.

182
Theorem 5.23. For any set X, the topological space 2X has the Souslin property.

183
Exercise 5.24. Find a Souslin space that is not separable.

184
 Q
Theorem. Let {Xβ }β∈µ be a collection of separable spaces, then β∈µ Xβ is Souslin.

185
186
Chapter 6

Compactness: The Next Best Thing to

Being Finite

Theorem 6.1. Let X be a finite topological space. Then X is compact.

187
Theorem 6.2. Let C be a compact subset of Rstd . Then C has a maximum point, that is, there is a point
m ∈ C such that for every x ∈ C, x ≤ m.

188
Theorem 6.3. If X is a compact space, then every infinite subset of X has a limit point.

189
Corollary 6.4. If X is compact and E is a subset of X with no limit point, then E is finite.

190
Theorem 6.5. A space X is compact if and only if every collection of closed sets with the finite intersection
property has a non-empty intersection.

191
Theorem 6.6. A space X is compact if and only if for any open set U in X and any collection of closed sets
T
{Kα }α∈λ such that α∈λ Kα ⊂ U , there exist a finite number of the Kα ’s whose intersection lies in U .

192
Exercise 6.7. If A and B are compact subsets of X, then A ∪ B is compact. Suggest and prove a general-
ization.

193
Theorem 6.8. Let A be a closed subspace of a compact space. Then A is compact.

194
Theorem 6.9. Let A be a compact subspace of a Hausdorff space X. Then A is closed.

195
Exercise 6.10. Construct an example of a compact subset of a topological space that is not closed.

196
Exercise 6.11. Must the intersection of two compact sets be compact? Add hypotheses, if necessary. Extend
any theorems you discover, if possible.

197
Theorem 6.12. Every compact, Hausdorff space is normal.

198
Theorem 6.13. Let B be a basis for a space X. Then X is compact if and only if every cover of X by basic
open sets in B has a finite subcover.

199
Theorem 6.14. For any a ≤ b in R, the subspace [a, b] is compact.

200
Heine-Borel Theorem 6.15. Let A be a subset of Rstd . Then A is compact if and only if A is closed and
bounded.

201
Exercise 6.16. Consider the rationals Q with the subspace topology inherited from R. Find a set A in Q
that is closed and bounded but not compact.

202
Theorem 6.17. Every compact subset C of R contains a maximum in the set C, i.e., there is an m ∈ C
such that for any x ∈ C, x ≤ m.

203
Theorem 6.18 (The tube lemma). Let X × Y be a product space with Y compact. If U is an open set of
X × Y containing the set x0 × Y , then there is some open set W in X containing x0 such that U contains
W × Y (called a “tube” around x0 × Y ).

204
Theorem 6.19. Let X and Y be compact spaces. Then X × Y is compact.

205
Heine-Borel Theorem 6.20. Let A be a subset of Rn with the standard topology. Then A is compact if
and only if A is closed and bounded.

206
Alexander Subbasis Theorem 6.21. Let S be a subbasis for a space X. Then X is compact if and only if
every subbasic open cover has a finite subcover.

207
Exercise 6.22. Use the Alexander Subbasis Theorem to prove that the space 2X is compact for every X.

208
Tychonoff’s Theorem 6.23. Any product of compact spaces is compact.

209
Exercise 6.24. Consider the set [0, 1]ω and show that the Tychonoff Theorem is not true if the box topology
is used instead of the product topology.

210
Theorem 6.25. Every countably compact and Lindelöf space is compact.

211
Theorem 6.26. Let X be a T1 space. Then X is countably compact if and only if every infinite subset of X
has a limit point.

212
Theorem 6.27. If X is a Lindelöf space, then every uncountable subset of X has a limit point.

213
Exercise 6.28. Formulate and prove theorems about Lindelöf and countably compact spaces analogous to
the theorems you proved relating compactness with collections of closed sets with the finite intersection
property.

214
Theorem 6.29. If A is a closed subspace of a countably compact (respectively, Lindelöf) space, then A is
countably compact (respectively, Lindelöf).

215
Theorem 6.30. Every regular, Lindelöf space is normal.

216
Theorem 6.31. Let B be a basis for a space X. Then X is Lindelöf if and only if every cover of X by basic
open sets in B has a countable subcover.

217
Corollary 6.32. Every 2nd countable space is Lindelöf.

218
Exercise 6.33. Can you think of a topological space in which every countable open cover by basic open sets
has a finite subcover and yet not every countable open cover has a finite subcover?

219
Exercise 6.34. Show that RLL is Lindelöf, but RLL × RLL is not Lindelöf.

220
Theorem 6.35. The space ω1 of countable ordinals is countably compact but not compact.

221
Theorem 6.36. The space ω1 + 1, which includes all countable ordinals together with the ordinal ω1 , is
compact.

222
Exercise 6.37. Extend your table of spaces and properties by adding new rows for the properties compact,
Lindelöf, and countably compact and determining those properties for each of your spaces.

223
Theorem 6.38. Let B = {Bα }α∈λ be a locally finite collection of subsets of a space X. Then
[ [
( Bα ) = Bα.
α∈λ α∈λ

224
Theorem 6.39. Let A be a closed subspace of a paracompact space. Then A is paracompact.

225
Theorem 6.40. Every paracompact space is normal.

226
Theorem 6.41. Every regular, T1 , Lindelöf space is paracompact.

227
228
Chapter 7

Continuity: When Nearby Points Stay

Together

Theorem 7.1. Let X and Y be topological spaces and let f : X → Y be a function. Then the following are
equivalent:

1. The function f is continuous.

2. For every closed set K in Y , the inverse image f −1 (K) is closed in X.

3. For every limit point p of a set A in X, the image f (p) belongs to f (A).

4. For every x ∈ X and open set V containing f (x), there is an open set U containing x such that
f (U ) ⊂ V .

229
Theorem 7.2. Let X, Y be topological spaces and y0 ∈ Y . The constant map f : X → Y defined by
f (x) = y0 is continuous.

230
Theorem 7.3. Let X ⊂ Y be topological spaces. The inclusion map i : X → Y defined by i(x) = x is
continuous.

231
Theorem 7.4. Let f : X → Y be a continuous map between topological spaces, and let A be a subset of X.
Then the restriction map f |A : A → Y defined by f |A (a) = f (a) is continuous.

232
Theorem 7.5. A function f : Rstd → Rstd is continuous if and only if for every point x in R and ε > 0,
there is a δ > 0 such that for every y ∈ R with d(x, y) < δ, then d(f (x), f (y)) < ε.

233
Theorem 7.6. Let X be a 1st countable space and Y be a topological space. Then a function f : X → Y is
continuous if and only if for each convergent sequence xn → x in X, f (xn ) converges to f (x) in Y .

234
Theorem 7.7. Let X be a space with a dense set D, and let Y be Hausdorff. Let f : X → Y and g : X → Y
be continuous functions such that for every d in D, f (d) = g(d). Then for all x in X, f (x) = g(x).

235
Theorem 7.8. The cardinality of the set of continuous functions from R to R is the same as the cardinality
of R.

236
Theorem 7.9. If f : X → Y and g : Y → Z are continuous, then their composition g ◦ f : X → Z is
continuous.

237
Theorem 7.10 (pasting lemma). Let X = A ∪ B, where A, B are closed in X. Let f : A → Y and
g : B → Y be continuous functions that agree on A ∩ B. Then the function h : A ∪ B → Y such that
h = f on A and h = g on B is continuous.

238
Theorem 7.11 (pasting lemma). Let X = A ∪ B, where A, B are open in X. Let f : A → Y and
g : B → Y be continuous functions which agree on A ∩ B. Then the function h : A ∪ B → Y such that
h = f on A and h = g on B is continuous.

239
Exercise 7.12. Is the pasting lemma true when A and B in the preceding theorems are arbitrary sets?

240
Theorem 7.13. Let f : X → Y be a function and let B be a basis for Y . Then f is continuous if and only
if for every open set B in B, f −1 (B) is open in X.

241
Theorem 7.14. Let f : X → Y be a function and let B be a subbasis for Y . Then f is continuous if and
only if for every open set B in B, f −1 (B) is open in X.

242
Theorem 7.15. If X is compact, and f : X → Y is continuous and surjective, then Y is compact.

243
Theorem 7.16. If X is Lindelöf and f : X → Y is continuous and surjective, then Y is Lindelöf.

244
Theorem 7.17. If X is countably compact and f : X → Y is continuous and surjective, then Y is
countably compact.

245
Theorem 7.18. Let D be a dense set of a topological space X and let f : X → Y be continuous and
surjective. Then f (D) is dense in Y .

246
Corollary 7.19. Let X be a separable space and let f : X → Y be continuous and surjective. Then Y is
separable.

247
Exercise 7.20. 1. Find an open function that is not continuous.

2. Find a closed function that is not continuous.

3. Find a continuous function that is neither open nor closed.

4. Find a continuous function that is open but not closed.

5. Find a continuous function that is closed but not open.

248
Theorem 7.21. If X is normal and f : X → Y is continuous, surjective, and closed, then Y is normal.

249
Theorem 7.22. If {Bα }α∈λ is a basis for X and f : X → Y is continuous, surjective, and open, then
{f (Bα )}α∈λ is a basis for Y .

250
Corollary 7.23. If X is 2nd countable and f : X → Y is continuous, surjective, and open, then Y is 2nd
countable.

251
Theorem 7.24. Let X be compact and Y be Hausdorff. Then any continuous function f : X → Y is
closed.

252
Theorem 7.25. Let X be compact and 2nd countable and let Y be Hausdorff. If f : X → Y is continuous
and surjective, then Y is 2nd countable.

253
Theorem 7.26. Being homeomorphic is an equivalence relation on topological spaces.

254
Exercise 7.27. Let a and b be points in R1 with a < b. Show that (a, b) with the subspace topology from
R1std is homeomorphic to R1std .

255
Theorem 7.28. If f : X → Y is continuous, the following are equivalent:

a) f is a homeomorphism.

b) f is a closed bijection.

c) f is an open bijection.

256
Theorem 7.29. Suppose f : X → Y is a continuous bijection where X is compact and Y is Hausdorff.
Then f is a homeomorphism.

257
Exercise 7.30. Construct some examples to show why the compactness and Hausdorff assumptions in the
previous theorem are necessary.

258
Corollary 7.31. Let X be a compact space and let Y be Hausdorff. If f : X → Y is a continuous, injective
map, then f is an embedding.

259
Theorem 7.32. Let X and Y be topological spaces. The projection maps πX , πY on X × Y are continuous,
surjective, and open.

260
Theorem 7.33. Let X and Y be topological spaces. The product topology on X × Y is the coarsest topology
on X × Y that makes the projection maps πX , πY on X × Y continuous.

261
Exercise 7.34. Find an example of X and Y that shows that the projection map πX : X × Y → X is not
necessarily a closed map.

262
Theorem 7.35. Let X and Y be topological spaces. For every y ∈ Y , the subspace X × {y} of X × Y is
homeomorphic to X.

263
Theorem 7.36. Let X, Y , and Z be topological spaces. A function g : Z → X × Y is continuous if and
only if πX ◦ g and πY ◦ g are both continuous.

264
Exercise 7.37. What about maps out of a product space, i.e., f : X × Y → Z? Do you think f is
continuous if it is continuous in each coordinate?

265
 Q
Theorem 7.38. Let α∈λ Xα be the product of topological spaces {Xα }α∈λ . The projection map πβ :
Q
α∈λ Xα → Xβ is a continuous, surjective, and open map.

266
 Q
Theorem 7.39. The product topology is the coarsest (smallest) topology on α∈λ Xα that makes each
projection map continuous.

267
 Q
Theorem 7.40. Let α∈λ Xα be the product of topological spaces {Xα }α∈λ and let Z be a topological
Q
space. A function g : Z → α∈λ Xα is continuous if and only if πβ ◦ g is continuous for each β in λ.

268
Exercise 7.41. Let Rω be the countably infinite product of R with itself. Let f : R → Rω be defined by
f (x) := (x, x, x, ...). Then f is continuous if Rω is given the product topology, but not if given the box
topology. (This strange result once again shows why the box topology would be a poor choice as the standard
topology for infinite products.)

269
 Q
Theorem 7.42. The Cantor set is homeomorphic to the product n∈N {0, 1} where {0, 1} has the discrete
topology.

270
Exercise 7.43. The cylinder C from our example above did not need to be embedded in R3 to be defined; it
could have been defined as an identification space of X = [0, 1] × [0, 1], using the partition whose sets are
either singletons or pairs:
   
∗
C = {(x, y)} : x ∈ (0, 1), y ∈ [0, 1] ∪ {(0, y) ∪ (1, y)} : y ∈ [0, 1] .

What is the identification map f : X → C ∗ ? What is a basis for the topology on C ∗ ?

271
Exercise 7.44. A Möbius band is obtained by taking a strip of paper X and gluing two opposite sides with
a “twist”. Sometimes this gluing is notated by drawing X with arrows on two parallel sides that point in
opposite directions. Construct a Möbius band explicitly as an identification space of X = [0, 8] × [0, 1].

272
Exercise 7.45. A torus is the surface of a doughnut. Construct a torus explicitly as:

1. an identification space of C, the cylinder.

2. an identification space of X = [0, 1] × [0, 1].

3. an identification space of R2 .

273
Exercise 7.46. Describe the 2-dimensional sphere (the boundary of a 3-dimensional ball in R3 ) as an iden-
tification space of two discs in R2 by drawing a figure.

274
Theorem 7.47. The quotient topology actually defines a topology.

275
Theorem 7.48. Let X be a topological space, Y be a set, and f : X → Y be a surjective map. The quotient
topology on Y is the finest (largest) topology that makes f continuous.

276
Theorem 7.49. Let X and Y be topological spaces. A surjective, continuous map f : X → Y that is an
open map is a quotient map.

277
Theorem 7.50. Let X and Y be topological spaces. A surjective, continuous map f : X → Y that is a
closed map is a quotient map.

278
Exercise 7.51. Show with examples that not all quotient maps are open maps, and not all quotient maps
are closed maps.

279
Exercise 7.52. Is π : R2 → R defined by π(x, y) = x a quotient map?

280
Theorem 7.53. Let f : X → Y be a quotient map. Then a map g : Y → Z is continuous if and only if
g ◦ f is continuous.

281
Exercise 7.54. Let the cylinders C ∗ and C be defined as at the beginning of this Section. Prove that C ∗ is
homeomorphic to C by constructing a map h : C ∗ → C and showing it is a continuous bijection from a
compact space into a Hausdorff space.

282
Exercise 7.55. Suppose X is a subspace of Rn for some n. View Rn as a subset of Rn+1 in the usual way
(that is, Rn is the space of the first n coordinates of Rn+1 where the final coordinate is 0). Choose a point
x0 ∈ Rn+1 − Rn . Let C be the subspace of Rn+1 consisting of the union of all the line segments from x0 to
points in X. Show that C is homeomorphic to the cone over X as defined above, thus justifying the name
”cone.”

283
Lemma 7.56. Let A and B be disjoint closed sets in a normal space X. Then for each rational r ∈ [0, 1],
there exists an open set Ur such that A ⊂ U0 , B ⊂ (X − U1 ), and for r < s, Ur ⊆ Us .

284
Urysohn’s Lemma 7.57. A topological space X is normal if and only if for each pair of disjoint closed sets
A and B in X, there exists a continuous function f : X → [0, 1] such that A ⊂ f −1 (0) and B ⊂ f −1 (1).

285
Lemma 7.58. Let X be a normal space, and let A be a closed subset of X. Let f : A → [0, 1] be a
continuous function and let r ∈ (0, 1). Then there exist disjoint open sets Ur and Vr such that f −1 ([0, r)) ⊂
Ur and f −1 ((r, 1]) ⊂ Vr . Or equivalently, there exists an open set Ur such that f −1 ([0, r)) ⊂ Ur and
Ur ∩ f −1 ((r, 1]) = ∅.

286
Tietze Extension Theorem 7.59. A space X is normal if and only if for every closed set A ⊂ X and
continuous function f : A → [0, 1], there exists a continuous function F : X → [0, 1] such that F (x) =
f (x) for every x ∈ A.

287
Theorem 7.60. A space X is normal if and only if for every closed set A ⊂ X and continuous function
f : A → (0, 1), there exists a continuous function F : X → (0, 1) such that F (x) = f (x) for every x ∈ A.

288
Theorem 7.61. A space X is normal if and only if for every closed set A ⊂ X and continuous function
f : A → [0, 1), there exists a continuous function F : X → ([0, 1) such that F (x) = f (x) for every x ∈ A.

289
Theorem 7.62. A space X is normal if and only if for every closed set A ⊂ X and continuous function
f : A → [0, 1] × [0, 1], there exists a continuous function F : X → [0, 1] × [0, 1] such that F (x) = f (x)
for every x ∈ A.

290
Theorem 7.63. A space X is normal if and only if for every closed set A ⊂ X and continuous function
Q
f : A → α∈λ [0, 1]α , where each [0, 1]α is a copy of [0, 1] in the usual topology, there exists a continuous
Q
function F : X → α∈λ [0, 1]α such that F (x) = f (x) for every x ∈ A.

291
Theorem 7.64. Let X be a normal space and let A be a closed subspace of X homeomorphic to [0, 1] with the
usual topology. Then there exists a continuous function r : X → A such that for every x ∈ A, r(x) = x.

292
Theorem 7.65. Let X be a normal space and let A be a closed subspace of X homeomorphic to S 1 with the
usual topology. Then there exists an open set U containing A and a continuous function r : U → A such
that for every x ∈ A, r(x) = x.

293
Exercise 7.66. Think of (many) other possible alternatives to S 1 in the preceding theorem that would allow
you to draw the same conclusion.

294
Theorem 7.67. Suppose X is perfectly normal. Then for each pair of disjoint closed sets A and B in X,
there exists a continuous function f : X → [0, 1] such that A = f −1 (0) and B = f −1 (1).

295
Theorem 7.68. Every perfectly normal space is completely normal.

296
 Q
Theorem 7.69. Let X be a normal, T1 space. Then X is homeomorphic to a subspace of α∈λ [0, 1]α for
some λ, where each factor is the unit interval with the standard topology.

297
 Q
Scholium 7.70. A space X is completely regular and T1 if and only if X can be embedded in α∈λ [0, 1]α
for some λ, where each factor is the unit interval with the standard topology.

298
Theorem 7.71. Given a locally finite open cover {Uα }α∈λ of a normal, T1 space X, there is a collection of
corresponding continuous functions φα : X → [0, 1] such that (i) each φα is zero outside Uα , and (ii) the
φα pointwise add to 1. The collection {φα }α∈λ is called a partition of unity.

299
300
Chapter 8

Connectedness: When Things Don’t Fall

into Pieces

Theorem 8.1. The following are equivalent:

1. X is connected.

2. there is no continuous function f : X → Rstd such that f (X) = {0, 1}.

3. X is not the union of two disjoint non-empty separated sets.

4. X is not the union of two disjoint non-empty closed sets.

5. the only subsets of X that are both closed and open in X are the empty set and X itself.

6. for every pair of points p and q and every open cover {Uα }α∈λ of X there exist a finite number of the
Uα ’s, {Uα1 , Uα2 , Uα3 , ..., Uαn } such that p ∈ Uα1 , q ∈ Uαn and for each i < n, Uαi ∩ Uαi+1 6= ∅.

301
Exercise 8.2. Which of the following spaces are connected?

1. R with the discrete topology?

2. R with the indiscrete topology?

3. R with the finite complement topology?

4. RLL ?

5. Q as a subspace of Rstd ?

6. R − Q as a subspace of Rstd ?

302
Theorem 8.3. The space Rstd is connected.

303
Theorem 8.4. Let A, B be separated subsets of a space X. If C is a connected subset of A ∪ B, then either
C ⊂ A or C ⊂ B.

304
Theorem 8.5. Let {Cα }α∈λ be a collection of connected subsets of X and E be another connected subset of
S

X such that for each α in λ, E ∩ Cα 6= ∅. Then E ∪ α∈λ Cα is connected.

305
Theorem 8.6. Let C be a connected subset of the topological space X. If D is a subset of X such that
C ⊂ D ⊂ C, then D is connected.

306
Exercise 8.7. Show that the closure of the topologist’s sine curve in R2std is connected.

307
Theorem 8.8. Let X be a connected space, C a connected subset of X, and X − C = A | B. Then A ∪ C
and B ∪ C are each connected.

308
Theorem 8.9. For topological spaces X and Y , X × Y is connected if and only if each of X and Y is
connected.

309
 Q
Theorem 8.10. For spaces {Xα }α∈λ , α∈λ Xα is connected if and only if for each α in λ, Xα is connected.

310
Exercise 8.11. Show that the box product of countably infinitely many copies of Rstd is not connected.

311
Theorem 8.12. Let f : X → Y be a continuous, surjective function. If X is connected, then Y is
connected.

312
Theorem 8.13. (Intermediate Value Theorem) Let f : Rstd → Rstd be a continuous map. If a, b ∈ R and
r is a point of R such that f (a) < r < f (b) then there exists a point c in (a, b) such that f (c) = r.

313
Theorem 8.14. Let X be a countable, regular, T1 space with more than one point. Then X is not connected.

314
Exercise 8.15. Show that Bing’s Sticky Foot Topology is a countable, connected, Hausdorff space.

315
Theorem 8.16. If X is a normal, T1 space with more than one point and |X| < |R|, then X is not
connected.

316
Exercise 8.17. Let A be a countable subset of Rn for n ≥ 2. Show that Rn − A is connected. In fact, if
the cardinality of A is any cardinality less than the cardinality of R, then Rn − A will still be connected.
Actually, for any two points p and q in Rn − A, p can be connected to q by two intersecting straight line
segments in Rn − A.

317
Theorem 8.18. Each component of X is connected, closed, and not contained in any strictly larger con-
nected subset of X.

318
Theorem 8.19. The set of components of a space X is a partition of X.

319
Lemma 8.20. Let X be a topological space and let {Hα }α∈λ be the set of subsets of X that are both open
and closed. Then the following are equivalent:

1. For every two components A and B of X, there exists a separation of X into two disjoint closed sets
such that A is in one and B is in the other.
T
2. For every component A of X, {Hα | A ⊂ Hα } = A.

320
Lemma 8.21. Let X be a compact space and let U be an open set in X. Let {Hα }α∈λ be closed subsets of
T
X such that α∈λ Hα ⊂ U . Then there exist a finite number of the Hα ’s whose intersection lies in U .

321
Lemma 8.22. Let A and B be components of a compact, Hausdorff space X. Then X = H | K where
A ⊂ H and B ⊂ K.

322
Theorem 8.23. Let X be a compact, Hausdorff space. Let X ∗ be the partition of X into its components.
Then the identification space X ∗ is a compact, Hausdorff space.

323
Theorem 8.24. Let A and B be closed subsets of a compact, Hausdorff space X such that no component
intersects both A and B. Then X = H | K where A ⊂ H and B ⊂ K.

324
Theorem 8.25. Let U be a proper, open subset of a continuum X. Then each component of U contains a
point of ∂U , the boundary of U . (Recall: ∂U = U − U .)

325
Theorem 8.26. Let U be a proper, open subset of a continuum X. Then each component of U has a limit
point on ∂U .

326
Theorem 8.27. No continuum X is the union of a countable number (> 1) of disjoint, non-empty closed
subsets.

327
Exercise 8.28. Show that in Figure ??, X is connected and is the union of a countable number of disjoint
closed sets.

328
 T
Theorem 8.29. Let {Ci }i∈ω be a collection of continua such that for each i, Ci+1 ⊂ Ci . Then i∈ω Ci is a
continuum.

329
Theorem 8.30. Let {Cα }α∈λ be a collection of continua indexed by a well-ordered set λ such that if α < β,
T
then Cβ ⊂ Cα . Then α∈λ Cα is a continuum.

330
Lemma 8.31. Let X be a continuum, p be a point of X, and X − {p} = H | K. Then H ∪ {p} is a
continuum and if q 6= p is a non-separating point of H ∪ {p}, then q is a non-separating point of X.

331
Theorem 8.32. Let X be a separable continuum with more than one point. Then X has at least two
non-separating points.

332
Theorem 8.33. Let X be a continuum with more than one point. Then X has at least two non-separating
points.

333
Theorem 8.34. The bucket handle continuum is indecomposable.

334
Theorem 8.35. A path connected space is connected.

335
Exercise 8.36. The flea and comb space is connected but not path connected.

336
Exercise 8.37. The closure of the topologist’s sine curve is connected but not path connected.

337
Theorem 8.38. The product of path connected spaces is path connected.

338
Exercise 8.39. 1. What are the path components of the closure of the topologist’s sine curve?

2. What are the path components of the closure of the topologist’s comb?

339
Exercise 8.40. Must every non-empty open connected subset U of Rn be path connected?

340
Theorem 8.41. Let p and q be two points in a Hausdorff space X such that there exists a continuous
function f : [0, 1] → X with f (0) = p and f (1) = q. Then there exists an embedding h : [0, 1] → X with
h(0) = p and h(1) = q.

341
Theorem 8.42. The following are equivalent:

1. X is locally connected.

2. X has a basis of connected open sets.

3. For each x ∈ X and open set U with x ∈ U , the component of x in U is open.

4. For each x ∈ X and open set U with x ∈ U , there is a connected set C such that x ∈ Int C ⊂ C ⊂ U .

5. For each x ∈ X and open set U with x ∈ U , there is an open set V containing x and V ⊂ (the
component of x in U ).

342
Exercise 8.43. 1. Show that the closure of the topologist’s comb is not locally connected.

2. Construct a space that is connected but not locally connected at any point.

3. Find an example of a space that is locally connected but not connected.

343
Theorem 8.44. The product of two locally connected spaces is locally connected.

344
Exercise 8.45. 1. Find an example of an infinite number of locally connected spaces where the infinite
product space is not connected.

2. Prove that an arbitrary box product of locally connected spaces is locally connected.

345
Theorem 8.46. Let X be a locally connected space and let f : X → Y be a continuous, surjective, closed
or open map. Then Y is locally connected.

346
Exercise 8.47. Construct an example of a locally connected space X and a continuous, surjective function
f : X → Y such that Y is not locally connected.

347
Theorem 8.48. A locally path connected space is locally connected.

348
Theorem 8.49. The following are equivalent:

1. X is locally arcwise connected.

2. For each x ∈ X and open set U with x ∈ U , there is an arcwise connected open set V such that
x ∈ V ⊂ U.

3. X has a basis of connected, arcwise connected open sets.

349
Theorem 8.50. A Hausdorff space X is a Peano Continuum if and only if it is the image of [0, 1] under a
continuous map.

350
Theorem 8.51. Let f : [0, 1] → X be a continuous surjective map where X is Hausdorff. Then X is locally
arcwise connected. Equivalently, every Peano Continuum is locally arcwise connected.

351
Theorem 8.52. Let X be a 0-dimensional, T1 space. Then X is totally disconnected.

352
Exercise 8.53. Create a Hausdorff space that is totally disconnected but is not 0-dimensional.

353
Theorem 8.54. The standard Cantor set is precisely those real numbers in [0, 1] that can be written using
only 0’s or 2’s in their ternary (that is, base 3) expansion.

354
Exercise 8.55. Show that every real number in [0, 2] is the sum of two numbers in the standard Cantor set.

355
Exercise 8.56. Let C be the Cantor set. Create a continuous function f : C → [0, 1] that is surjective.

356
Exercise 8.57. Let C be the Cantor set. Create an embedding h : C → [0, 1] × [0, 1] such that for every
x ∈ [0, 1], ({x} × [0, 1]) ∩ h(C) 6= ∅.

357
Exercise 8.58. Let C be the Cantor set. Create an embedding h : C → [−1, 1] × [−1, 1] − {(0, 0)} such
that every ray from (0, 0) straight out to infinity intersects h(C).

358
Exercise 8.59. Let C be the Cantor set. Create an embedding h : C → [0, 1] × [0, 1] such that for every
continuous function f : [0, 1] → [0, 1], Gf ∩ h(C) 6= ∅, where Gf is the graph of f .

359
Exercise 8.60. Let C be the Cantor set, let h : C → R2 be an embedding, and let p and q be points in
R2 − h(C). Show that you can find a polygonal path from p to q in R2 − h(C).

360
Theorem 8.61. Let C be the standard Cantor set and let h : C → R2 be an embedding. Then there exists
a homeomorphism H : R2 → R2 such that for every x ∈ C, H(h(x)) = x.

361
Theorem 8.62. Let C be the standard Cantor set. There exists an embedding h : C → R3 such that no
homeomorphism H : R3 → R3 exists where H(h(C)) = C.

362
Theorem 8.63. Let C be the standard Cantor set and let X be a 2nd countable, compact, Hausdorff space.
Then there exists a continuous, surjective function f : C → X.

363
364
Chapter 9

Metric Spaces: Getting Some Distance

Exercise 9.1. Verify that the following are all metrics on Rn .

pPn
1. The Euclidean metric on Rn is defined by d(x, y) = i=1 (xi − yi )2 .

2. The box metric on Rn is defined by d(x, y) = maxi {|xi − yi |}.

3. The taxi-cab metric on Rn is defined by d(x, y) =

P
i {|xi − yi |}.

Show that when n ≥ 2, these metrics are different.

365
Exercise 9.2. Let X be a compact topological space. Let C(X) denote the set of continuous functions
f : X → R. We can endow C(X) with a metric:

d(f, g) = sup |f (x) − g(x)|

x∈X

and this distance is also sometimes denoted kf − gk. Check that d is a well-defined metric on C(X).

366
Theorem 9.3. Let d be a metric on the set X. Then the collection of all open balls

B = {B(p, ) = {y ∈ X|d(p, y) < } for every p ∈ X and every  > 0}

forms a basis for a topology on X.

367
Exercise 9.4. On Rn , show that the Euclidean metric, box metric, and taxi-cab metric generate the same
topology as the product topology on n copies of Rstd .

368
Exercise 9.5. Now find a metric on Rn that does not induce the product topology on n copies of Rstd .

369
Theorem 9.6. For any metric space (X, d), there exists a metric d¯ such that d and d¯ generate the same
¯ y) < 1.
topology, yet for each x, y ∈ X, d(x,

370
Theorem 9.7. If X is a metric space and Y ⊂ X, then Y is a metric space.

371
Theorem 9.8. A metric space is Hausdorff, regular, and normal.

372
Theorem 9.9. A metric space is completely normal and perfectly normal.

373
Theorem 9.10. A metric space is a 1st countable space.

374
Theorem 9.11. In a metric space X, the following are equivalent:

1. X is separable,

2. X is 2nd countable,

3. X is Lindelöf,

4. every uncountable set in X has a limit point,

375
Exercise 9.12. If you’ve read about the Souslin property in Section ??, then a fifth property can be added
to the above theorem: a metric space X has the Souslin property if and only if it has the other properties
mentioned in Theorem 9.11.

376
Theorem 9.13. Let (X, d) and (Y, e) be metric spaces. Then X × Y is a metric space.

377
 Q
Theorem 9.14. Let {(Xi , di )}i∈ω0 be a countable collection of metric spaces. Then i∈ω0 Xi is metrizable.

378
 Q
Exercise 9.15. Show that if {Xα }α∈λ is an uncountable collection of non-degenerate spaces, then α∈λ Xα
is not metrizable.

379
Exercise 9.16. Consider the set Rω with the box topology, and show that it is not metrizable.

380
Theorem 9.17. A metric space is compact if and only if it is countably compact.

381
Theorem 9.18. A metric space is compact if and only if every infinite subset of X has a limit point.

382
Theorem 9.19. A function f from a metric space (X, dX ) to a metric space (Y, dY ) is continuous at the
point x (in the topological sense) if and only if for every ε > 0 there exists a δ > 0 such that for every y ∈ X,
if dX (x, y) < δ, then dY (f (x), f (y)) < ε. The function f is continuous if and only if it is continuous at
every point x ∈ X.

383
Exercise 9.20. Give an example of a continuous function from R1 to R1 with the standard topology that is
not uniformly continuous.

384
Theorem 9.21. Let f : X → Y be a continuous function from a compact metric space to a metric space Y .
Then f is uniformly continuous.

385
Exercise 9.22. Find a sequence of continuous functions fi : [0, 1] → [0, 1] (i ∈ N) such that for each point
x ∈ [0, 1], the points fi (x) converge to a point px in [0, 1] and yet the function L : [0, 1] → [0, 1] defined by
L(x) = px is not continuous.

386
Theorem 9.23. Let X be a topological space and let Y be a compact metric space. If a sequence of continuous
functions fi : X → Y converges uniformly, then f : X → Y defined by f (x) = lim fi (x) for each x ∈ X
exists and is continuous.

387
Lebesgue Number Theorem 9.24. Let {Uα }α∈λ be an open cover of a compact set A in a metric space
X. Then there exists a δ > 0 such that for every point p in A, B(p, δ) ⊂ Uα for some α. This number δ is
called a Lebesgue number of the cover.

388
Theorem 9.25. Let γ : [0, 1] → X be a path: a continuous map from [0, 1] into the space X. Given an
open cover {Uα } of X, show that [0, 1] can be divided into N intervals of the form Ii = [ i−1 i
N , N ] such that
each γ(Ii ) lies completely in one set of the cover.

389
Exercise 9.26. 1. The space Rn is complete.

2. There is a metric that generates the standard topology on R1 that is not a complete metric.

390
Theorem 9.27. Let X be a compact metric space. Then every metric for X is a complete metric.

391
Theorem 9.28 (The Baire Category Theorem). Let X be a complete metric space and {Ui }i∈N be a
T
collection of dense open sets. Then i∈N Ui is a dense set.

392
Theorem 9.29 (The Baire Category Theorem). Let X be a complete metric space. Then X is not the
union of countably many nowhere dense sets.

393
Theorem 9.30. Let X be a topological space and let Y be a complete metric space. If a sequence of contin-
uous functions fi : X → Y converges uniformly, then f : X → Y defined by f (x) = lim fi (x) for each
x ∈ X exists and is continuous.

394
Theorem 9.31. If X and Y are complete metric spaces, then X × Y is complete.

395
Theorem 9.32. Every closed subset of a complete metric space is complete.

396
Theorem 9.33. Let U be an open subset of a complete metric space X. Then U is topologically complete,
that is, there is a complete metric on U that generates the relative topology of U .

397
 Q
Theorem 9.34. If {Xi }i∈N is a collection of complete metric spaces, then i∈N Xi is complete.

398
Theorem 9.35. Let {Ui }i∈N be a countable collection of open sets in a complete space X. Then Y =
T
i∈N Ui is complete.

399
Theorem 9.36. Let X be a complete space. Then Y ⊂ X is complete if and only if there exists a countable
T
collection of open sets {Ui }i∈N such that Y = i∈N Ui .

400
Theorem 9.37. A Hausdorff space X is a Peano Continuum if and only if X is the image of [0, 1] under a
continuous, surjective function.

401
Theorem 9.38. A Peano Continuum is path connected and locally path connected.

402
Theorem 9.39. An open, connected subset of a Peano Continuum is path connected.

403
Theorem 9.40. Let X be a metric continuum with exactly two non-separating points. Then X is homeo-
morphic to [0, 1].

404
Theorem 9.41. Let X be a non-degenerate metric continuum where no point separates X but every pair of
points separates X. Then X is homeomorphic to S1 .

405
Theorem 9.42. Let X be a metric continuum with more than one point where no pair of points separates
X, but every subset of X homeomorphic to S1 separates X. Then X is homeomorphic to S2 .

406
Exercise 9.43. 1. Is the space R with the discrete topology metrizable?

2. Is the space RLL metrizable?

407
Exercise 9.44. Take your chart of examples and properties and add metric space as an example and add
metrizable as a property and fill in the chart.

408
Urysohn’s Metrization Theorem 9.45. Every regular, T1 , 2nd countable space is metrizable.

409
Theorem 9.46. Let X be a compact Hausdorff space that is 2nd countable. Then X is metrizable.

410
Theorem 9.47. Let X be a compact metric space, Y be a Hausdorff space, and f : X → Y be a continuous,
surjective function. Then Y is a compact metric space.

411
Theorem 9.48. Let X be a Hausdorff space, and let C be the standard Cantor set. Then X is a compact
metric space if and only if there exists a continuous surjective function f : C → X.

412
Theorem 9.49. Every separable metric space can be embedded in a countable product of [0, 1]’s.

413
Exercise 9.50. Show that a hedgehog is a metric space where the distance between two points can be de-
scribed as taking the distance from one point to the 0 on its spine and then adding the distance out to the
second point on the other point’s spine.

414
Theorem 9.51. The countable product of hedgehogs is metrizable.

415
Theorem 9.52. A regular space with a σ-discrete basis is normal. In fact, given a discrete collection of
closed sets {Cα }α∈λ , there exists a discrete collection of open sets {Uα }α∈λ such that for each α, Cα ⊂ Uα .

416
Theorem 9.53. A regular, T1 space X with a σ-discrete basis is metrizable.

417
Lemma 9.54. Let {Ui }i∈N be a countable open cover of a metric space X. For each point x ∈ X let m(x)
be the natural number such that x ∈ Ui but x 6∈ Uj for j < i. Then for every n ∈ N there exists a discrete
collection of closed sets {Ci,n } such that

1. for each i, Ci,n ⊂ Ui ;

2. for each x ∈ Ci,n , B(x, n1 ) ⊂ Ui ;

3. for each i, Ci,n does not intersect Uj for j < i; and

4. for each i, Ci,n contains every point x ∈ Ui for which m(x) = i and for which d(x, X − Ui ) > n1 .
S 1
Then Ci,n = X and for each n, the collection of 3n neighborhoods of the Ci,n ’s, that is,
 
 [ 1 
B(x, ) ,
 3n 
x∈Ci,n
i∈N

is a discrete collection of open sets.

418
Lemma 9.55. Let {Uα }α∈λ be an open cover of a metric space X where the index set λ is well-ordered. For
each point x ∈ X let m(x) be the ordinal number α such that x ∈ Uα but x 6∈ Uβ for β < α. Then for
every n ∈ N there exists a discrete collection of closed sets {Cα,n } such that

1. for each α, Cα,n ⊂ Uα ;

2. for each x ∈ Cα,n , B(x, n1 ) ⊂ Uα ;

3. for each α, Cα,n does not intersect Uβ for β < α; and

4. for each α, Cα,n contains every point x ∈ Uα for which m(x) = α and for which d(x, X − Uα ) > n1 .
S 1
Then Cα,n = X and for each n, the collection of 3n neighborhoods of the Cα,n ’s, that is,
 
 [ 1 
B(x, ) ,
 3n 
x∈Cα,n
α∈λ

is a discrete collection of open sets.

419
The Bing Metrization Theorem 9.56. A regular, T1 space X is metrizable if and only if X has a σ-
discrete basis.

420
Theorem 9.57. A regular space with a σ-locally finite basis is normal. In fact, given a discrete collection of
closed sets {Cα }α∈λ , there exists a discrete collection of open sets {Uα }α∈λ such that for each α, Cα ⊂ Uα .

421
The Nagata-Smirnov Metrization Theorem 9.58. A regular, T1 space X is metrizable if and only if X
has a σ-locally finite basis.

422
Lemma 9.59. Let X be a space with a σ-locally finite basis {{Bα,n }α∈λi }n∈N . Let {Uα }α∈λ be a locally
finite collection of open sets in a space X where the index set λ is well-ordered. (In the application, this
S
collection of Uα ’s will be one of the locally finite collections of basis elements.) For each point x ∈ α∈λ Uα
let m(x) be the ordinal number α such that x ∈ Uα but x 6∈ Uβ for β < α. Then for every n ∈ N there
exists a discrete collection of closed sets {Cα,n } such that

1. for each α, Cα,n ⊂ Uα ;

2. for each α, Cα,n does not intersect Uβ for β < α; and

3. for each α, Cα,n contains every point x ∈ Uα for which m(x) = α and for which x ∈ {Bα,n }.

Then

1. for each n, {Cα,n }α∈λ is a discrete collection of closed sets;

S S
2. α∈λ;n∈N Cα,n = α∈λ Uα ; and

3. for each n, there exists a discrete collection of open sets {Vα,n }α∈λ such that for each α ∈ λ, Cα,n ⊂
Vα,n ⊂ Vα,n ⊂ Uα .

423
Lemma 9.60. Let {Bi }i∈N be a countable basis of a regular space X. Let {Uα }α∈λ be an open cover of
X. Let {Ci }i∈N be the set of all Bi ’s such that each Ci lies in some Uα in the open cover. Then {Ci }i∈N is
an open refinement of the open cover {Uα }α∈λ ; however, it is not locally finite. Let {Di }i∈N be the set of
S
all Bi ’s such that each Di is a subset of some Ck . For each i ∈ N let Ei = Ci − {Dj |j < i and Dj ⊂
Ck for some k < i}. Then {Ei }i∈N is a locally finite refinement of {Uα }α∈λ .

424
Theorem 9.61. Metric spaces are paracompact.

425
426
 Part II

Algebraic and Geometric Topology

427
Chapter 11

Classification of 2-Manifolds:
Organizing Surfaces

Exercise 11.1. Show that the torus T 2 is homeomorphic to S1 × S1 .

429
Exercise 11.2. For a given number of holes, demonstrate that the n-holed torus where the holes are lined
up is homeomorphic to an n-holed torus where the holes are arranged in a circle.

430
Exercise 11.3. 1. Show that RP2 ∼
= S2 /hx ∼ −xi, that is, the projective plane is homeomorphic to the
2-sphere with diametrically opposite points identified.

2. Show that RP2 is also homeomorphic to a disk with two edges on its boundary (called a bigon),
identified as indicated in Figure 11.1.

Figure 11.1: RP2 .

3. Show that the Klein bottle can be realized as a square with certain edges identified.

431
Theorem 11.4. Suppose M is a compact, connected 1-manifold. Then M is triangulable. That is, M is
homeomorphic to a subset C of Rn consisting of a finite collection of straight line segments where any two
segments of C are either disjoint or meet at an endpoint of each.

432
Exercise 11.5. Provide a complete classification of compact, connected 1-manifolds. That is, describe a col-
lection of topological spaces such that every compact, connected 1-manifold is homeomorphic to one member
of the collection.

433
Exercise 11.6. Provide a complete classification of compact 1-manifolds.

434
Theorem 11.7. Every compact 2-manifold is triangulable, that is, it is homeomorphic to a subset C of Rn
consisting of a finite collection T = {σi }ki=1 of rectilinear triangles (a fancy word for a rectilinear triangle
is a 2-simplex) where each pair of triangles are disjoint or they meet in one vertex of each or they share a
single edge. Since the space C is homeomorphic to a 2-manifold, each edge of each triangle making up C is
shared by exactly two triangles, and around each vertex is a circle of triangles whose union is a disk.

435
Exercise 11.8. The boundary of a tetrahedron is naturally triangulated with a triangulation T consisting
of four 2-simplexes, having six edges and four vertices.

1. On the boundary of a tetrahedron draw the first and second barycentric subdivisions of T .

2. Locate the edges of the four triangles in T .

3. Draw the regular neighborhood of the union of all the edges of T .

4. Draw the regular neighborhood of a single edge of a triangle in T .

436
Exercise 11.9. In the second barycentric subdivisions of a triangulation of the torus (Figure ??), find
regular neighborhoods of various subsets of the edges.

437
Exercise 11.10. Consider the triangulation of the torus in Figure ??. Describe those graphs created from
edges in the 1-skeleton of T that have regular neighborhoods homeomorphic to a disk.

438
Theorem 11.11. Let M 2 be a compact, triangulated 2-manifold with triangulation T . Let S be a tree whose
edges are 1-simplices in the 1-skeleton of T . Then N (S), the regular neighborhood of S, is homeomorphic to
D2 .

439
Theorem 11.12. Let M 2 be a compact, triangulated 2-manifold with triangulation T . Let S be a tree equal
to a union of ’edges’ in the dual 1-skeleton of T . Then ∪{σj00 | σj00 ∈ T 00 and σj00 ∩ S 6= ∅} is homeomorphic
to D2 .

440
Theorem 11.13. Let M 2 be a connected, compact, triangulated 2-manifold with triangulation T . Let S be
a tree in the 1-skeleton of T . Let S 0 be the subgraph of the dual 1-skeleton of T whose ’edges’ do not intersect
S. Then S 0 is connected.

441
Theorem 11.14. Let M 2 be a connected, compact, triangulated 2-manifold. Then M 2 = D0 ∪ D1 ∪
Sk
2
i=1 Hi where D0 , D1 , and each Hi is homeomorphic to D , Int D0 ∩ D1 = ∅, the Hi ’s are disjoint,
Sk
i=1 Int Hi ∩ (D0 ∪ D1 ) = ∅, and for each i, Hi ∩ D1 equals 2 disjoint arcs each arc on the boundary of
each of Hi and D1 .

442
Theorem 11.15. Let M 2 be a connected, compact, triangulated 2-manifold. Then:

1. There is a disk D0 in M 2 such that M 2 − (Int D0 ) is homeomorphic to the following subset of R3 :

a disk D1 with a finite number of disjoint strips, Hi for i ∈ {1, . . . n}, attached to boundary of D1
where each strip has no twist or a 1/2 twist. (See Figure 11.2.)
Sk

2. Furthermore, the boundary of the disk with strips, D1 ∪ i=1 Hi , is connected.

Figure 11.2: A disk with four handles attached.

443
Exercise 11.16. In the conclusion of the previous theorem, any strip Hi divides the boundary of D1 into
two arcs, e1i and e2i , where Hi is not attached, that is, the two arcs that make up (D1 Hi ) are disjoint from
T

the two arcs e1i and e2i except at their endpoints. Show that if a strip Hj is attached to D1 with no twists,
then there must be a strip Hk that is attached to both e1j and e2j .

444
Theorem 11.17. Let M 2 be a connected, compact, triangulated 2-manifold. Then there is a disk D0 in M 2
such that M 2 − Int D0 is homeomorphic to a disk D1 with strips attached as follows: first come a finite
number of strips with 1/2 twist each of whose attaching arcs are consecutive along Bd D1 , and next come a
finite number of pairs of untwisted strips, each pair with attaching arcs entwined as pictured with the four
arcs from each pair consecutive along Bd D1 .

445
Theorem 11.18. Let X be the union of a disk with three strips attached as follows: a disk E0 with one
strip attached with a 1/2 twist with its attaching arcs consecutive along Bd E0 and one pair of untwisted
strips with attaching arcs entwined as pictured with the four arcs consecutive along Bd E0 . Let Y again be
a union of a disk with three strips attached, but the three are attached differently. The set Y consists of a
disk E1 with three strips with a 1/2 twist each whose attaching arcs are consecutive along Bd E1 . Then X
is homeomorphic to Y .

Figure 11.3: These spaces are homeomorphic.

446
Theorem 11.19. Let M 2 be a connected, compact, triangulated 2-manifold. Then there is a disk D0 in M 2
such that M 2 − Int D0 is homeomorphic to one of the following:

a) a disk D1 ,

b) a disk D1 with k 21 -twisted strips with consecutive attaching arcs, or

c) a disk D1 with k pairs of untwisted strips, each pair in entwining position with the four attaching
arcs from each pair consecutive.

447
Theorem 11.20. Suppose M1 and M2 are compact, triangulated, connected 2-manifolds and M is a con-
nected sum of M1 and M2 (that is, we can select triangulations of M1 and M2 , apply the process above and
arrive at a space homeomorphic to M ). Then M is a compact, connected, triangulable 2-manifold.

448
Exercise 11.21. Suppose M is a compact, connected, triangulated 2-manifold. What is S2 # M ?

449
 n
Exercise 11.22. Sketch # T2 .
i=1

450
Theorem 11.23 (Classification of compact, connected 2-manifolds). Any connected, compact, trian-
gulated 2-manifold is homeomorphic to the 2-sphere S2 , a connected sum of tori, or a connected sum of
projective planes.

451
Exercise 11.24. Identify the following spaces and give justification.
(a) (b) (c)

452
Theorem 11.25. Let P be a polygonal presentation. Then P is a 2-manifold.

453
Theorem 11.26. Suppose M is a compact, connected, triangulable 2-manifold. Then M is homeomorphic
to a polygonal presentation.

454
Theorem 11.27. Let P be a polygonal presentation. Then P is a compact, connected, triangulable 2-
manifold.

455
Theorem 11.28. Let Abb−1 C be a string of 2n letters where each letter occurs twice, neglecting superscripts
(and there is at least one pair other than b and b−1 ). Then the 2-manifold obtained from the word Abb−1 C
is homeomorphic to that obtained from AC.

456
Theorem 11.29. Suppose P is a polygonal presentation not homeomorphic to S2 . Then there is a home-
omorphic polygonal presentation where all the vertices are in the same equivalence class, that is, all the
vertices are identified to each other.

457
Theorem 11.30. Suppose P is a polygonal presentation not homeomorphic to S2 . Then P is homeomorphic
to a polygonal presentation where all the vertices are identified and for every pair of edges with the same
orientation, the two edges of that pair are consecutive.

458
Theorem 11.31. Suppose P is a polygonal presentation not homeomorphic to S2 . Then P is homeomorphic
to a polygonal presentation where all the vertices are identified, every pair of edges with the same orientation
are consecutive, and all other edges are grouped in disjoint sets of two intertwined pairs following the pattern
aba−1 b−1 .

459
Theorem 11.32. If A and C are (possibly empty) words, then the polygonal presentation Aaba−1 b−1 ccC
is homeomorphic to that represented by Addeef f C.

460
Theorem 11.33. Any compact, connected, triangulated 2-manifold M is homeomorphic to the polygonal
presentation given by one of the following words: aa−1 , a1 a1 . . . an an (where n ≥ 1) or a1 a2 a−1 −1 −1 −1
1 a2 . . . an−1 an an−1 an
(where n ≥ 2 is even).

461
Exercise 11.34. Suppose that we have two compact, connected 2-manifolds represented by the words w1
and w2 , respectively. Suppose in addition that w1 and w2 have no letters in common. What can you say
about the 2-manifold corresponding to the concatenated word w1 w2 in terms of the connected sum?

462
Exercise 11.35. Re-state Theorem 11.32 above in the case that A and C are empty, in terms of connected
sum.

463
Theorem 11.36 (Classification of compact, connected 2-manifolds). Any compact, connected, trian-
gulated 2-manifold is homeomorphic to exactly one of the following:

1. S2 ,

2. a connected sum of n tori, and

3. a connected sum of n projective planes.

464
Exercise 11.37. Describe heuristically a strategy by which you would define a consistent clockwise direction
on the standard embedding of the 2-sphere in R3 . What is the relevant property?

465
Exercise 11.38. Show that the induced orientation is well defined; in other words, that it is independent of
the choice of positive equivalence class representative for the original 2-simplex.

466
Theorem 11.39. Show that the following are equivalent for a 2-manifold M .

1. Every triangulation of M is not orientable (that is if KT is a simplicial complex to which M is

homeomorphic, KT is not orientable).

2. M admits a triangulation that is not orientable.

3. M admits a triangulation that contains a collection of simplices whose union is homeomorphic to the
Möbius band.

4. M admits an embedding of a Möbius band.

5. There is a map F : S1 × [0, 1] → M such that F (·, t) is an embedding for each t and such that
F (·, 1) = F (r(·), 0), where r is a reflection map of S1 about some line through its center.

467
Theorem 11.40. Let M1 , . . . , Mn be connected, compact, triangulated 2-manifolds. Let M be a connected
sum of M1 , . . . , Mn . Then M is orientable if and only if Mi is orientable for each i ∈ {1, . . . , n}.

468
Exercise 11.41. State and prove which compact, connected, triangulated 2-manifolds are orientable and
which are not.

469
Exercise 11.42. Calculate the Euler characteristic of the following spaces.

1. S2

2. T2

3. K2

4. RP2

470
Lemma 11.43. Suppose M1 and M2 are compact 2-manifolds. If M1 # M2 is any choice for the connect
sum of M1 and M2 , then χ(M1 # M2 ) = χ(M1 ) + χ(M2 ) − 2.

471
 n
Exercise 11.44. 1. Calculate the Euler characteristic of # RP2 .
i=1
n
2. Calculate the Euler characteristic of # T2 .
i=1

472
Theorem 11.45. The combination of Euler characteristic and orientability is a complete invariant of com-
pact, connected 2-manifolds.

473
Exercise 11.46. Identify the following 2-manifolds as a sphere, a connected sum of n tori (specifying n), or
a connected sum of n projective planes (specifying n).

a. T#RP

b. K#RP

c. RP#T#K#RP

d. K#T#T#RP#K#T

474
Exercise 11.47. Identify the surface obtained by identifying the edges of the decagon as indicated in Figure
11.4.

Figure 11.4: The decagon with edges identified in pairs.

475
Exercise 11.48. Notice that the edge (or boundary) of a Möbius band is a simple close curve. Construct
a space by gluing a disk to the Möbius band along their respective boundaries. Show that this space is
homeomorphic to the projective plane.

476
Chapter 12

Fundamental Group: Capturing Holes

Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Algebra). A polynomial p(z) = an z n +...+a1 z +a0 with complex
coefficients and degree n > 1 has at least one root.

477
Exercise 12.1. A polynomial p(x) = an xn + ... + a1 x + a0 with real coefficients where an 6= 0 and n is
odd has at least one real root.

478
Theorem 12.2. Given topological spaces X and Y with S ⊂ X, homotopy relative to S is an equivalence
relation on the set of all continuous functions from X to Y . In particular, if S = ∅, homotopy is an
equivalence relation on the set of all continuous functions from X to Y .

479
Theorem 12.3. If α, α0 , β, and β 0 are paths in a space X such that α ∼ α0 , β ∼ β 0 , and α(1) = β(0), then
α · β ∼ α0 · β 0 .

480
Theorem 12.4. Given paths α, β, and γ where the following products are defined, then (α·β)·γ ∼ α·(β ·γ)
and ([α] · [β]) · [γ] = [α] · ([β] · [γ]).

481
Theorem 12.5. Let α be a path with α(0) = x0 . Then α · α−1 ∼ ex0 , where ex0 is the constant path at x0 .

482
Theorem 12.6. The fundamental group π1 (X, x0 ) is a group. The identity element is the class of homo-
topically trivial loops based at x0 .

483
Theorem 12.7. If X is path connected, then π1 (X, p) ∼
= π1 (X, q) for any points p, q ∈ X.

484
Corollary 12.8. Suppose X is a topological space and there is a path between points p and q in X. Then
π1 (X, p) is isomorphic to π1 (X, q).

485
Exercise 12.9. Let α be a loop into a topological space X. Then α = β ◦ ω|[0,1] where ω is the standard
wrapping map and β is some continuous function from S1 into X. This relationship gives a correspondence
between loops in X and continuous maps from S1 into X.

486
Theorem 12.10. Let X be a topological space and let p be a point in X. Then a loop α = β ◦ ω|[0,1] (where
ω is the standard wrapping map and β is a continuous function from S1 into X) is homotopically trivial if
and only if β can be extended to a continuous function from the unit disk D2 to X.

487
Theorem 12.11. Show the following (1 denotes the trivial group):

1. π1 ([0, 1]) ∼
= 1.

2. π1 (Rn ) ∼
= 1 for n ≥ 1.

3. π1 (X) ∼
= 1, if X is a convex set in Rn .

4. π1 (X) ∼
= 1, if X is a cone.

5. π1 (X) ∼
= 1 if X is a star-like space in Rn (a subset X of Rn is called star-like if there is a fixed point
x0 ∈ X such that for any y ∈ X, the line segment between x0 and y lies in X; a five pointed ‘star’ is
an example of a star-like space that is not convex).

488
Exercise 12.12. Show the following:

1. π1 (S0 , 1) ∼
= 1 where S0 is the zero-dimensional sphere {−1, 1}, the set of points unit distance from
the origin in R1 .

2. π1 (S2 ) ∼
= 1.

3. π1 (Sn ) ∼
= 1 for n ≥ 3.

489
Exercise 12.13. Show that the cone over the Hawaiian earring is simply connected. Can you generalize
your insight?

490
Theorem 12.14. 1. Any loop α : [0, 1] → S1 with α(0) = 1 can be written α = ω ◦ α
e, where
e : [0, 1] → R1 satisfies α
α e(0) = 0 and ω is the standard wrapping map.

2. If α : [0, 1] → S1 is a loop, then α

e(1) is an integer.

3. Loops α1 and α2 are equivalent in S1 if and only if α

f1 (1) = α
f2 (1).

4. π1 (S1 ) ∼
= Z.

491
Theorem 12.15. Let (X, x0 ), (Y, y0 ) be path connected spaces. Then

π1 (X × Y, (x0 , y0 )) ∼
= π1 (X, x0 ) × π1 (Y, y0 )

via the canonical map that takes a loop γ in X ×Y to (p◦γ, q◦γ) where p : X ×Y → X and q : X ×Y → Y
are the projection maps.

492
Exercise 12.16. Find:

1. π1 (X) where X is a solid torus.

2. π1 (S2 × S1 )

3. π1 (S2 × S2 × S2 )

4. π1 (X), where X is a direct product of kn copies of Sn , with kn = 0 for n sufficiently large.

493
Exercise 12.17. The fundamental group of the torus π1 (T2 ) is Z2 . Moreover, if µ is a meridian and λ is a
longitude, then {[µ], [λ]} is a Z-basis for π1 (T2 ).

494
Exercise 12.18. Check that for a continuous function f : X → Y , the induced homomorphism f∗ is well-
defined (that is, the image of an equivalence class is independent of the chosen representative). Show that it
is indeed a group homomorphism.

495
Theorem 12.19. The following are true:

1. If f : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) and g : (Y, y0 ) → (Z, z0 ) are continuous maps, then (g ◦ f )∗ = g∗ ◦ f∗ .

2. If id : (X, x0 ) → (X, x0 ) is the identity map, then id∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (X, x0 ) is the identity
homomorphism.

496
Theorem 12.20. If h : X → Y is a homeomorphism then

h∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) → π1 (Y, h(x0 ))

is a group isomorphism. Thus homeomorphic path-connected spaces have isomorphic fundamental groups.

497
Theorem 12.21. Fix a torus with chosen meridian µ and longitude λ. Suppose p, q ∈ Z. Then there is a
homeomorphism of the torus to itself which takes a representative of the class q[µ] + p[λ] ∈ π(T2 ) to µ if
and only if p and q are relatively prime.

498
Theorem 12.22. If f, g : (X, x0 ) → (Y, y0 ) are continuous functions and f is homotopic to g relative to
x0 , then f∗ = g∗ .

499
Lemma 12.23. Homotopy equivalence of spaces is an equivalence relation.

500
Theorem 12.24. If f : X → Y is a homotopy equivalence and y0 = f (x0 ), then f∗ : π1 (X, x0 ) →
π1 (Y, y0 ) is an isomorphism. In particular, if X ∼ Y , then π1 (X) ∼
= π1 (Y ).

501
Exercise 12.25. Show that for n ≥ 0, Rn+1 − {0} can be strong deformation retracted onto Sn .

502
Lemma 12.26. If A is a strong deformation retract of X, then A and X are homotopy equivalent.

503
Theorem 12.27. R2 is not homeomorphic to Rn for any n 6= 2.

504
Exercise 12.28. Let x and y be two points in R2 . Show that R2 − {x, y} strong deformation retracts onto
the figure eight. In addition, show that R2 − {x, y} strong deformation retracts onto a theta space.

505
Theorem 12.29. If r : X → A is a strong deformation retraction and a ∈ A, then π1 (X, a) ∼
= π1 (A, a).

506
Exercise 12.30. Calculate the fundamental group of the following spaces.

1. An annulus.

2. A cylinder.

3. The Möbius Band.

4. An open 3-ball with a diameter removed.

507
Exercise 12.31. Find an example of a space X with a subspace A such that if i : A → X is the inclusion
map, i∗ : π1 (A) → π1 (X) is not injective.

508
Theorem 12.32. Let A be a retract of X via the inclusion i : A ,→ X and retraction r : X ,→ A. Then for
a ∈ A, i∗ : π1 (A, a) → π1 (X, a) is injective and r∗ : π1 (X, a) → π1 (A, a) is surjective.

509
Theorem 12.33 (No Retraction Theorem for D2 ). There is no retraction from D2 to its boundary.

510
Theorem 12.34 (Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem for D2 ). Let f : D2 → D2 be a continuous map. Then
there is some x ∈ D2 for which f (x) = x.

511
Lemma 12.35. A space is contractible if and only if it is homotopy equivalent to a point.

512
Theorem 12.36. A contractible space is simply connected.

513
Theorem 12.37. A retract of a contractible space is contractible.

514
Corollary 12.38. The house with two rooms is contractible.

515
Corollary 12.39. The Dunce’s Hat is contractible.

516
Theorem 12.40. Let X = U ∪V , where U and V are open and path connected and U ∩V is path-connected,
simply connected, and non-empty. Then π1 (X) is isomorphic to the free product of π1 (U ) and π1 (V ), that
is, π1 (X) ∼
= π1 (U ) ∗ π1 (V ).

517
Question 12.41. Let X be the bouquet of n circles. What is π1 (X)?

518
Exercise 12.42. Find a path-connected space X with open, path-connected subsets U and V of X such that
X = U ∪ V such that U and V are both simply connected, but X is not simply connected. Conclude that
the hypothesis that U ∩ V is path connected is necessary.

519
Lemma 12.43. Let X = U ∪ V , where U and V are open and U ∩ V is path connected, and let p ∈ U ∩ V .
Then any element of π1 (X, p) has a representative α1 β1 α2 β2 · · · αn βn , where each αi is a loop in U based
at p and each βi is a loop in V based at p.

520
Theorem 12.44. Let X be a wedge of two cones over two Hawaiian earrings, where they are identified at
the points of tangency of the circles of each Hawaiian earring, as in Figure ??. Then π1 (X) ∼
6 1.
=

521
Theorem 12.45. Let X = U ∪ V where U, V are open, path connected, and simply connected and U ∩ V
is nonempty and path connected. Then X is simply connected.

522
Theorem 12.46. Let X = U ∪ V where U, V are open and path connected and U ∩ V is path connected,
x ∈ U ∩ V , and π1 (U, x) ∼
= 1. Let i : U ∩ V → V be the inclusion map. Then

π1 (V, x)
π1 (X, x) ∼
=
N
where N is the smallest normal subgroup of π1 (V, x) containing the subgroup i∗ (π1 (U ∩ V, x)).

523
Theorem 12.47 (Van Kampen’s Theorem). Let X = U ∪ V where U, V are open and path connected
and U ∩ V is path connected and x ∈ U ∩ V . Let i : U ∩ V → U and j : U ∩ V → V be the inclusion
maps. Then
π1 (U, x) ∗ π1 (V, x)
π1 (X, x) ∼
=
N
where N is the smallest normal subgroup containing {i∗ (α)j∗ (α−1 )}α∈π1 (U ∩V,x) (so N contains elements
created by taking a finite sequence of products and conjugates starting with elements of the form i∗ (α)j∗ (α−1 )).

524
Theorem 12.48 (Van Kampen’s Theorem; group presentations version). Let X = U ∪ V where U, V
are open and path connected and U ∩V is path connected and x ∈ U ∩V . Let i : U ∩V → U and j : U ∩V →
V be the inclusion maps. Suppose π1 (U, x) = hg1 , . . . , gn |r1 , . . . , rm i, π1 (V, x) = hh1 , . . . , ht |s1 , . . . , su i
and π1 (U ∩ V, x) = hk1 , . . . , kv |t1 , . . . , tw i then

π1 (X, x) = hg1 , . . . , gn , h1 , . . . , ht | r1 , . . . , rm , s1 , . . . , su ,
i∗ (k1 ) = j∗ (k1 ), . . . , i∗ (kv ) = j∗ (kv )i .

525
Exercise 12.49. Let P be a polygonal representation of a compact, connected 2-manifold such that the all
the vertices of P are identified in the corresponding quotient. Give a presentation for π1 (P ).

526
Exercise 12.50. Give presentations of the fundamental groups for our canonical polygonal presentations of
n n
# T2 and # RP2 .
i=1 i=1

527
Theorem 12.51. Each 2-manifold in the following infinite list is topologically different from all the others
n n
on the list: S2 , # RP2 , and # T2 .
i=1 i=1

528
Theorem 12.52. Suppose G is a finitely presented group. Then there exists a 2-complex (K, T ) such that
π1 (K) ∼
= G.

529
Theorem 12.53. The fundamental group of the Hawaiian earring is not finitely generated. In fact, it is not
countably generated.

530
Lemma 12.54. If p, q ∈ N are relatively prime, the line described in the above process will eventually
intersect the upper-right vertex of the square. Moreover, the line will not intersect itself until it does.

531
Lemma 12.55. Let p and q be relatively prime integers and let ρp,q be the simple closed curve constructed
above. Then there is a homeomorphism of the square (with the standard identifications made for the torus)
that takes ρp,q to our canonical meridian.

532
Theorem 12.56. For p, q ∈ Z relatively prime, the lens space L(p, q) is triangulable.

533
Exercise 12.57. Let p, q ∈ Z be relatively prime. Calculate the fundamental group of the Lens space L(p, q).

534
Lemma 12.58. Every loop in MK is homotopic in MK to a product of ai ’s. In other words, the loops {ai }
generate π1 (MK ).

535
Lemma 12.59. At every crossing, such as that illustrated in Figure ??, the following relation holds:
acb−1 = c or acb−1 c−1 = 1.

536
Theorem 12.60. Let K be a knot in S3 and let {ai } be the set of loops consisting of one loop for each arc in
a knot projection of K as described above. Then π1 (MK ) = {a1 , a2 , . . . , an |ai aj a−1 −1
k aj where there is one
relation of the form ai aj a−1 −1
k aj for each crossing in the knot projection}.

537
 Figure 12.1: The unknot.

Exercise 12.61. Find the fundamental group of the complement of the unknot (See Figure 12.1).

538
Exercise 12.62. Find the fundamental group of the complement of the trefoil knot.

539
Exercise 12.63. Find the fundamental group of the complement of the figure-8 knot, shown in Figure ??.

540
Exercise 12.64. The collection of homotopy classes of continuous maps of the type f : (Dn , ∂Dn ) →
(X, x0 ), with the product defined above, forms a group.

541
Theorem 12.65. Homotopy equivalent spaces have the same homotopy groups.

542
Chapter 13

Covering Spaces: Layering It On

e p) be a covering space of X. If x, y ∈ X, then |p−1 (x)| = |p−1 (y)|.

Theorem 13.1. Let (X,

543
Exercise 13.2.

1. Describe two non-homeomorphic 2-fold covers of the Klein bottle.

2. Describe all non-homeomorphic 2-fold covers of the figure eight.

3. Describe all non-homeomorphic 3-fold covers of the figure eight.

544
Theorem 13.3. Let (R1 , ω) be the standard wrapping map covering of S1 . Then any path f : [0, 1] → S1
has a lift fe : [0, 1] → R1 .

545
Theorem 13.4. If (X, e p) is a cover of X, Y is connected, and fe, ge : Y → X
e are continuous functions such
that p ◦ fe = p ◦ ge, then {y | fe(y) = ge(y)} is empty or all of Y .

546
Theorem 13.5. Let (X, e p) be a cover of X and let f be a path in X. Then for each x0 ∈ X
e such that
p(x0 ) = f (0), there exists a unique lift fe of f satisfying fe(0) = x0 .

547
Exercise 13.6. Let p be a k-fold covering of S1 by itself and α a loop in S1 which when lifted to R1 by the
standard lift satisfies α
e(0) = 0 and α
e(1) = n. What are the conditions on n under which α will lift to a
loop?

548
Theorem 13.7 (Homotopy Lifting Lemma). Let (X, e p) be a cover of X and α, β be two paths in X. If
e, βe are lifts of α, β satisfying α
α e(0) = β(0),
e e ∼ βe if and only if α ∼ β.
then α

549
Theorem 13.8. If (X,e p) is a cover of X, then p∗ is a monomorphism (i.e. an injective homomorphism)
from π1 (X)
e into π1 (X).

550
Theorem 13.9. Let (X, e p) be a cover of X, α a loop in X, and xe0 ∈ X
e such that p(e
x0 ) = α(0). Then α
e0 if and only if [α] ∈ p∗ (π1 (X,
lifts to a loop based at x e xe0 )).

551
Exercise 13.10. Recast a proof of the fact that π1 (S1 ) ∼
= Z using the language of covering spaces.

552
Theorem 13.11. Let (X, e p) be a covering space of X and let x0 ∈ X. Fix x e0 ∈ p−1 (x0 ). Then a subgroup
H of π1 (X, x0 ) is in {p∗ (π1 (X,
e xe))}p(ex)=x if and only if H is a conjugate of p∗ (π1 (X,
0
e xe0 )).

553
Theorem 13.12. Let (X, e p) be a covering space of X. Choose x ∈ X, then |p−1 (x)| = [π1 (X) :
p∗ (π1 (X))],
e where the equation has the obvious interpretation if either side is infinite.

554
Exercise 13.13. Give a covering space of S1 that corresponds to a subgroup of index 3. If p is the covering
map, describe p∗ .

555
Theorem 13.14. Let (X, e0 ∈ X,
e p) be a covering space of X and x e x0 ∈ X with p(e
x0 ) = x0 . Also
let f : Y → X be continuous where Y is connected and locally path connected and y0 ∈ Y such that
f (y0 ) = x0 . Then there is a lift fe : Y → X
e such that p ◦ fe = f and f (y0 ) = x
e0 if and only if
f∗ (π1 (Y, y0 )) ⊆ p∗ (π1 (X,
e xe0 )). Furthermore, fe is unique.

556
Exercise 13.15. Let X = S1 , X e ω) be the covering space of X given by the standard wrapping
e = R, (X,
map, and Y as in Figure ??. When does a map f : Y → X not have a lift? Why is this example here?

557
Exercise 13.16. Show that π2 (T2 ) = 0, i.e., every map of a sphere S2 into T2 is null homotopic.

558
Theorem 13.17. Let (X e1 , p1 ) and (X e1 ∈ X
e2 , p2 ) be covering spaces of X. Let x e1 and xe2 ∈ Xe2 such
that p1 (e x2 ). Then there is a cover isomorphism f : X
x1 ) = p2 (e e1 → X e2 with f (e e2 if and only if
x1 ) = x
p∗ (π1 (X
e1 , x
e1 )) = p∗ (π1 (X
e2 , x
e2 )).

559
 Figure 13.1: A covering of the figure eight.

Exercise 13.18. What is C(X,

e p) for the covering space of the figure eight shown in Figure 13.1?

560
 e p) is a covering space of X and f ∈ C(X,
Theorem 13.19. If (X, e p), then f = Id e if and only if f has a
X
fixed point.

561
Exercise 13.20. Consider the second three-fold covering space of the figure eight discussed in Exercise
13.18. Find an element of p∗ (π1 (X))
e which, when conjugated, is not in p∗ (π1 (X)).
e Conclude that the
covering space is not regular.

562
Theorem 13.21. If (X, e p) is a regular covering space of X and x1 , x2 ∈ X
e such that p(x1 ) = p(x2 ), then
there exists a unique h ∈ C(X,e p) such that h(x1 ) = x2 .

563
Exercise 13.22. Do such covering transformations necessarily exist in irregular covering spaces?

564
Theorem 13.23. A covering space is regular if and only if for every loop in the base space either all its lifts
are loops or all its lifts are paths that are not loops.

565
 e → X and generators e1 , . . . , en of π1 (X) such that each ei
Exercise 13.24. Find a covering space p : X
satisfies the criteria of the previous theorem but the cover is not regular.

566
Exercise 13.25.

1. Describe all regular 3-fold covering spaces of the figure eight.

2. Describe all irregular 3-fold covering spaces of the figure eight.

3. Describe all regular 3-fold covering spaces of the bouquet of 3 circles.

567
Theorem 13.26. Let (X, e p) ∼
e p) be a regular covering space of X. Then C(X, = π1 (X)/p∗ (π1 (X)).
e In
e p) ∼
particular, C(X, = π1 (X) if X
e is simply connected.

568
Exercise 13.27. Observe that the standard wrapping map is a regular covering map of S1 by R1 . Describe
the covering transformations for this covering space. Describe the covering map that maps R2 to the torus
T2 and describe the covering transformations for this covering space.

569
Theorem 13.28 (Existence of covering spaces). Let X be connected, locally path connected, and semi-
locally simply connected. Then for every G < π1 (X, x0 ) there is a covering space (X, e0 ∈ X
e p) of X and x e
such that p∗ (π1 (X,
e xe0 )) = G. Furthermore, (X,
e p) is unique up to isomorphism.

570
Corollary 13.29. Let X be connected, locally path connected, and semi-locally simply connected. Then
there is a one-to-one correspondence between the subgroups of π1 (X) and the collection of isomorphism
classes of covering spaces of X where the covering space p : X̃ → X corresponds to p∗ (π1 (X)).
e

571
Corollary 13.30. Every connected, locally path connected, semi-locally simply connected space admits a
unique universal covering space.

572
Exercise 13.31. Find a universal cover X e for each of the Klein bottle, the torus, and the projective plane.
e p) ∼
In each case, show explicitly that C(X, = π1 (X).

573
Theorem 13.32. A finite tree is contractible.

574
Theorem 13.33. Let G be a finite graph, and T be a maximal tree in G. Then if {e1 , . . . en } is the set of
edges that are not in T , π1 (G) = Fn , the free group on n generators; and there is a system of generators
that are in one-to-one correspondence with the edges {e1 , . . . en }.

575
Lemma 13.34. Let X be the bouquet of n circles. Every finite cover of X is homeomorphic to a finite graph.

576
Theorem 13.35. Let Fn be the free group on n letters. Then every subgroup of Fn of finite index is
isomorphic to a free group on finitely many letters.

577
Lemma 13.36. Suppose that G is a graph and that K ⊂ G is compact. Then K is contained in a finite
subgraph of G.

578
Theorem 13.37. Every tree is simply connected.

579
Theorem 13.38. Let G be a graph, then π1 (G) is free.

580
Exercise 13.39. Show that the free group of rank 2 has finite index subgroups that are isomorphic to free
groups of arbitrarily large rank.

581
Lemma 13.40. Let X be the bouquet of n circles. Then every cover of X is homeomorphic to a graph.

582
Corollary 13.41 (Nielsen-Schreier Theorem). Let Fn be the free group on n letters. A subgroup of Fn is
always free.

583
Exercise 13.42. Describe a regular k-fold cover X
e of a bouquet of n-circles. What (in terms of k and n) is
the rank of the free group π1 (X)?
e What does this insight tell us about the normal subgroups of finite index
of the free group on n letters?

584
Exercise 13.43.

1. Let F be a free group on n letters. Let G < F be of finite index k and contain 7 free generators. What
can the value of n be?

2. Let F be a free group on n letters. Let G < F be of finite index k and contain 4 free generators. What
can the value of n be?

3. Let F be a free group on n letters. Let G < F be of finite index k and contain 24 free generators.
What can the value of n be?

585
Theorem 13.44. Let F be a 2-manifold and (Fe, p) be a covering space of F . Then Fe is a 2-manifold.

586
Theorem 13.45. Let F be a compact connected surface and pn : Fe → F be an n-fold covering of F (for
n < ∞). Then Fe is a compact surface and χ(Fe) = nχ(F ). Moreover, if F is orientable, then Fe is as well.

587
Exercise 13.46.

1. Describe all non-homeomorphic 3-fold covers of the Klein bottle.

2. Describe all non-homeomorphic 2-fold covers of T2 # T2 .

3. Describe all non-homeomorphic 3-fold covers of T2 # T2 # T2 .

4. Describe all non-homeomorphic 3-fold covers of RP2 .

588
Exercise 13.47. Given a compact, connected 2-manifold and a natural number n, describe all non-homeomorphic
n-fold covers of that surface.

589
590
Chapter 14

Manifolds, Simplexes, Complexes, and

Triangulability: Building Blocks

Exercise 14.1. Show that the standard n-ball and the standard n-cube are homeomorphic spaces and each
is compact and connected.

591
Exercise 14.2. Show that for n ≥ 1, the n-sphere is compact and connected.

592
Exercise 14.3. Consider S0 , S1 , and S2 . Is any pair of them homeomorphic? If not, are there properties that
allow you to distinguish them?

593
Theorem 14.4. For a separable, metric space M n , the following are equivalent:

1. M n is an n-manifold;

2. for each point p ∈ M n , p has a neighborhood base of open sets each homeomorphic to the interior of
an n-ball;

3. for every point p ∈ M n , p ∈ U where U is an open set homeomorphic to Rn .

594
Exercise 14.5. If you are comfortable with ordinal numbers, construct a topological space where every point
has an open set containing it that is homeomorphic to R1 , and yet the space is not metrizable. You might
call your space the long line.

595
Exercise 14.6. Show that a locally Euclidean space is Hausdorff and second countable if and only if it is
separable and metrizable.

596
Exercise 14.7. Show that Sn is an n-manifold.

597
Theorem 14.8. If M is an n-manifold and U is an open subset of M , then U is also an n-manifold.

598
Theorem 14.9. If M is an m-manifold and N is an n-manifold, then M × N is an (m + n)-manifold.

599
Theorem 14.10. Let M n be an n-dimensional manifold with boundary. Then ∂M n is an (n − 1)-manifold.

600
Exercise 14.11. Show that if σ is a simplex and τ is one of its faces, then τ ⊂ σ.

601
Exercise 14.12. Show that an n-simplex is homeomorphic to a closed n-dimensional ball.

602
Exercise 14.13. Exhibit a collection of simplices that satisfies condition (1) but not (2) in the definition of
a simplicial complex.

603
Exercise 14.14. Let K be the simplicial complex in R2 :

K = {σ, e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 , e5 , v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 }

where σ = {(0, 0)(0, 1)(1, 0)}, e1 = {(0, 0)(0, −1)}, e2 = {(0, −1)(1, 0)}, e3 = {(0, 0)(0, 1)}, e4 =
{(0, 1)(1, 0)}, e5 = {(1, 0)(0, 0)}, v1 = {(0, 0)}, v2 = {(0, 1)}, v3 = {(1, 0)}, and v4 = {(0, −1)}. Draw
K and its underlying space.

604
Exercise 14.15. Show that the space shown in Figure ?? is triangulable by exhibiting a simplicial complex
whose underlying space it is homeomorphic to.

605
Exercise 14.16. For each n, Sn is triangulable.

606
Theorem 14.17. A simplicial map from K to L is determined by the images of the vertices of K.

607
Theorem 14.18. A composition of simplicial maps is a simplicial map.

608
Theorem 14.19. If two complexes are simplicially homeomorphic, then there are 1-1 correspondences be-
tween their k-simplices for each k ≥ 0.

609
Theorem 14.20. A simplicial map f : K → L is continuous as a map on the underlying spaces. In
particular, simplicially homeomorphic complexes have homeomorphic underlying spaces.

610
Theorem 14.21. A composition of PL maps is PL. A PL homeomorphism is an equivalence relation.

611
Theorem 14.22. PL homeomorphic complexes are homeomorphic as topological spaces.

612
Exercise 14.23. Let K is a complex consisting of the boundary of a triangle (three vertices and three edges)
and L be an isomorphic complex. Both |K| are |L| are topologically circles. There is a continuous map that
takes the circle |K| and winds it twice around the circle |L|; however, show that there is no simplicial map
from K to L that winds the circle |K| twice around the circle |L|.

613
Exercise 14.24. How many n-simplices are there in the first barycentric subdivision of an n-simplex?

614
Exercise 14.25. Convince yourself that the barycentric subdivision of a complex K is, in fact, a subdivision
of K.

615
Theorem 14.26. Let K be a finite simplicial complex and let an be the maximum among the diameters of
simplices in sdn K. Then limn→∞ an = 0.

616
Exercise 14.27. The star of a vertex v in a complex K is an open set of |K|, and the collection of all vertex
stars covers |K|.

617
Exercise 14.28. If the simplex σ = {v0 , . . . , vk } in K is the minimal face of a point x ∈ |K|, then
x ∈ St(v0 ) ∩ · · · ∩ St(vk ).

618
Theorem 14.29. Suppose K and L are simplicial complexes. Then a continuous function f : |K| → |L|
satisfies the star condition with respect to K and L if and only if f has a simplicial approximation g : K →
L.

619
Theorem 14.30. If g, g 0 : K → L are both simplicial approximations to a continuous function f : |K| →
|L|, then for any point x ∈ |K|, if σ is the minimal face of x in K, the point f (x) and the simplices g(σ)
and g 0 (σ) all lie in a single simplex of L.

620
Theorem 14.31. Let K and L be simplicial complexes. If f : |K| → |L| has a simplicial approximation
g : K → L, then f is homotopic to g : |K| → |L|.

621
Theorem 14.32. Suppose K and L are finite simplicial complexes and f : |K| → |L| is a continuous
function between their underlying spaces. Then there exists m ≥ 1 such that the function f : | sdm K| →
|L| satisfies the star condition with respect to sdm K and L.

622
Theorem 14.33. Suppose K and L are simplicial complexes and f : |K| → |L| is a continuous function
between their underlying spaces. Then there exists m ≥ 1 such that f has a simplicial approximation
g : sdm K → L.

623
Theorem 14.34 (Simplicial Approximation Theorem). Let K and L be simplicial complexes, let f :
|K| → |L| be a continuous function between their underlying spaces, and let  > 0. Then there exist
m, n ≥ 1 and a simplicial map g : sdn K → sdm L such that f is homotopic to g and for every x ∈ |K|,
d(f (x), g(x)) < .

624
Theorem 14.35. Let K be a subdivision of a 1-simplex σ. Label every vertex of K with a 0 or a 1 such that
one of the two vertices of σ is labeled with a 0 and the other is labeled with a 1. Then there is a 1-simplex τ
in K such that one vertex of τ is labeled 0 and the other vertex of τ is labeled 1.

625
Theorem 14.36. Let K be a subdivision of a 2-simplex σ. Label every vertex of K with 0, 1, or 2 such that
the three vertices of σ are labeled with different numbers. Then there is a 2-simplex τ in K such that its
vertices are labeled with all different numbers.

626
Theorem 14.37 (Sperner’s Lemma). Let K be a subdivision of a n-simplex σ. Label every vertex of K
with one of {0, 1, . . . , n} such that the (n + 1) vertices of σ are labeled with different numbers. Then there
is an n-simplex τ in K such that its vertices are labeled with all different numbers.

627
Theorem 14.38. Let σ be an n-simplex with boundary ∂σ. There does not exist a continuous function
r : σ → ∂σ such that for every x ∈ ∂σ, r(x) = x.

628
Theorem 14.39 (n-dimensional Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem). Let σ n be an n-simplex. For every
continuous function f : σ n → σ n there exists a point x ∈ σ n such that f (x) = x.

629
Theorem 14.40. Let h : S1 → R2 be an embedding that is a polygon, that is, h(S1 ) consists of a finite
number of straight line intervals. Then h(S1 ) separates R2 into two components and each point of h(S1 ) is
a limit point of each component.

630
Theorem 14.41. Let h : S1 → R2 be an embedding that is a polygon, that is, h(S1 ) consists of a finite
number of straight line intervals. Then there is a homeomorphism H : R2 → R2 such that H(h(S 1 )) is the
unit circle.

631
Theorem 14.42. Let A and B be disjoint closed subsets of [0, 1] × [0, 1] such that A ∩ ([0, 1] × {0, 1} ∪
{1} × [0, 1]) = ∅ and B ∩ ([0, 1] × {0, 1} ∪ {0} × [0, 1]) = ∅. Then there exists a path in [0, 1] × [0, 1]
from (1/2, 0) to (1/2, 1) that misses A ∪ B.

632
Theorem 14.43. Suppose h : [0, 1] → R2 is an embedding and suppose p and q are points in R2 not
contained in h([0, 1]). Then there exists a path f : [0, 1] → R2 such that f (0) = p, f (1) = q, and
f ([0, 1]) ∩ h([0, 1]) = ∅.

633
Theorem 14.44. Suppose g, h : [0, 1] → R2 are embeddings such that g([0, 1]) is a straight line segment,
g(0) = h(0), g(1) = h(1), and g((0, 1)) ∩ h((0, 1)) = ∅. Then g([0, 1]) ∪ h([0, 1]) separates R2 into two
components and each point of g([0, 1]) ∪ h([0, 1]) is a limit point of each component.

634
Theorem 14.45. Let h : S1 → R2 be an embedding. Then h(S1 ) separates R2 into two components and
each point of h(S1 ) is a limit point of each component.

635
Exercise 14.46. 1. Let C0 be a disk with two holes. Construct a subset C1 of C0 such that C1 is also
homeomorphic to a disk with two holes, and for which each point x ∈ C1 is within distance 1 of points
in each of the three components of R2 − C1 .

2. Construct a continuum C ⊂ R2 such that R2 − C has three components and each point x ∈ C is a
limit point of each component of R2 − C.

3. Construct a continuum C ⊂ R2 such that R2 − C has infinitely many components and each point
x ∈ C is a limit point of each component of R2 − C.

636
Theorem 14.47. Let h : S1 → R2 be an embedding. Let p be a point in the bounded component of
R2 − h(S1 ) and let  > 0. Then there exists an embedding g : S1 → R2 such that g(S1 ) is a polygonal
simple closed curve in the bounded component of R2 − h(S1 ), g(S1 ) lies in the -neighborhood of h(S1 ), and
p is in the bounded component of R2 − g(S1 ).

637
Theorem 14.48. Let h : S1 → R2 be an embedding. Let  > 0 and let A be an arc on S1 with endpoints
a and b such that the diameter of h(A) is less than  and let p be a point in the bounded component of
R2 − h(S1 ). Then there exists an embedding g : S1 → R2 such that g(S1 ) is a polygonal simple closed
curve in the bounded component of R2 − h(S1 ), p is in the bounded component of R2 − g(S1 ), and for every
x ∈ A, d(g(x), h(x)) < .

638
Theorem 14.49. Let h : S1 → R2 be an embedding, let U be the bounded component of R2 − h(S1 ), and
let D be the closed unit ball in R2 . Then there is a homeomorphism H : (U ∪ h(S1 ) → D.

639
Theorem 14.50. Let h : S1 → R2 be an embedding. Then there is a homeomorphism H : R2 → R2 such
that H(h(S1 )) is the unit circle.

640
Theorem 14.51. Let h : [0, 1] → R2 be an embedding of [0, 1] in the plane and let  > 0. Then there
exists an embedding g : [0, 1] → R2 such that h(0) = g(0), h(1) = g(1), and for every x ∈ [0, 1],
d(h(x), g(x)) < .

641
Theorem 14.52. Let f, g : [0, 1] → R2 be two embeddings of [0, 1] in the plane such that f (0) = g(0)
and f (1) = g(1). Let  > 0. Suppose for every x ∈ [0, 1], d(f (x), g(x)) < . Then there exists a
homeomorphism h : R2 → R2 such that for every t ∈ [0, 1], h(f (t)) = g(t) and for every x ∈ R2 ,
d(x, h(x)) < .

642
Theorem 14.53. Every compact 2-manifold is triangulable, that is, it is homeomorphic to a subset C of Rn
consisting of a finite collection T = {σi }ki=1 of (rectilinear) 2-simplices where each pair of 2-simplices are
disjoint or they meet in one vertex of each or they share a single edge. Since the space C is homeomorphic to
a 2-manifold, each edge of each 2-simplex making up C is shared by exactly two triangles, and around each
vertex is a circle of triangles whose union is a disk.

643
Theorem 14.54. Every 2-manifold is triangulable.

644
Lemma 14.55. Let M1 and M2 be two rectilinearly triangulated 2-manifolds in Rn . Let h : M1 → M2 be
a topological homeomorphism. Then there exists a homeomorphism g : M1 → M2 such that the image of
every edge in the triangulation of M1 is a polyhedral arc in M2 .

645
Theorem 14.56. Let M1 and M2 be two rectilinearly triangulated 2-manifolds in Rn . Let h : M1 → M2
be a topological homeomorphism. Then there exists a homeomorphism g : M1 → M2 such that the image of
every triangle in a triangulation of M1 is a rectilinear triangle in M2 .

646
Theorem 14.57. Any two triangulations of a compact 2-manifold are equivalent.

647
Theorem 14.58. The Euler characteristic is well-defined for compact 2-manifolds.

648
Theorem 14.59. Orientability is well-defined for compact 2-manifolds.

649
650
Chapter 15

Simplicial Z2-Homology: Physical

Algebra

Exercise 15.1. Check that Cn (K) is an abelian group.

651
Exercise 15.2. Verify that ∂ is a homomorphism, and use the definition to compute the Z2 -boundary of
σ1 + σ2 in Figure ??.

652
Exercise 15.3. Explore:

1. Which 2-chains of Figure ?? are cycles?

2. Which 1-chains of Figure ?? are cycles?

3. Which 1-chains of Figure ?? are boundaries?

4. Which 0-chains of Figure ?? are cycles?

5. Which 0-chains of Figure ?? are boundaries?

653
Theorem 15.4. Both Zn (K) and Bn (K) are subgroups of Cn (K). Moreover,

∂ ◦ ∂ = 0,

in other words, ∂n ◦ ∂n+1 = 0 for each index n ≥ 0. Hence, Bn (K) ⊂ Zn (K).

654
Exercise 15.5. List all the equivalence classes of 0-cycles, 1-cycles and 2-cycles in the complex in Figure ??.

655
Exercise 15.6. List all the equivalence classes of 0-cycles, 1-cycles and 2-cycles in a triangulated 2-sphere
with its standard triangulation as the faces of a 3-simplex.

656
Theorem 15.7. If K is a one-point space, Hn (K) ∼
= 0 for n ≥ 0 and H0 (K) ∼
= Z.

657
Theorem 15.8. If K is connected, then H0 (K) is isomorphic to Z2 . If K has r connected components, then
H0 (K) is isomorphic to Zr2 .

658
Exercise 15.9. Let K be a triangulation of a 3-dimensional ball that consists of a 3-simplex together with
its faces. Compute Hn (K) for each n.

659
Exercise 15.10. Let K be a triangulation of a 2-sphere that consists of the proper faces of a 3-simplex.
Compute Hn (K) for each n.

660
Theorem 15.11. For x seeing K, and σ a simplex of K,

∂ Conex (σ) + Conex (∂σ) = σ.

661
Corollary 15.12. For any complex K and x seeing K, the complex x ∗ K is acyclic.

662
Theorem 15.13. The complex K consisting of an n-simplex together with all its faces is acyclic.

663
Exercise 15.14. Let f : K → L be a simplicial map. Carefully write out the definition of the natural
induced map from n-chains of K to n-chains of L: f#n : Cn (K) → Cn (L) and show that it is a homomor-
phism.

664
Exercise 15.15. If the simplicial map f : K → L maps an n-simplex σ to an (n − 1)-simplex τ , what is
f#n (σ)?

665
Theorem 15.16. Let f : K → L be a simplicial map, and let f# be the induced map f# : Cn (K) → Cn (L).
Then for any chain c ∈ Cn (K),
∂(f# (c)) = f# (∂(c)).

In other words, the diagram:

f#
Cn (K) −−−−→ Cn (L)
 
 
∂y y∂
f#
Cn−1 (K) −−−−→ Cn−1 (L)
commutes.

666
Theorem 15.17. Let f : K → L be a simplicial map. Then the induced homomorphism f∗ : Hn (K) →
Hn (L) is a well-defined homomorphism.

667
Exercise 15.18. Let K be a complex comprising the proper faces of a hexagon: six edges and six vertices
v0 , . . . , v5 . Let L be the complex comprising the proper faces of a triangle: three edges and three vertices
w0 , w1 , w2 . Let f be a simplicial map that sends vi to w(i mod 3) . Compute the homology groups of K and
L and describe the simplicial map f and the induced homomorphism f∗ .

668
Exercise 15.19. Suggest a homomorphism from Cn (K) to Cn (sd K) that commutes with ∂. Could its
induced homomorphism on homology be an inverse for λ∗ ?

669
Theorem 15.20. The subdivision operator commutes with the boundary operator, that is, if c is a chain in
K, then SD(∂c) = ∂ SD(c).

670
Exercise 15.21. Show that λ# ◦ SD = id, the identity map on Cn (K), and therefore λ∗ ◦ SD∗ = id∗ , the
identity map on Hn (K).

671
Exercise 15.22. Show that SD ◦λ# and id, the identity map on Cn (sd K), induce the same homomorphism
on homology.

672
Exercise 15.23. If σ ∈ sd K is contained in τ ∈ K, then SD ◦λ# (σ) and id(σ) both lie inside τ .

673
Theorem 15.24. Let K be a simplicial complex. Then Hn (K) is isomorphic to Hn (sd K). In fact, if the
simplicial map λ : sd K → K is defined by taking each vertex in sd K to any vertex of the simplex in K of
which it is the barycenter, then
λ∗ : Hn (K) → Hn (sd K)

is an isomorphism. Also, the induced homomorphism of the subdivision operator

SD∗ : Hn (K) → Hn (sd K)

is an isomorphism and is the inverse of λ∗ .

674
Theorem 15.25. Let sd` K and sdm K be barycentric subdivisions of K. Suppose g : sd` K → L and
h : sdm K → L are simplicial approximations to a continuous function f : |K| → |L|. Then g∗ ◦ SD`∗ :
Hn (K) → Hn (L) is the same homomorphism as h∗ ◦ SDm
∗ .

675
Lemma 15.26. If K, L, and M are simplicial complexes and f : |K| → |L| and g : |L| → |M | are
continuous maps, then (g ◦ f )∗ = g∗ ◦ f∗ .

676
Lemma 15.27. If i : |K| → |K| is the identity map, then i∗ is the identity homomorphism on each
homology group.

677
Theorem 15.28. Let K and L be simplicial complexes. If f : |K| → |L| is a homeomorphism, then f
induces an isomorphism between the Z2 -homology groups of K and L.

678
Theorem 15.29. Let K and L be simplicial complexes. If f : |K| → |L| is a homotopy equivalence, then f
induces an isomorphism between the Z2 -homology groups of K and L.

679
Corollary 15.30. If K is a strong deformation retract of L. Then K and L have isomorphic Z2 -homologies.

680
Exercise 15.31. If K is a finite simplicial complex, verify that the intersection of two subcomplexes of K is
a subcomplex.

681
Exercise 15.32. Note that a cycle in A ∩ B is still a cycle in A, B, and K. Then answer:

1. Can a trivial cycle in A ∩ B be non-trivial in A?

2. Can a non-trivial cycle in A ∩ B be trivial in A?

3. Can a non-trivial cycle in A ∩ B that’s also non-trivial in A and in B be trivial in K?

682
Theorem 15.33. Let K be a finite simplicial complex and A and B be subcomplexes such that K = A ∪ B.
If α, β are k-cycles in A and B respectively, and if α ∼Z2 β in K, then there is a k-cycle c in A ∩ B such
that α ∼Z2 c in A and β ∼Z2 c in B.

683
Theorem 15.34. Let K be a finite simplicial complex and A and B be subcomplexes such that K = A ∪ B.
Let z be a k-cycle in K. Then there exist k-chains α and β in A and B respectively such that:

1. z = α + β and

2. ∂α = ∂β is a (n − 1)-cycle c in A ∩ B.

Furthermore, if z = α0 + β 0 , a sum of n-chains in A and B respectively, and c0 = ∂α0 = ∂β 0 is a

(n − 1)-cycle, then c0 is homologous to c in A ∩ B.

684
Exercise 15.35. Let K be a simplicial complex and A and B be subcomplexes such that K = A ∪ B.
Construct natural homomorphisms φ, ψ, δ among the groups below and show that ψ ◦ φ = 0 and δ ◦ ψ = 0.

1. φ : Hn (A ∩ B) → Hn (A) ⊕ Hn (B).

2. ψ : Hn (A) ⊕ Hn (B) → Hn (K).

3. δ : Hn (K) → Hn−1 (A ∩ B).

685
Theorem 15.36 (Z2 Mayer-Vietoris). Let K be a finite simplicial complex and A and B be subcomplexes
such that K = A ∪ B. The sequence

· · · → Hn (A ∩ B) → Hn (A) ⊕ Hn (B) → Hn (K) → Hn−1 (A ∩ B) → . . .

using the homomorphisms φ, ψ, δ above, is exact.

686
Exercise 15.37. Let C, D, E be groups, and arrows represent homomorphisms below.
φ
1. 0 → C → D is exact at C if and only if φ is one-to-one.
ψ
2. D → E → 0 is exact at E if and only if ψ is onto.
φ
3. 0 → C → D → 0 is exact if and only if φ is an isomorphism.

687
Exercise 15.38. Compute the Z2 -homology groups for each complex K below.

1. The bouquet of k circles (the union of k circles identified at a point).

2. A wedge of a 2-sphere and a circle (the two spaces are glued at one point).

3. A 2-sphere union its equatorial disk.

4. A double solid torus.

688
Exercise 15.39. Compute the Z2 -homology groups of a torus using Mayer-Vietoris in two different ways
(with two different decompositions).

689
Exercise 15.40. Use the Mayer-Vietoris Theorem to compute Hn (M ) for every compact, triangulated
2-manifold M . What compact, triangulated 2-manifolds are not distinguished from one another by Z2 -
homology? What does H2 (M ) tell you?

690
Exercise 15.41. Let p, q ∈ Z be relatively prime. Calculate Hn (L(p, q)), the homology of the lens space
L(p, q).

691
Exercise 15.42. Use the Mayer-Vietoris Theorem to compute Hn (K) for the complexes K pictured in
Figure 15.1.

Figure 15.1: Two interesting spaces.

692
Exercise 15.43. Use the Mayer-Vietoris Theorem to find the Z2 -homology groups for each of the following
spaces.

1. Sn .

2. A cone over a finite simplicial complex K.

3. A suspension over a finite simplicial complex K (that is, the finite simplicial complex created by
gluing two cones over K along K).

4. RPn (which is Sn with antipodal points identified).

693
Theorem 15.44. Let K be a simplicial complex where T = {σi }ki=1 . Then
k
G
K= Int(σi ),
i=1

where t denotes disjoint union.

694
Exercise 15.45. Let K be a 3-simplex with triangulation shown (a tetrahedron). Find an open cell de-
composition of K with one vertex, one open 2-cell, and one open 3-cell. This example shows that it is not
necessary to have every dimension less then the dimension of K represented.

695
Theorem 15.46. Both Zcn (K c ) and Bcn (K c ) are subgroups of Ccn (K c ). Moreover, Bcn (K c ) ⊂ Zcn (K c ).

696
Theorem 15.47. Let K c be an open cell decomposition of the finite simplicial complex K. Then for each n,
the obvious homomorphism Hcn (K c ) → Hn (K) is an isomorphism.

697
Exercise 15.48. For each space below, describe a triangulation K and an open cell decomposition K c . Then
use cellular homology to compute Hn (K) for each n:

1. The sphere.

2. The torus.

3. The projective plane.

4. The Klein bottle.

5. The double torus.

6. Any compact, connected, triangulated 2-manifold.

7. The Möbius band.

8. The annulus.

9. Two (hollow) triangles joined at a vertex.

698
Exercise 15.49. What is Hn (Sk ) for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . and k = 0, 1, 2, . . .?

699
Exercise 15.50. What is Hn (T) for n = 0, 1, 2, . . . for a solid torus T?

700
Chapter 16

Applications of Z2-Homology: A
Topological Superhero

Theorem 16.1 (No Retraction Theorem). Let M n be a connected triangulated n-manifold with ∂M n 6=
∅. Then there is no retraction r : M n → ∂M n , i.e., no continuous function r : M n → ∂M n such that for
each x ∈ ∂M n , r(x) = x.

701
Theorem 16.2 (n-dimensional Brouwer Fixed Point Theorem). Let B n be the n-dimensional ball. For
every continuous function f : B n → B n there exists a point x ∈ B n such that f (x) = x.

702
Lemma 16.3. Let M n be a triangulated, connected n-manifold. Let f : M n → M n be a simplicial map.
Then f∗ : Hn (M n ) → Hn (M n ) is surjective if and only if f# (M n ) = M n .

703
Theorem 16.4. Let f : S1 → S1 be an antipode preserving continuous map (that is, for every x ∈ S1 ,
f (−x) = −f (x). Then f∗ : H1 (S1 ) → H1 (S1 ) is surjective.

704
Theorem 16.5 (Borsuk-Ulam Theorem for S2 ). Let f : S2 → R2 be a continuous map. Then there exists
an x ∈ S2 such that f (−x) = f (x).

705
Theorem 16.6. Let f : Sn → Sn be an antipode preserving map (that is, for every x ∈ Sn , f (−x) =
−f (x)). Then f∗ : Hn (Sn ) → Hn (Sn ) is surjective.

706
Theorem 16.7 (Borsuk-Ulam). Let f : Sn → Rn be a continuous function. Then there is an x ∈ Sn such
that f (−x) = f (x).

707
Theorem 16.8 (Ham Sandwich Theorem). Let A1 , A2 , ..., An be measurable sets of finite measure in Rn .
Then there exists an (n − 1)-dimensional hyperplane H in Rn that simultaneously cuts each Ai in half.

708
Exercise 16.9. Draw a sequence of pictures to demonstrate a sequence of elastic moves with no tricks, no
cutting, and no gluing that takes the left hand picture of Figure ?? and turns it into the right hand picture.

709
Theorem 16.10. If m 6= n then Rm is not homeomorphic to Rn .

710
Theorem 16.11 (Invariance of Domain or Invariance of Dimension). A space cannot be both an n-
manifold and an m-manifold if n 6= m.

711
Exercise 16.12. Describe a continuous function from [0, 1] to [0, 1] that is nowhere differentiable.

712
Theorem 16.13. Let B be the set of all nowhere differentiable continuous functions from [0, 1] to [0, 1].
Then B is the intersection of countably many dense open sets in C.

713
Exercise 16.14. Describe an embedding of [0, 1] into the plane that has infinite length. In fact, you might
choose the graph of a differentiable function.

714
Exercise 16.15. Describe an embedding of [0, 1] into the unit square and two points x and y in the unit
square not on the embedded arc such that to connect x to y by a polygonal path missing the embedded arc
requires a polygonal path of length at least a mile.

715
Lemma 16.16. Let h : [0, 1] → R2 be an embedding and let p and q be points in R2 − h([0, 1]). If p and q
are connected in R2 − h([0, 12 ]) and p and q are connected in R2 − h([ 12 , 1]), then p and q are connected in
R2 − h([0, 1]).

716
Theorem 16.17. Let h : [0, 1] → R2 be an embedding. Then h([0, 1]) does not separate R2 .

717
Lemma 16.18. For any natural number n, let h : [0, 1] → Rn be an embedding and let p and q be points
in Rn − h([0, 1]). If p and q are connected in Rn − h([0, 12 ]) and p and q are connected in Rn − h([ 21 , 1]),
then p and q are connected in Rn − h([0, 1]).

718
Theorem 16.19. For any natural number n, let h : [0, 1] → Rn be an embedding. Then h([0, 1]) does not
separate Rn .

719
Lemma 16.20. For any natural number n, let h : [0, 1] → Rn be an embedding and let Z be a Z2 1-cycle
in Rn − h([0, 1]). If Z bounds a 2-chain in Rn − h([0, 21 ]) and Z bounds a 2-chain in Rn − h([ 12 , 1]), then
Z bounds a 2-chain in Rn − h([0, 1]).

720
Theorem 16.21. For any natural number n, let h : [0, 1] → Rn be an embedding and let Z be a Z2 1-cycle
in Rn − h([0, 1]). Then Z bounds a 2-chain in Rn − h([0, 1]).

721
Theorem 16.22. For any natural numbers n and k with k < n, let h : [0, 1] → Sn be an embedding and
let Z be a Z2 k-cycle in Sn − h([0, 1]). Then Z bounds a (k + 1)-chain in Sn − h([0, 1]).

722
Theorem 16.23 (Jordan-Brouwer Separation Theorem). Let h : Sn−1 → Sn be a topological embedding.
Then h(Sn−1 ) separates Sn into precisely two components and is the boundary of each.

723
Theorem 16.24 (Two Chains Theorem). Let f : Sn−1 → Sn be a simplicial map. Then there exist Z2
n-chains An and C n such that ∂(An ) = ∂(C n ) = f# (Sn−1 ) and An ∪ C n = Sn .

724
Theorem 16.25 (Absolute Neighborhood Retract Theorem). For every k, Sk is an absolute neighbor-
hood retract.

725
Theorem 16.26. Let h : Sn−1 → Sn be a topological embedding and let U be a neighborhood of h : Sn−1
that retracts to it. Then U 6= Sn .

726
Corollary 16.27. Let h : Sn−1 → Sn be a topological embedding and let U be a neighborhood of h : Sn−1
with retraction r : U → h(Sn−1 ). Then there exists an open set V ⊂ U such that for every point v ∈ V ,
the straight line between v and r(v) is contained in U .

727
Lemma 16.28. Let h : Sn−1 → Sn be a topological embedding. Then there exists an  > 0 such that if
f : Sn−1 → Sn is a simplicial map such that d(f (x), h(x)) <  for all x ∈ Sn−1 , then f# (Sn−1 ) does not
bound an n-chain in the -neighborhood of h(Sn−1 ).

728
Lemma 16.29. Let h : Sn−1 → Sn be a topological embedding and let  > 0. Then there exists a δ > 0
such that if f, g : Sn−1 → Sn are simplicial maps such that d(f (x), h(x)) < δ and d(g(x), h(x)) < δ for
all x ∈ Sn−1 , then f# (Sn−1 ) and g# (Sn−1 ) bound an n-chain in the -neighborhood of h(Sn−1 ).

729
Lemma 16.30. Let h : Sn−1 → Sn be a topological embedding, U be a neighborhood that retracts to
h(Sn−1 ), let f : Sn−1 → Sn be a simplicial map such that for each point x ∈ Sn−1 , the straight line segment
between h(x) and f (x) lies in U . Let An and C n be Z2 n-chains such that ∂(An ) = ∂(C n ) = f# (Sn−1 )
and An ∪ C n = Sn . Then there exists a point a ∈ (A − U ) and a point c ∈ (C − U ).

730
Lemma 16.31. Let h : Sn−1 → Sn be a topological embedding, U be a neighborhood that retracts to
h(Sn−1 ), let f, g : Sn−1 → Sn be simplicial maps such that for each point x ∈ Sn−1 , the straight line
segments between h(x) and f (x) and h(x) and g(x) lie in U . Let Anf and Cfn be Z2 n-chains (from the Two
Chains Theorem) such that ∂(Anf ) = ∂(Cfn ) = f# (Sn−1 ) and Anf ∪ Cfn = Sn and let a ∈ (A − U ) and
c ∈ (C − U ). Let Ang and Cgn be Z2 n-chains such that ∂(Ang ) = ∂(Cgn ) = g# (Sn−1 ) and Ang ∪ Cgn = Sn
where a ∈ Ag . Then c ∈
/ Ag .

731
Lemma 16.32. Let h : Sn−1 → Sn be a topological embedding, U be a neighborhood such that there is a
retract r : U → h(Sn−1 , and V be an open set in U such that for each x ∈ V , the straight line segment
/ U and let T be a standard triangulation of Sn with simplexes so small that
from x to r(x) is in U . Let a ∈
for any simplex σ ∈ T , if σ ∩ (Sn − V ) 6= ∅, then σ ∩ h(Sn−1 = ∅. Let τ0 be an n-simplex in T such that
a ∈ τ0 . Let A be the union of all n-simplexes τk in T such that there are n-simplexes {τi }i=0,··· ,k such that
(1) each τi contains a point in Sn − V , and (2) for each i, τi and τi+1 share an (n − 1)-face. Then ∂A ⊂ V
and h−1 (r(∂A)) is the non-trivial element of Hn−1 (Sn−1 ). Also, r(∂A) = h(Sn−1 ).

732
Lemma 16.33. Let h : Sn−1 → Sn be a topological embedding, let {Ui }i∈N be open sets each containing
h(Sn−1 ) and each contained in the n1 -neighborhood of h(Sn−1 ) with retract r : U1 → h(Sn−1 ) and such
that for every i ∈ N and every point x ∈ Ui+1 , the straight line homotopy between x and r(x) lies in Ui .
Let {Ti }i∈N be a sequence of triangulations of Sn where each triangulation Ti+1 is a subdivision of Ti with
simplices so small that any simplex of Ti that intersects h(Sn−1 ) lies entirely in Ui . Let a ∈ (Sn − U1 ). Let
Ai be the component containing a of the union of all n-simplices of Ti that miss h(Sn−1 ). Then ∂(Ai+1 )
and ∂(Ai+2 ) co-bound an n-chain in Ui , ∪i∈N Ai ∩ h(Sn−1 ) =, each point x ∈ h(Sn−1 ) is a limit point of
∪i∈N Ai , there exists a point c in (Sn − ∪i∈N Ai − U1 ), and if we do the same process that we did for a for c
creating Ci ’s, then Sn = (∪i∈N Ai ) ∪ h(Sn−1 ) ∪ (∪i∈N Ci ).

733
Theorem 16.34 (Jordan-Brouwer Separation Theorem). Let h : Sn−1 → Sn be a topological embedding.
Then h(Sn−1 ) separates Sn into precisely two components and is the boundary of each.

734
Corollary 16.35 (Jordan-Brouwer Separation Theorem). Let h : Sn−1 → Rn be a topological embed-
ding. Then h(Sn−1 ) separates Rn into precisely two components and is the boundary of each. The two
components are distinguished topologically by the fact that one has a compact closure and the other does
not.

735
Theorem 16.36. Every connected, compact topologically embedded (n − 1)-manifold in Rn separates Rn
into two components and is the topological boundary of each.

736
Theorem 16.37. The Klein Bottle cannot be embedded in R3 .

737
738
Chapter 17

Simplicial Z-Homology: Getting

Oriented

Exercise 17.1. Check that this boundary map is well-defined: it does not depend on the oriented represen-
tative chosen for the definition.

739
Exercise 17.2. Find the boundary of the oriented 2-simplex τ = [v0 v1 v2 ] and the boundary of the oriented
3-simplex σ = [w0 w1 w2 w3 ]. Repeat the procedure for −τ and −σ. What is the relationship between
the boundary of τ and the boundary of −τ ? What is the relationship between the boundary of σ and the
boundary of −σ?

740
Theorem 17.3. For any n-simplex σ
∂(−σ) = −∂(σ).

741
Theorem 17.4. For all n ≥ 0,
∂n ◦ ∂n+1 = 0.

742
Theorem 17.5. For any simplicial complex K, both Zn (K) and Bn (K) are subgroups of Cn (K), and
Bn (K) ⊂ Zn (K).

743
Exercise 17.6. Create a triangulation of a Möbius band such that the central circle forms a 1-cycle γ. Show
that the Möbius band’s boundary 1-cycle α is equivalent to either 2γ or −2γ (depending on the orientation
you give the two cycles).

744
Theorem 17.7. For a finite simplicial complex K, Hn (K) is a finitely generated abelian group.

745
Theorem 17.8. If K is a connected simplicial complex, then H0 (K) is isomorphic to Z. If K has r con-
nected components, then H0 (K) is a free abelian group of rank r.

746
Theorem 17.9. If K is a one-point space, Hn (K) ∼
= 0 for n ≥ 0 and H0 (K) ∼
= Z.

747
Theorem 17.10. Let x see a complex K, and let c ∈ Cn (K) be a chain. Then

∂ Conex (c) + Conex (∂c) = c.

748
Corollary 17.11. For any complex K and x seeing K, the complex x ∗ K is acyclic.

749
Theorem 17.12. The complex K consisting of an n-simplex together with all its faces is acyclic.

750
Theorem 17.13. Let f : K → L be a simplicial map, and let f# be the induced map f# : Cn (K) → Cn (L).
Then for any chain c ∈ Cn (K), ∂(f# (c)) = f# (∂(c)). In other words, the diagram:

f#
Cn (K) −−−−→ Cn (L)
 
 
∂y y∂
f#
Cn−1 (K) −−−−→ Cn−1 (L)
commutes.

751
Theorem 17.14. Let f : K → L be a simplicial map. Then the induced homomorphism f∗ : Hn (K) →
Hn (L) is a well-defined homomorphism.

752
Exercise 17.15. Check that Cn (K, K 0 ) is a free abelian group.

753
Theorem 17.16. There is a boundary map

∂n : Cn (K, K 0 ) → Cn−1 (K, K 0 )

such that ∂n ◦ ∂n+1 = 0 for all n ≥ 0.

754
Exercise 17.17. Check that if K 0 = ∅, the empty set, then Hn (K, K 0 ) = Hn (K) for all n, the usual
homology groups.

755
Exercise 17.18. Show that H̃n (K) ∼
= Hn (K) for n > 0 and H0 (K) ∼
= H̃0 (K) ⊕ Z.

756
Exercise 17.19. Let K be the complex consisting of a triangle and all its faces. Determine Hn (K, K 0 ) for
all n ≥ 0.

757
Exercise 17.20. Let K be a triangulation of an annulus, and let K 0 be the subcomplex consisting of the
inner and outer edges of the annulus. Find a relative 1-cycle in C1 (K, K 0 ) that is not a relative 1-boundary.

758
Exercise 17.21. Let K be a triangulation of a Möbius band, and let K 0 be its boundary. Determine
Hn (K, K 0 ) for n ≥ 0.

759
Theorem 17.22 (Excision). Suppose K 0 is a subcomplex of K. Remove an open set U from K 0 such that
what remains is a subcomplex L0 of K 0 , and remove U from K so that what remains is a subcomplex L of
K. Then
Hn (L, L0 ) ∼
= Hn (K, K 0 ).

760
Theorem 17.23. Given a simplicial map f : (K, K 0 ) → (L, L0 ) there is an associated chain map f# :
Cn (K, K 0 ) → Cn (L, L0 ) and induced homomorphism f∗ : Hn (K, K 0 ) → Hn (L, L0 ).

761
Exercise 17.24. There are natural maps between chain groups:

i π
Cn (K 0 ) −−−−→ Cn (K) −−−−→ Cn (K, K 0 )

What are the maps i and π, and what do you notice about them and their relationship with each other?

762
Theorem 17.25. The boundary map ∂ : Cn (K) → Cn−1 (K 0 ) induces a well-defined map

∂∗ : Hn (K, K 0 ) → Hn−1 (K 0 ).

763
Theorem 17.26 (Long Exact Sequence of a Pair). If K 0 is a subcomplex of a simplicial complex K, then
there is a long exact sequence:

∂ i π ∂ i
· · · −−−∗−→ Hn (K 0 ) −−−∗−→ Hn (K) −−−∗−→ Hn (K, K 0 ) −−−∗−→ Hn−1 (K 0 ) −−−∗−→ · · ·

764
Theorem 17.27 (Zig-Zag Lemma). Suppose C = {Cn , ∂nC }, D = {Dn , ∂nD }, E = {En , ∂nE } are chain
complexes, and φ : C → D and ψ : D → E are chain maps such that

φ ψ
0 −−−−→ C −−−−→ D −−−−→ E −−−−→ 0

is a short exact sequence of chain complexes. Then there is a long exact sequence:

∂ φ∗ ψ∗ ∂ i
· · · −−−∗−→ Hn (C) −−−−→ Hn (D) −−−−→ Hn (E) −−−∗−→ Hn−1 (C) −−−∗−→ · · ·

where ∂∗ is induced by ∂ D .

765
Theorem 17.28. Given the commutative diagram of chain maps α, β, γ between the chain complexes of
two short exact sequences:
i π
0 −−−−→ C −−−−→ D −−−−→ E −−−−→ 0
  
αy γy
 
βy


i π
0 −−−−→ C 0 −−−−→ D 0 −−−−→ E0 −−−−→ 0
there are corresponding induced homomorphisms between the associated long exact sequences, such that the
following diagram is commutative:

∂ φ∗ ψ∗ ∂ i
· · · −−−∗−→ Hn (C) −−−−→ Hn (D) −−−−→ Hn (E) −−−∗−→ Hn−1 (C) −−−∗−→ · · ·
   
α∗ y γ∗ y α∗ y
 
β∗ y
 

∂ φ∗ ψ∗ ∂ i
· · · −−−∗−→ Hn (C0 ) −−−−→ Hn (D 0 ) −−−−→ Hn (E0 ) −−−∗−→ Hn−1 (C 0 ) −−−∗−→ · · ·

766
Lemma 17.29 (The Five Lemma). Consider the following commutative diagram of groups and homomor-
phisms, where the rows are exact.
q r s t
A −−−−→ B −−−−→ C −−−−→ D −−−−→ E
    
αy γy y
 
βy
  
δy

q0 r0 s0 t0
A0 −−−−→ B 0 −−−−→ C 0 −−−−→ D0 −−−−→ E 0
If the rows are exact and α, β, δ,  are isomorphisms, then γ is also an isomorphism.

767
Exercise 17.30. In the proof of the Five Lemma, not all of α, β, δ,  are required to be isomorphisms for the
conclusion to still hold. Which isomorphisms can be relaxed?

768
Exercise 17.31 (The Snake Lemma). Consider the following commutative diagram where the rows are
short exact sequences.
0 −−−−→ A −−−−→ B −−−−→ C −−−−→ 0
  
αy γy
 
βy


0 −−−−→ A0 −−−−→ B 0 −−−−→ C 0 −−−−→ 0

Show there is an exact sequence

0 → Ker α → Ker β → Ker γ → Coker α → Coker β → Coker γ → 0

where Coker stands for the cokernel of a homomorphism: the quotient of its codomain by its image.

769
Corollary 17.32 (Long Exact Sequence of a Pair). If K 0 is a subcomplex of a simplicial complex K, then
there is a long exact sequence:

∂ i π ∂ i
· · · −−−∗−→ Hn (K 0 ) −−−∗−→ Hn (K) −−−∗−→ Hn (K, K 0 ) −−−∗−→ Hn−1 (K 0 ) −−−∗−→ · · ·

where the maps are induced by the inclusion maps i : K 0 → K and π : (K, ∅) → (K, K 0 ) and the
boundary map ∂ : Cn (X) → Cn−1 (X).

770
Theorem 17.33. Given a simplicial map f : (K, K 0 ) → (L, L0 ), there is chain map between the long exact
sequences:
∂ i π ∂ i
· · · −−−∗−→ Hn (K 0 ) −−−∗−→ Hn (K) −−−∗−→ Hn (K, K 0 ) −−−∗−→ Hn−1 (K 0 ) −−−∗−→ · · ·
   

f∗ y

f∗ y

f∗ y

f∗ y

∂ i π ∂ i
· · · −−−∗−→ Hn (L0 ) −−−∗−→ Hn (L) −−−∗−→ Hn (L, L0 ) −−−∗−→ Hn−1 (L0 ) −−−∗−→ · · ·

771
Theorem 17.34 (Mayer-Vietoris). Let K be a finite simplicial complex and A and B be subcomplexes
such that K = A ∪ B. Then there is a long exact sequence

δ φ∗ ψ∗ ∂ φ
· · · −−−−→ Hn (A ∩ B) −−−−→ Hn (A) ⊕ Hn (B) −−−−→ Hn (K) −−−∗−→ Hn−1 (A ∩ B) −−−−→ · · ·

772
Exercise 17.35. Compute the Z-homology of the Klein bottle, and compare it to the the Z2 -homology of the
Klein bottle.

773
Exercise 17.36. Compute the Z-homology of every compact, triangulated 2-manifold.

774
Theorem 17.37. Let K be a finite, connected simplicial complex. Then

H1 (K; Z) ' (π1 (K))/[π1 (K), π1 (K)],

that is, the first homology group of K is isomorphic to the abelianization of the fundamental group of K.

775
Lemma 17.38. If f : Sn → Sn is continuous, then deg f is well-defined. That is, it does not depend on the
way in which we identify Hn (Sn ) with Z.

776
Theorem 17.39. Let f, g : Sn → Sn be continuous maps.

1. If f and g are homotopic, they have the same degree.

2. deg(f ◦ g) = (deg f ) · (deg g)

777
Theorem 17.40. The identity map on Sn has degree 1. The antipodal map has degree (−1)n+1 .

778
Theorem 17.41 (Hairy Ball Theorem). There exists a non-vanishing vector field on Sn if and only if n is
odd.

779
Exercise 17.42. In the definition above and using a little linear algebra, show that Tr(hf ree ) does not
depend on the choice of basis for Gf ree .

780
Exercise 17.43. Construct a simple example of a map homotopic to the identity map on the triangulated
circle whose induced chain map does not have the same trace as the identity chain map.

781
Theorem 17.44. Suppose 0 → A → B → C → 0 is a short exact sequence of finitely generated abelian
groups and fA : A → A and fB : B → B are homomorphisms such that i ◦ fA = fB ◦ i. Then there is an
induced homomorphism fC : C → C that makes the following diagram commutative:
i π
0 −−−−→ A −−−−→ B −−−−→ C −−−−→ 0
  

fA y

fB y

fC y

i π
0 −−−−→ A −−−−→ B −−−−→ C −−−−→ 0
Moreover,
Tr(fB ) = Tr(fA ) + Tr(fC )

782
Theorem 17.45. (The Hopf Trace Formula) Let K be a finite simplicial complex and let f : K → K be a
simplicial map. Then
X X
(−1)i Tr(f#n ) = (−1)i Tr(f∗n ).

783
Theorem 17.46. (Lefschetz Fixed Point Theorem) Let f : |K| → |K| be a continuous map on a simplicial
complex K. If Λ(f ) 6= 0, then f has a fixed point.

784
Exercise 17.47. Compute the Lefschetz number of the “mirror-reversing” self-map of a circle: g : S1 → S1
defined by g(x, y) = (−x, y) viewing S1 as a subset of R2 . Argue that any reversing map of a circle must
have a fixed point.

785
786
Chapter 18

Singular Homology: Abstracting Objects

to Maps

Theorem 18.1 (Eilenberg-Steenrod). Fix a group G. Any two homology theories on compact triangulable
pairs with coefficient group G are isomorphic.

787
Exercise 18.2. Let X ⊂ E∞ be star-convex with respect to a point x. Verify that Φn+1
0 ◦ Conex is the
identity map on Sn (X).

788
Theorem 18.3. For all n ≥ 0,
∂n ◦ ∂n+1 = 0.

Hence Im ∂n+1 ⊂ Ker ∂n .

789
Theorem 18.4 (Dimension Axiom). If P is a point, Hn (P ) ∼
= 0 for all n > 0, and H0 (P ) ∼
= Z.

790
Theorem 18.5. Let X ⊂ E∞ be star convex with respect to x ∈ X. For any singular n-simplex σ,

∂n+1 (Conex σ) + Conex (∂n σ) = σ.

791
Theorem 18.6. Show that any star-convex space is acyclic.

792
Theorem 18.7. For a space X, show that H0 (X) is a free abelian group with a generator for every path-
connected component of X.

793
Theorem 18.8. Let f : X → Y be a continuous map. Then for any chain c ∈ Sn (X), ∂(f# (c)) =
f# (∂(c)). In other words, the diagram:

f#
Sn (X) −−−−→ Sn (Y )
 
 
∂y y∂
f#
Sn−1 (X) −−−−→ Sn−1 (Y )
commutes.

794
Exercise 18.9. Check that the induced homomorphism is well-defined and a homomorphism.

795
Theorem 18.10. The identity map i : X → X induces the identity homomorphism on each homology
group.

796
Theorem 18.11. If f : X → Y and g : Y → Z are continuous maps between topological spaces, then
(g ◦ f )∗ = g∗ ◦ f∗

797
Theorem 18.12. If f : X → Y is a homeomorphism, then f∗ : Hn (X) → Hn (Y ) is an isomorphism
between singular homology groups.

798
Theorem 18.13 (Homotopy Axiom). If f and g are homotopic maps from X to Y , then they induce the
same homomorphism in homology.

799
Theorem 18.14. There is a boundary map

∂ : Sn (X, A) → Sn−1 (X, A)

such that ∂n ◦ ∂n+1 = 0 for all n ≥ 0.

800
Exercise 18.15. Check that if A = ∅, the empty set, then Hn (X, A) = Hn (X), the usual homology.

801
Exercise 18.16. Let X be the complex consisting of a triangle and all its faces. Determine Hn (X, A) for all
n ≥ 0.

802
Exercise 18.17. Let K be a triangulation of an annulus, and let K 0 be the subcomplex consisting of the
inner and outer edges of the annulus. Find a relative 1-cycle in C1 (X, A) that is not a relative 1-boundary.

803
Exercise 18.18. Let K be a triangulation of a Möbius band, and let K 0 be its boundary. Determine
Hn (X, A) for n ≥ 0.

804
Theorem 18.19. Given a continuous map f : (X, A) → (Y, B) there is an associated chain map f# :
Sn (X, A) → Sn (Y, B) and induced homomorphism f∗ : Hn (X, A) → Hn (Y, B).

805
Theorem 18.20 (Long Exact Sequence of a Pair). Let A be a subspace of X. Then there is a long exact
sequence:

∂ i π ∂ i
· · · −−−∗−→ Hn (A) −−−∗−→ Hn (X) −−−∗−→ Hn (X, A) −−−∗−→ Hn−1 (A) −−−∗−→ · · ·

where the maps are induced by the inclusion maps i : A → X and π : (X, ∅) → (X, A) and the boundary
map ∂ : Sn (X) → Sn−1 (X).

806
Exercise 18.21. Verify that SD is a chain map, commuting with ∂, and verify that it is natural, which
means that for any continuous map f : X → Y , the following diagram commutes.
f#
Sn (X) −−−−→ Sn (Y )
 
 
SDy ySD
f#
Sn (X) −−−−→ Sn (Y )
.

807
Theorem 18.22. Let U be an open cover of a space X. For any singular simplex σ, there exists an m such
that each term of SDm (σ) has an image that lies within one of the elements of U.

808
Theorem 18.23. There is a chain homotopy between SDm and the identity map on Sn (X); in other words,
there exists a homomorphism DX : Sn (X) → Sn+1 (X) such that

∂DX σ + DX ∂σ = SDm σ − σ

for every singular simplex σ of X. Moreover, this chain homotopy is natural, meaning it commutes with
maps of spaces: if f : X → Y , then f# ◦ DX = DY ◦ f# .

809
Theorem 18.24. For each n ≥ 0, the induced homomorphism

SDm
∗ : Hn (X) → Hn (X)

is an isomorphism.

810
Theorem 18.25. Suppose U and A are subspaces of X such that U ⊂ Int A. Then the inclusion map of
(X − U, A − U ) in (X, A) induces an isomorphism

Hn (X − U, A − U ) ∼
= Hn (X, A).

811
Theorem 18.26. For the n ≥ 1, show that Hn (S n ) ∼
= Z and Hn (S k ) ∼
= 0 if n 6= k.

812
Chapter 19

The End: A Beginning—Reflections on

Topology and Learning

813
814
Appendix A

Appendix - Group Theory Background

Exercise A.1.

1. Show that the set of all permutations on n elements forms a group with the group operation of function
composition.

2. Show that any permutation can be written as a composition of disjoint cycles.

3. Show that any m-cycle can be written as a composition of transpositions.

815
Exercise A.2. What is the order of Sn ?

816
Exercise A.3.

1. Show that an n-cycle can be written as the composition of n − 1 transpositions. Thus a 3-cycle is an
even permutation and a 4-cycle is an odd permutation!

2. Show that the group of even permutations is a subgroup of Sn .

817
Exercise A.4. What is the order of An ?

818
Exercise A.5. Show that if we let a represent a reflection along a line passing through the polygon’s center
and a vertex, and b a rotation of 2π/n around its center, then

Dn = {1, b, . . . , bn−1 , ab, . . . , abn−1 }

819
Exercise A.6. Show that in Dn as above, we have ab = bn−1 a, and thus Dn is not abelian for n > 2.

820
Exercise A.7. Show that Dn is isomorphic to a proper subgroup of Sn .

821
Exercise A.8. Under what conditions, if ever, is Dn is isomorphic to a subgroup of An ?

822
Exercise A.9. Let g, g 0 ∈ G. Then either gH = g 0 H or gH ∩ g 0 H = ∅.

823
Theorem A.10 (Lagrange’s Theorem). Let G be a finite group, and H a subgroup. Then the cardinality
|H| of H divides the cardinality |G|of G and

|G|
[G : H] =
|H|

824
Theorem A.11. Let H
G be a normal subgroup. Then its left and right cosets coincide for all g ∈ G, in
other words gH = Hg for all g ∈ G.

825
Theorem A.12. An onto homomorphism f : G → H is an isomorphism if and only if Ker f = {1G }.

826
Theorem A.13. Let f : G → H be a homomorphism from a group G to a group H, then Ker f
G and
f (G) < H.

827
Theorem A.14 (First isomorphism theorem). Let f : G → H be a homomorphism with Ker f = N .
Then f (H) ∼
= G/N .

828
Theorem A.15. A cyclic group that is infinite is isomorphic to Z.

829
Theorem A.16. A finite cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to Zn , the integers with addition mod n.

830
Exercise A.17.

1. Verify that the dihedral group Dn = {1, b, . . . , bn−1 , ab, . . . , abn−1 } is generated by {a, b}.

2. Show that the symmetric group Sn , for n ≥ 2, is generated by the set of 2-cycles: {(12), (23), . . . , (n−
1, n)}.

3. Show that the symmetric group Sn , for n ≥ 2, is generated by the pair of cycles (12) and (12 . . . n).

831
Theorem A.18 (Classification of Finitely Generated Abelian Groups). Let G be a finitely generated
abelian group. Then G is isomorphic to:

H0 ⊕ H1 ⊕ . . . ⊕ Hm

where H0 is a free abelian group, and Hi ∼

= Zpi (i = 1, . . . , n) where pi is a power of a prime. The rank of
H0 is unique and is called the rank of G. The orders p1 , . . . , pm are also unique up to reordering.

832
Theorem A.19. G0
G, and is the smallest subgroup for which G/G0 is abelian. In other words, if there
is a subgroup N
G such that G/N is abelian, then G0 ⊂ N .

833
Theorem A.20. Isomorphic groups have isomorphic abelianizations.

834
Exercise A.21. Confirm that the lists of generators and relations given above completely determine the
groups.

835
Theorem A.22. Suppose that L is a set and R is a collection of words in L. Then there is a group whose
presentation is hL|Ri.

836
Exercise A.23. What is a group presentation for an arbitrary finitely generated abelian group? for the
symmetric group?

837
Theorem A.24. For m 6= n, Fm 6= Fn .

838
Lemma A.25. We have a natural injections G → G ∗ H and H → G ∗ H so that G and H may be viewed
as subgroups of G ∗ H.

839
Theorem A.26. Let G and H be disjoint groups. Each element in G ∗ H has a unique expression of the
form g1 h1 · · · gn hn where g1 , . . . , gn ∈ G, h1 , . . . , hn ∈ H, and g1 and hn are allowed to be the identity,
but no other letter is.

840