Accuracy refers to how close a measurement is to the true or accepted value, while precision

refers to how close multiple measurements of the same item are to each other.

Precision in measurement refers to the closeness of repeated measurements to each other,

indicating how consistent a measurement process is.

1ST MEASUREMENT 15.54 CM

2ND MEASUREMENT 16.01 CM

3RD MEASUREMENT 16.05 CM

EXAMPLE OF ACCURACY AND PRECISION

15.54 CM + 16.01 CM + 16.05 CM = 15.87 CM

Standard units of measurement (like meters, liters, grams, moles) provide a common language
so scientists worldwide can understand and compare results without confusion.

Mass, volume, and density are three fundamental physical properties of a solid, each with
distinct meanings and units:

1. Mass is the amount of matter in a solid. It measures how much material the object
contains. The standard units for mass are grams (g) or kilograms (kg). For example, a
rock might have a mass of 500 grams.

2. Volume is the amount of space the solid occupies. It measures the size or extent of the
object in three dimensions. Volume is measured in cubic centimeters (cm³) or liters
(L) for solids. For instance, the same rock might have a volume of 200 cm³.

3. Density is the mass of the solid per unit volume. It describes how compact or
concentrated the matter is within the object. Density is calculated by dividing mass by
volume and is expressed in units like grams per cubic centimeter (g/cm³) or kilograms

4. per liter (kg/L). For example, if a rock has a mass of 500 g and volume of 200 cm³, its
density is 500 g200 cm3=2.5 g/cm3200cm3500g=2.5g/cm3.
 Here are common sources of error in measurements and ways to improve reliability:

1. Instrumental Errors
Source: Faulty, uncalibrated, or poorly maintained instruments.
Improvement: Regularly calibrate and maintain equipment; use high-quality, precise
instruments.

2. Human Errors
Source: Misreading scales, incorrect timing, or inconsistent technique.
Improvement: Train users thoroughly, use digital instruments when possible, and follow
consistent procedures.

3. Environmental Errors
Source: Changes in temperature, humidity, or vibrations affecting measurements.
Improvement: Conduct experiments in controlled environments, minimize external
disturbances.

4. Parallax Errors
Source: Viewing measurement scales from an angle rather than straight on.
Improvement: Always read instruments at eye level and use instruments with clear, easy-
to-read scales.

5. Random Errors
Source: Unpredictable fluctuations that vary measurement results.
Improvement: Take multiple measurements and calculate averages to reduce the effect
of random errors.

SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Significant figures are the digits to give reasonably reliable information.

All nonzero digits (1 to 9) are Significant

Examples:

749 ML has 3 significant figures but there is no zero digits

1 593 587 S has 7 significant figures but there is no zero digits

16. 21 L has 4 significant figures but there is no zero digits

EXAMPLE:

Answer
2.051 mm has 3 significant figures but there is no zero digits

3.56 mm 3 significant figures but there is no zero digits

72.1 mm 3 significant figures but there is no zero digits

Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is a way to express very large or very small numbers concisely.

coefficient is the number that precedes the power of ten and must be a number greater than or
equal to 1 and less than 10.

Base is 10

Exponent: The small number written above and to the right of the base

Units of measurement

Units of measurement are standard quantities used to express the magnitude of a physical
property.

Metric System – Metric System is basically a system used for measuring distance, length,
volume, weight and temperature.

 Length:

Base unit is the meter (m). Other common units include kilometer (km), centimeter (cm), and
millimeter (mm).

 Mass (Weight):

Base unit is the kilogram (kg). Other units include gram (g), milligram (mg), and microgram (µg).

 Volume:

Base unit is the liter (L). Other units include milliliter (mL) and kiloliter (kL).

 Temperature:
Base unit is the Kelvin (K), though Celsius (°C) is commonly used.

 Time:

Base unit is the second (s), with other units like minutes, hours, and days.

The system was first proposed by the French astronomer and mathematician Gabriel Mouton
(1618–94) in 1670 and was standardized in France under the Republican government in the
1790s.

English system also known as the British Imperial System, is a system of measurement that
uses units like feet, pounds, and seconds. The English system has a long history, influenced by
Roman measurements and British royal decrees.

 Length: Inches, feet, yards, miles.

 Volume: Teaspoons, tablespoons, cups, pints, quarts, gallons.

 Weight: Ounces, pounds, tons.

 Area: Square inches, square feet, square yards, acres, square miles.

SI Base Units:

 Length: meter (m)

 Mass: kilogram (kg)

 Time: second (s)

 Electric Current: ampere (A)

 Temperature: kelvin (K)

 Amount of Substance: mole (mol)

 Luminous Intensity: candela (cd)

Other Common Units:

 Volume: liter (L) (metric), gallon (US)

 Weight/Mass: gram (g), pound (lb)

 Temperature: Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F)

 Area: square meter (m²), acre

Physical quantity is a property of a material or system that can be quantified through

measurement. It's something that can be expressed with a numerical value and a unit
Speed: meters per second (m/s), miles per hour (mph)

Examples of Physical Quantities:

 Length: The distance between two points, measured in meters, centimeters, etc.

 Mass: The amount of matter in an object, measured in kilograms, grams, etc.

 Time: The duration of an event, measured in seconds, minutes, etc.

 Temperature: The degree of hotness or coldness of an object, measured in Celsius,

Fahrenheit, etc.

 Electric Current: The flow of electric charge, measured in amperes.

 Light Intensity: The luminous power of a light source, measured in candelas.

 Force: A push or pull on an object, measured in Newtons.

 Velocity: The rate of change of position, measured in meters per second.

 Density: The mass per unit volume of a substance, measured in kilograms per cubic
meter.

Volume:
1dm³ = 1 Liter (L) = 1000cm³ = 1000ml

1m³ = 1000 L

Temperature
 (Boiling Point) 12 F° 100 ° C 373 °K

 Celsius (°C): Water freezes at 0°C and boils at 100°C.

 Fahrenheit (°F): Water freezes at 32°F and boils at 212°F.

 Kelvin (K): Water Freezes 273K Boiling point 273K

William Thomson - 1824 - 1907 invented the scale of thermometer

Lord kelvin – Kelvin Scale

ATOMIC THEORY

Atomic theory is the scientific explanation that all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible
particles called atoms. It proposes that atoms are the basic building blocks of matter,
combining in various ways to form all substances.

GREEK PHILOSOPHERS

ARISTOTLES 384 – 323 BC INFLUENCIAL GREEK PHILOSOPHER

DEMOCRITUS 460 – 370 BC PRESENCE OF A VOID

ALEXANDER THE GREAT ARISTOTLES PUPIL

DALTON – DALTON ATOMIC THEORY

SIR WILLIAM CROOKES 1869- 1975 – DEVELOPS THE CHARGE TUBE WITH VACUUM ALSO
PRODUCED NEGATIVE PARTICLES CALLED CATHODE RAYS

J.J. THOMPSON (1897) DISCOVERED ELECTRON

ROBERT MILIKAN (1909) CHARGE OF ELECTRON

ERNEST RUTHERFORD (1911) CONCENTRATED MASS IN THE MIDDLE OF ATOM CALLED

NUCLUEUS

NIELS BOHR SUGGESTED THAT THE TOTAL ENERGY OF AN ELECTRON IS QUANTIZED

ATOM is the smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element.

 Structure:

 Nucleus: Contains positively charged protons and neutral neutrons.

 Electron Cloud: Surrounding the nucleus are negatively charged electrons in

energy levels or orbitals.
 Protons
 Positively charged particles (+1 charge)
 Found in the nucleus of an atom
 The number of protons determines the element’s identity (atomic number)
 PROTONS DISCOVERED BY EUGENE GOLDSTEIN
 Neutrons
  Neutral particles (no electric charge)
 Also in the nucleus
 Add to the atom’s mass and help stabilize the nucleus

 Electrons
 Negatively charged particles (−1 charge)
 Move around the nucleus in electron clouds or shells
 Involved in chemical reactions and bonding

COMPARISON OF THE DIFFERENT SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

SUBATOMIC SYMBOL MASS (a.m.u) CHARGE LOCATION

PARTICLE
PROTON p+ 1.0073 +1 INSIDE TH

n∘
NUCLEUS
NUETRON 1.007 0 INSIDE THE
NUCLUES
ELECTRON e- 0.00055 -1 OUTSIDE THE
NUCLEUS

An atom is typically represented by its chemical symbol, along with its atomic number and mass
number. The atomic number indicates the number of protons, which defines the element.

The mass number represents the total number of protons and neutrons (nucleons) in the
nucleus.

1. Chemical Symbol:

 Each element has a unique chemical symbol, usually one or two letters, like "H" for
hydrogen or "Fe" for iron.

2. Atomic Number:
  The atomic number, found above the element's symbol on the periodic table, signifies
the number of protons in the atom's nucleus.

 It also indicates the number of electrons in a neutral atom.

3. Mass Number:

 The mass number, often found below the symbol or when the element is written as
"element-mass number" (e.g., carbon-12), represents the total number of protons and
neutrons in the nucleus.

 To find the number of neutrons, subtract the atomic number (number of protons) from
the mass number.

4. Bohr Model:

 In the Bohr model, the atom has a nucleus at the center containing protons and
neutrons.

 Electrons orbit the nucleus in specific energy levels or shells.

 The first shell can hold up to two electrons, while the second and third can hold up to
eight.

Example:

 Carbon-12 (¹²C) has an atomic number of 6 (6 protons), and a mass number of 12.

 Therefore, a neutral carbon-12 atom has 6 protons, 6 electrons, and 6 neutrons (12 - 6 =
6).

Isotopes are different forms of the same chemical element, distinguished by their varying
number of neutrons. They share the same number of protons and electrons, but have different
atomic masses due to the different neutron count. Isotopes can be stable or unstable
(radioactive).
  Atomic Number and Identity:

The number of protons in an atom's nucleus defines the element. For example, all atoms with
one proton are hydrogen, regardless of the number of neutrons.

 Neutron Count and Mass:

While the number of protons defines the element, the number of neutrons can vary, creating
different isotopes of that element.

 Stable vs. Unstable Isotopes:

Some isotopes are stable, meaning their nuclei don't spontaneously change. Others are
unstable, or radioactive, and decay over time, emitting radiation.

 Applications:

Isotopes have numerous applications, including in medicine (diagnostics and treatment),

research (studying chemical and physical processes), and industrial applications (tracing
materials, dating materials).

 Example:

Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 are both isotopes of carbon. Carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6
neutrons, while Carbon-14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons. Carbon-14 is radioactive and used
in radiocarbon dating.

Isotopes of an Element

 Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.

 This means they have the same atomic number but different mass numbers.
  Example:

 Carbon-12 (6 protons, 6 neutrons)

 Carbon-14 (6 protons, 8 neutrons)

 Isotopes share chemical properties but can differ in stability and mass.

Natural and Human-Made Radioisotopes

 Natural radioisotopes occur in nature, e.g., Uranium-238 (alpha emitter, very long half-
life), Carbon-14 (beta emitter, half-life ~5730 years).

 Human-made radioisotopes are produced in labs or reactors, e.g., Technetium-99m

(gamma emitter, short half-life), Iodine-131 (beta and gamma emitter).

 Radioisotopes emit alpha, beta, or gamma radiation, and each has a characteristic half-
life—the time to reduce its activity by half.

Use of Radioisotopes in Medicine

 Diagnosis: Radioisotopes like Technetium-99m are used as tracers in imaging to view

organs and detect abnormalities.

 Treatment: Isotopes such as Cobalt-60 emit gamma rays in radiotherapy to kill cancer
cells.

 Research: Radioisotopes help track biological processes and drug distribution safely.