Materials Science and Technology

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Wire arc additive manufacturing of aluminium

alloys for aerospace and automotive applications:
a review

B. O. Omiyale, T. O. Olugbade, T. E. Abioye & P. K. Farayibi

To cite this article: B. O. Omiyale, T. O. Olugbade, T. E. Abioye & P. K. Farayibi (2022) Wire arc
additive manufacturing of aluminium alloys for aerospace and automotive applications: a
review, Materials Science and Technology, 38:7, 391-408, DOI: 10.1080/02670836.2022.2045549

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MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
2022, VOL. 38, NO. 7, 391–408
https://doi.org/10.1080/02670836.2022.2045549

REVIEW

Wire arc additive manufacturing of aluminium alloys for aerospace and

automotive applications: a review
B. O. Omiyale, T. O. Olugbade, T. E. Abioye and P. K. Farayibi
Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is suitable for printing medium-to-large complex parts Received 11 August 2021
with structural integrity while reducing material wastage, and lead time, improving the qual- Revised 3 February 2022
ity and customized design for functional components. Aluminium alloys are one of the most Accepted 13 February 2022
commonly used metallic materials in manufacturing parts for aerospace and automotive applica- KEYWORDS
tions due to their lightweight, excellent strength, and corrosion resistance properties. Aluminium Wire arc additive
alloys have been employed in the WAAM process to produce parts for the aerospace and auto- manufacturing; aerospace;
motive industries. In this paper, various research works associated with the application of WAAM automotive; product design;
of aluminium alloys for aerospace and automotive industries, their metallurgical characteristics, aluminium alloy
and mechanical properties have been reviewed and discussed in detail to identify the research
gap and future research directions. This paper is patterned to provide a comprehensive review
of WAAM of aluminium alloys for the production of parts in the aerospace and automotive
industries.
Abbreviations: AM: Additive manufacturing; Al: Aluminium; Bi: Bismuth; BIW: Body in white;
CNC: Computer numerical machines; CMT: Cold metal transfer; CNN: Convolutional neural net-
works; CL: Curved layer; DE-GMAAM: Double-electrode gas metal arc additive manufacturing;
DWAAM: Double wire arc additive manufacturing; DMD: Direct metal deposition; DMLS: Direct
metal laser sintering; DED-arc: Directed energy deposition arc; 3D: Three-dimensional; EAC: Envi-
ronmentally assisted cracking; EBM: Electron beam melting; FCI: Fatigue crack initiation; Fe:
Iron; GTAW: Gas tungsten arc welding; GMAW: Gas metal arc welding; HE: Hydrogen embrittle-
ment; HAZ: Heat-affected zone; HWAAM: Hot wire arc additive manufacturing; IISCC: Irradiation
induced stress corrosion cracking; Li: Lithium; Mg: Magnesium; Mn: Manganese; Ni: Nickel; OL:
Online cooling; Pb: Lead; PAW: Plasma arc welding; RS: Robotic system; SCC: Stress corrosion
cracking; SLM: Selective laser melting; SCG: Short crack growth; SLC: Super light car; Si: Silicon; Ti:
Titanium; Zr: Zirconium

Introduction
known as wire arc additive manufacturing, among
Wire arc additive manufacturing (WAAM) is an essen- others [5–7].
tial technique for the fabrication of large-scale alu- Among the different AM technologies, WAAM tech-
minium parts using wire as the feed material and an nology is being widely accepted by industry due to
electric arc as the heat source to deposit layer-by-layer its potential to fabricate large–Scale, different complex
3D components [1]. The use of aluminium alloys in metallic structures. WAAM employs metal welding
WAAM has become paramount in the aerospace and wire as the feedstock and electric arc as the heat source,
automotive industries [2–4]. To produce metallic parts, which makes it a combination of welding and AM
several additive manufacturing (AM)-based technolo- technology. This technology uses welding techniques
gies have recently been explored by many researchers to such as power source, welding torch, wire, and pro-
manufacture high-performance, customised, and com- tective gas feeding systems, together with robotic sys-
plex metal structures for aerospace, automotive, mil- tems (RS) (Figure 2) or computer numerical machines
itary hardware, and medical industries [5,6]. Metallic (CNC) which aided the freedom of the welding torch
parts can be produced utilising several AM methods movement for the effectiveness of depositing materials
(Figure 1) including electron beam melting (EBM), layer-by-layer to form a 3D part [2]. Figure 2 presents a
direct metal deposition (DMD), selective laser melt- robotic system employed for WAAM [8].
ing (SLM), direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), and At present, the WAAM technique is being faced with
direct energy deposition-arc (DED-arc) which is also some challenges in the manufacturing process of 3D

CONTACT B. O. Omiyale [email protected] Department of Industrial and Production Engineering, Federal University of Technology, P.M.B.
704, Akure, Ondo State, Nigeria

© 2022 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining.

392 B. O. OMIYALE ET AL.

Figure 1. Classification of metal additive manufacturing.

improve the manufactured parts’ mechanical proper-

ties, macrostructure, and microstructure. This implies
that the reduction of heat input in the WAAM technol-
ogy can enhance and maintain the geometrical accu-
racy and deposition rate with an improvement of the
microstructure of the fabricated parts. Fahimpour et al.
[11] reported that a welding process can be consid-
ered successful when the part produced is defect-free
with desired microstructure, low residual stresses and
distortion levels, and fewer spatter disturbances.
The effect of heat input on the formability, micros-
tructure, and mechanical properties of the WAAM Al-
Figure 2. Robotic-guided WAAM system. Reprinted from 7Si-0.6Mg alloy was investigated by Li et al. [12]. Results
Ref. [8].
demonstrated that the mechanical properties of the
WAAM Al–7Si–0.6Mg alloy remain stable over a large
metal parts due to its inherent residual stress and dis- range of heat input. It is concluded that the secondary
tortion, which are generated by the high thermal input dendrite arm spacing and Fe-phase in the as-deposited
from its heat sources. According to Machirori et al. alloy gradually increase with an increase in heat input,
[9], residual stresses induced by the rapid heating and and slight over-burning occurs in the heat-affected zone
cooling processes may cause defects such as cracks, at higher heat inputs. After solid-solution and artifi-
distortion, warpage, and delamination. Residual stress cially aged (T6 heat treatment) treatments, the size of
and distortion have been widely identified by many α-Al grain and eutectic silicon grain increases with the
researchers as the major challenges facing the WAAM increase of heat input. Hence, it is necessary to investi-
process due to their effects on mechanical properties gate the effect of inherent residual stress and distortion
and component geometric accuracy. One of the influ- generated during WAAM processing as a result of high
ential parameters involved during the preparation of thermal input from the heat source.
the WAAM procedure requirements is the heat input. During a layer-by-layer built-up approach during
According to Rosli et al. [10], the impact of heat input in the WAAM process, the heat transferred from the torch
the WAAM techniques has been described to have sig- to the welding pool and the thermal cycling on each
nificant changes in mechanical properties, grain struc- deposited layer has a lot of influence on both the mate-
ture, grain size, and porosity of the parts deposited in rial composition and mechanical properties of the final
the WAAM process. This suggested that the optimum products [13]. With regard to the application of WAAM
heat input condition during the WAAM process could aluminium alloys, the choice of a technique with an
 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 393

efficient power source and process parameters has been GMAW-based WAAM has approximately 2–3 times
shown to enhance the microstructure of the fabricated high deposition rate [18]. There are four primary meth-
components. Thus, the rationale behind choosing the ods of metal transfer in GMAW in which each has dis-
technique with an efficient power source for a range of tinct features. These include globular, short-circuiting,
materials used in the WAAM process has to be exten- spray, and pulsed-spray metal transfer methods [19].
sively studied. According to the different power sources, One of the significant developments in the WAAM
the WAAM technology can be divided into gas tungsten system came into the limelight when the cold metal
arc welding (GTAW), gas metal arc welding (GMAW), transfer (CMT) process has been integrated into the
and plasma arc welding (PAW) [10]. Owing to increas- place of GMAW. The CMT process is an improvement
ing demand for flexibility and product integration, of the GMAW process with less heat input, less spatter
combined with reduced product development cycle and disturbances, and better weld quality with a high depo-
robust mechanical properties, WAAM of aluminium sition rate as discussed by Boţilă [20]. It is usually per-
alloys for aerospace and automotive applications has formed by a welding robot, applying a mechanism that
been well-documented in terms of processability, met- has a controlled plunge transfer mode. Specifically, the
allurgical characteristics, mechanical properties, and welding of aluminium and steel with better results has
resulting material properties. been excellent with the use of the CMT welding process
[21]. Wu et al. [22] examined the effect of the cooling
arc CMT process on AM. The results showed that CMT
WAAM method mode was the most stable process, and CMT plus pulse
Many researchers are successfully utilising arc-based (CMT + P) mode with an alternating of CMT and pulse
welding technologies in WAAM. The welding tech- processes had a finer grain and bigger hardness. Feng
niques employed in WAAM are GMAW, GTAW, and et al. [23] found out that the CMT process is suitable for
PAW. The selection of the welding method for WAAM welding thin aluminium alloy sheets due to the low heat
depends on the type of material and applications. In input and the slight deformation. In another investiga-
GMAW, the source of heat is an arc formed between tion, Prado-Cerqueira et al. [24] reported the problem
a consumable metal electrode and the workpiece that that could be discovered from the use of GMAW equip-
melts together to create a weld pool that fuses to form a ment as thermal input. This excessive thermal input can
joint [14]. The rate at which the material transfer from lead to deformation in both the substrate and the weld
the tip of the consumable electrode into the weld pool beads. To overcome this challenge, the CMT welding
has a significant impact on the overall performance of technique has been proposed by many researchers as
GMAW as it influences process stability, spatter gener- an effective method to subdue this problem [24]. In
ation, weld quality, and the positional capabilities of the addition, the effect of porosity and cracks in WAAM
process (Figure 3). of fabricated parts can be reduced or eliminated by
In arc-based processes like GMAW, deposition adopting advanced techniques such as CMT. The pres-
rates of up to 8 kg h–1 can be actualised [16,17]. ence of pores in the built-up samples in the WAAM
When compared with GTAW- and PAW-based WAAM, process has been reported by Veiga et al. [25], as the

Figure 3. Parameters affecting WAAM product quality. Reprinted from Ref. [15].
394 B. O. OMIYALE ET AL.

main challenge facing GMAW deposition. The study Recent aluminium alloys manufactured using
further demonstrated that the level of pores generated WAAM
through GMAW deposition can be reduced with alter-
For enhancing energy efficiency and mechanical per-
nating negative and positive intensity energy cycles or
formance, new novel aluminium alloys are now being
the alternating current (AC) mode.
developed and manufactured using WAAM techniques
In GTAW, filler material, shielding gas, and heat
for the applications of aerospace and automotive indus-
source have been widely regarded as the significant
tries. These new aluminium alloys have been developed
basic requirements needed for the GTAW process [26].
by alloying them with new elements, such Silicon (Si),
GTAW uses a non-consumable electrode to produce the
Manganese (Mn), Magnesium (Mg), Zinc (Zn), Iron
arc and the filler material is fed externally with a shield-
(Fe), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), Titanium (Ti), Zir-
ing gas applied to protect the arc and the weld pool area
conium (Zr), Lithium (Li), Lead (Pb), Bismuth (Bi),
[27,28], which is different from GMAW, as it employs
Copper (Cu), etc., to exert robust mechanical proper-
the filler material as the electrode. GTAW uses tungsten
ties and also to improve the printability of the printed
as the electrode to produce arc [26].
parts.
GTAW is complex, and it is significantly slower than
Gu et al. [32] applied inter-layer rolling to the
most other welding techniques. To improve the work-
WAAM Al–Mg4.5Mn alloy with increasing loads of 15,
ability and controllability in GTAW, an innovatively
30, and 45 kN to achieve excellent mechanical prop-
modified filler metal and arcing-wire GTAW process
erties for 5087 (Al–Mg4.5–Mn) alloys. It was reported
were experimentally demonstrated by Chen et al. [29].
that the combination process of rolling deformation
It was reported that the experimental data and the
with WAAM deposition is referred to as an effec-
comparative analysis suggested that the arcing process
tive method in refining microstructure and enhancing
and the deposition speed improve the measure of the
mechanical properties for AM aluminium alloys.
weld controllability. Hence, further research studies are
Radovic et al. [33] observed deformation behaviour
expected to cover the advanced techniques that can
and microstructure evolution of AlMg6Mn alloy dur-
be used to improve the workability and controllability
ing shear spinning. The result showed that the addition
in GTAW to outperform the conventional GTAW and
of alloying elements contributed to grain refinement
GMAW processes.
and dislocation reactions with particles and atoms of
PAW is a process similar to GTAW as the arc is
Mg and Mn in solid solution.
formed between a pointed tungsten electrode and the
In another study, Panchenko et al. [34] developed
workpiece [30]. At present, major limitations of a PAW
a high-performance-controlled short-circuiting metal
process include noisy operation, harmful irradiation,
transfer process at a wire feed rate of 12 m min–1 for
and higher cost of PAW maintenance. In the PAW pro-
WAAM with an Al–Mg–Mn alloying system. The result
cess, flow rates for shielding gases are usually in the
showed an improvement in the mechanical properties
range of 5–15 L min–1 for low–current applications.
of the fabricated parts with 41% elongation of the tensile
For high–current welding, flow rates of 15–32 L min–1
samples.
are used. PAW provides high-quality welds with very
Gu et al. [35] examined the effect of inter-layer cold
little distortion at a high torch travel speed and high
working and post-deposition heat treatment on the
energy density arc, but it requires high capital expen-
additively manufactured Al–6.3Cu alloy. The ultimate
diture as compared to GTAW and GMAW [20,31], and
tensile strength and yield strength of the inter-layer
the ability to produce lightweight components from
rolled alloy with 45-kN load are 314 and 244 MPa,
costly materials such as aluminium and titanium with-
respectively. After T6 treatment, the UTS and YS of
out material waste. This makes arc and plasma AM
both of the as-deposited and 45-kN rolled alloys sur-
interesting for many commercial industries, in partic-
passed 450 and 305 MPa, respectively, which are higher
ular aerospace, automotive, and medical industries.
than the properties of the wrought 2219 T6 alloy.
Among the different WAAM processes, GMAW in
Qi et al. [36] examined the double-wire plasma sys-
the CMT process mode has been regarded as a suit-
tem for WAAM of Al–6.3Cu alloy and added Mg into
able choice for aluminium alloys. The CMT utilises
Al–Cu alloy to enhance the mechanical properties. The
short circuit welding to detach single droplets of feed-
amount of Cu and Mg was optimised with the wire
stock wire into the weld pool. Whereas GTAW and
feed speed. The ultimate tensile strength, yield strength,
PAW utilise a non-consumable tungsten electrode to
and elongation of the deposit in horizontal direction
produce the weld. This is different from the CMT, the
were 176MPa, 76.6MPa, and 11.4%, respectively. More-
wire is fed through the arc with a variable direction
over, the mechanical properties of the sample’s built-in
oriented to the substrate surface. Moreover, the feed-
vertical direction were slightly lower than the sample’s
ing of filler wire through variable orientation direction
built-in horizontal direction.
during GTAW and PAW processes affects the character-
An et al. [37] researched the effects of vanadium
istics and quality of the deposited product as reported
content on the microstructure, tensile properties, and
by Ding et al. [19].
 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 395

impact toughness of Ti–6Al–xV components produced irradiation-induced stress corrosion cracking (IISCC).
by WAAM. It was reported that a monotonic increase Experience has shown that aircraft components made
in yield strength and ultimate tensile strength was from Al 7075-T6 tend to corrode rapidly, particu-
observed with the increase of vanadium content while larly in aircraft operating in marine environments [49].
the fracture strain and impact toughness changed in The wear and corrosion behaviour of the WAAM-
the opposite trend. In addition, irregular-shaped, plate- fabricated aluminium alloys need to be properly exam-
like features without columnar grains and heat-affected ined because the aluminium alloy-based components
zone (HAZ) banding were obtained in Ti–6Al–xV alloy. are highly utilised in the area where it encounters wear
In another investigation, Vishnukumar et al. [38] and corrosion during its service life [47]. Excessively
utilised WAAM for repairing aluminium structures in corroded parts have to be replaced for visible safety rea-
marine environments. Being a marine-suitable Al grade sons and the replacement costs are high. Hence, there is
when exposed to sea water regularly, its corrosion- a need to fully investigate EAC behaviour in WAAM Al
resistant properties decline over time. To restore the alloy-fabricated parts.
corroded surfaces, it was reported that aluminium filler WAAM technology has witnessed appreciable indu-
material ER4043 was deposited on AA5052 using CMT strial growth recently, while basic properties such as
process-based WAAM technology. impact toughness, tensile strength, and hardness are
widely reported. Despite the robust advantage that
came with the technology of WAAM techniques, there
3D-printing of aluminium components by
are still some potential challenges associated with the
WAAM
processing of Al alloys using the WAAM system. How-
Aluminium alloys are widely used in different industrial ever, aluminium can be further alloyed with other
applications such as aerospace, shipbuilding, and auto- metals to subdue some of these challenges [50]. Lan-
motive industries because of their lightweight, excel- gelandsvik et al. [51] investigated WAAM with TiC-
lent mechanical properties, and high corrosion resis- nanoparticle reinforced AA5183 Al–Mg alloy. By the
tance [5,6]. WAAM is capable of manufacturing high- incorporation of nanoparticles in the feedstock wire,
strength components with complex design and geomet- TiC-modified AA5183 Al–Mg alloy exhibited fine-
ric accuracy as it is done by layer-by-layer addition of grain refinement with the attainment of improved
material. WAAM often displays outstanding benefits in strength. The hardness increased by 13% with the addi-
the manufacturing of complex parts. tion of TiC. In another study, Hauser et al. [52] exam-
As a result of this, there is keen interest from ined pore formation in WAAM of AW 4043/AlSi5(wt-
researchers to manufacture aluminium-based struc- %). It was reported that the large number of pores
tures using WAAM by controlling the various depo- exhibited in aluminium parts is in relation to the shield-
sition parameters for the production of aerospace ing gas flow rate, since at a higher gas flow rate, the melt
and automotive spare parts. The usage of various pool solidifies faster as a result of increased convective
aluminium alloys in WAAM is currently gaining cooling, thus preventing the process-related gas inclu-
awareness among many researchers [39–41]. Recently sions from escaping. Since a lower gas flow rate leads
conducted research shows that the most promising to reduced convective cooling, the melt pool remains
alloys are Al–Li [42], Al–Cu [43,44], Al–Mg [45–47], as a liquid for a longer period allowing trapped gas in
Al–Zn–Mg–Cu [48], Al–Cu–Mg [42,43], Al–Si–Mg the melt pool to escape, thus reducing porosity. Zhou
[45], Al–Mg–Si [44], and Al–Mg–Mn [46,47]. Among et al. [53] mixed Nb powder with a mean particle size
all these categories of various aluminium alloys, of 15 μm to the molten pool during WAAM of 5B06 alu-
Al–Mg–Mn and Al–Zn–Mg alloys have shown sig- minium part. It was observed that fine equiaxed grains
nificant improvement due to their high strength and with a mean size of lesser than 50 μm were attained.
corrosion resistance properties. Moreover, the appli- An improvement in both the ultimate tensile strength
cation of these alloys is widely used in shipbuilding, and elongation of the Nb-added samples with enhanced
aerospace, and automotive industries as the main man- micro-hardness was reported due to the refined grain
ufacturing materials [47,48], which makes it reasonable structure.
to use Al–Mg–Mn and Al–Zn–Mg alloys in WAAM of The parts manufactured by WAAM require perfor-
high-value parts. mance characteristics with the quality of the deposit,
To further improve the mechanical performance of surface finish (Table 3), geometry accuracy, includ-
WAAM Al alloys parts, there is a need to analyse the ing the microstructural features (grain structure, grain
influence of environmentally assisted cracking (EAC) size, texture, etc.), and resultant mechanical proper-
on the mechanical properties of the corrosion-resistant ties (hardness, tensile strength, impact strength, yield
metallic parts fabricated by the WAAM method. EAC strength, compression strength, etc.).
often influences a wide range of failure in materials such Enhancement of the mechanical properties of
as stress corrosion cracking (SCC), hydrogen embrit- WAAM aluminium alloys is highly demanding in
tlement (HE), sulphide stress cracking (SSC), and recent times. The mechanical properties and quality
396 B. O. OMIYALE ET AL.

performance of the AM aluminium parts fabricated by was also noted that most commercial industries have
the WAAM system need more improvements for struc- been exploring WAAM machines to additively man-
tural applications. The production of lightweight struc- ufactured aluminium alloyed parts for the benefit of
tures using WAAM techniques to attain robust mechan- the aerospace and automotive industries. Tables 2–4
ical properties will not only enhance aircraft perfor- present the data of microstructural, surface quality, and
mance but also increase its acceleration efficiency. Sev- mechanical properties of aluminium alloy fabricated
eral research works have been extensively carried out to from the WAAM process.
improve the mechanical properties and structural per-
formance of the WAAM-fabricated aluminium parts Current applications of aluminium alloys
by varying different manufacturing parameters, which produced by WAAM in aerospace and
include arc mode [54], wire feeding speed [51], speed automotive industries.
of the torch [51,54–58], and by applying post-process
treatment [59] (Table 1). Current breakthrough in WAAM technology has made
Therefore, lots of research work related to WAAM it possible to attract significant industrial attention in
of aluminium alloys has been published to charac- recent times due to its ability to produce functional
terise various types of mechanical properties (Table 4) parts which include impeller shaft and aircraft landing
and microstructural performance (Table 2) of WAAM- gear ribs (Figure 4) with a weight saving of approxi-
processed Aluminium alloys under different manu- mately 78% in raw material when compared with the
facturing conditions. Table 4 consists of the various conventional subtractive manufacturing process [28].
mechanical properties examined by researchers for dif- The aerospace and automotive industries require man-
ferent types of WAAM-processed aluminium alloys, ufactured parts with enhanced mechanical properties
namely Al–Mg, Al–Zn–Mg, Al–Mg–Mn, Al–Cu, Al– which meet operating standards set for their usage.
Mg–Si, Al–Si, Al–Cu–Mg, Al–Mg–Sc, Al3Nb, Al 7055, The possibility of employing WAAM technology for
Al 4043, Al 5356 and Al 5183. the mass production of spare parts for the replace-
To produce highly valued parts using WAAM ment of damaged components in the aerospace and
technology, aluminium can be further alloyed with automotive industries is highly laudable, as this will
other alloying elements to improve its processabili- reduce delivery lead time and scarcity of spare parts
ties and mechanical performance [50]. As for the ten- in the workshop for the maintenance of aerospace and
sile strength, Table 4 reveals that some Al alloys like automotive equipment and facilities for improved effi-
Al–Zn–Mg [55], Al3Nb [53], Al–Cu [35], Al–Mg–Mn ciency and performance. A lot of parts, as well as
[32], Al–Mg–Sc [67], Al–Mg–Si [12], Al 5183 [70] spare parts, can be manufactured by using WAAM
exhibited a high tensile strength of about 324, 360, 450, when necessary, thus eliminating the need for stor-
344, 363, 354.5, and 293 MPa, respectively. As pre- age or remote transport of them. The quality of the
sented in Table 4, the yield strength of the selected parts built with the WAAM-manufactured aluminium
WAAM Al alloys such as Al–Zn–Mg [55], Al–Mg–Mn alloys for the production of spare parts in aerospace
[32], Al–Mg–Sc [67], Al–Cu [35], and Al–Mg–Si [12] and automotive equipment and facilities can be further
indicated a high yield strength of 208, 240, 258, 305, improved by incorporating the various sensors with
310 MPa respectively, while Al3Nb [53], Al 5183 [70], the WAAM system to measure welding signals [82],
Al–Mg–Sc [67], Al–Mg [62], and Al 5356 [25] showed metal transfer behaviour [83], deposited bead geometry
appreciable elongation of 20%, 20%, 26%, 27%, and [84], and interpass temperature [85], thereby support-
33%, respectively. ing in-process monitoring and control to attain higher
It is well-known that manufactured parts used in product performance [17].
aerospace and automotive applications are frequently According to Zhu et al. [86], the relatively high spe-
exposed to operating conditions such as high fatigue, cific strength and stiffness, good ductility and corrosion
impact, wear, high-stress conditions, and high vari- resistance, low price, and excellent manufacturability
able temperature through their daily usage in service. and reliability make advanced aluminium alloys a pop-
Hence, it is necessary to determine the mechanical ular choice of lightweight materials in many aerospace
response of the different combinations of alloying ele- and automotive structural applications. The applica-
ments in aluminium parts produced by WAAM under tion of lightweight structures brings benefits to aircraft
different loading and operating conditions. performance, e.g. increased energy efficiency, accel-
Table 1 highlights a key published research litera- eration performance, payload, flight endurance, and
ture conducted on WAAM of aluminium alloys, which reduced life cycle cost and greenhouse gas emissions.
are reviewed in detail in this study, presenting the The advantages of using WAAM for the production of
main findings of each article, considering the pro- spare parts in the aerospace and automotive industries
cess conditions (such as welding speed, current, volt- can be briefly described as follows:
age, build orientation, and deposition strategy), types (a) The possibility to create 3D components with large
of mechanical properties, and AM machine used. It complex parts, which can be difficult or impossible
 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 397

Table 1. Summary of the process conditions and mechanical properties of WAAM-manufactured aluminium alloys.
Mechanical properties
Material Process conditions evaluated Main findings Machine Ref.
Al–Zn–Mg (a) Welding speed = 20–35 cm Tensile strength, yield (a) Increased tensile strength, WAAM [55]
min–1 strength, elongation, yield strength, and elongation
(b) Current = 97–112 A and hardness for the horizontal samples
(c) Voltage = 16.1–17.4 V (b) Enhanced microhardness
value for the as-deposited
material
(c) The WAAM-manufactured
parts exhibited a mixed
ductile–brittle fracture
Al–Mg–Mn–TiC (a) Current = 85 A Tensile strength, hardness (a) TiC-modified AA5183 Al–Mg WAAM [51]
(b) Voltage = 11.9 V alloy exhibited grain refine-
(c) Travel ment compared to a commer-
speed = 0.48 m = min cial AA5183 benchmark
(d) Wire feed speed = 5.8 (b) Increased hardness by 13%
(m = min) with the addition of TiC
Al–Mg–Mn (a) CMT = 320 min, Tensile strength, hardness (a) Enhanced hardness for the WAAM [60]
(b) CMT-ADV = 250 min, CMT-PADV
(c) CMT-PADV = 215 min (b) Lower tensile strength in the
vertical direction
Al–Mg–Mn (a) Polarity variation = 10:10, Macro- and microstructure, (a) Increased surface quality of WAAM [61]
(b) Mean wire feed and mechanical the final specimen due to the
rate = 4.5–5.2 m min–1 properties control of the heat input dur-
(c) Deposition rate = 08.1- ing the intrinsic heat treat-
0.94 kg h–1 ment
(d) Current I/Imax
(A) = 76/109:86/107:74/94 A,
(e) Mean voltage
U = 8.6:12.4:10.6 V,
(f) Travel speed = 12,
(g) Energy input per unit
length = 56:90:67 (J mm–1 ).
Al–Mg (a) Deposition strategy (circling Tensile strength, yield (a) A resultant porosity below WAAM [62]
and hatching), strength 0.035% in both Ar + circling
(b) Shielding gas, and Stargold + hatching
(c) Gas flow rate = (30 L min–1 , cases
25 L min–1 , 18 L min–1 ) (b) High porosity levels (up to
2.86 area %) obtained in the
worst conditions, which had a
reduced impact on the static
tensile test
Al–Zn–Mg (a) Arc mode = (CMT, CMT + P, The tensile strength and (a) The tensile and yield strength WAAM [54]
CMT + A, CMT + PA), yield strength of the CMT + PA sample show
(b) Wire feeding speed = 0.6 m the optimum tensile proper-
min–1 , ties among the samples fabri-
(c) Deposition speed = 6 m cated by different arc modes
min–1 ,
(d) Shielding gas flow = 20 L
min–1
Al–Mg (a) Current = 30–50A, Tensile strength, hardness (a) Highest tensile properties WAAM [56]
(b) Arc voltage = 14–15 V), obtained in the L direction
(c) Welding speed = 12–15 mm (b) Lowest mechanical properties
s–1 , obtained for the T direction
(d) Wire feed rate = 2–3 m m–1 ,
(e) In Deposition rate = 0.5–2 kg
h–1 )
(f) Layer height = 0.5–2 mm,
Electrode to layer
angle = 90°
(g) Wire diameter = 1.2 mm
Al–Cu and Al–Mg (a) Inter-layer rolled = 5 KN, 10 Tensile strength and (a) Micropores number, volume, WAAM [59]
KN, 45 KN. microstructure size, and roundness in rolled
(b) Rolled heat treated = 45 KN properties alloys decreases with increas-
ing loads
Al–Mg and Al–Si (a) Open circuit volt- Physical properties (a) WAAM depends on setting WAAM [63]
age = (15.2V, 15.3V, (thermal expansion heat source modification for
18.0V) coefficient, thermal every layer is an effective way
(b) Arc current = (156A, 177A, conductivity, specific to conduct WAAM properly
115A) heat capacity, tempera- (b) Improve deposition efficiency
(c) Travel speed = (8 mm s–1 , ture dependent elastic and manufacturability via
6 mm s–1 , 6 mm s–1 ) modulus adequate heat source settings
(d) Process efficiency = (0.9, 0.9)
Al–Si (a) Uni-directional Tensile strength, hardness (a) Optimum WAAM sample was WAAM [64]
(b) Bi-directional strategy achieved via bi-directional
strategy and operating with
lower heat input process
parameters
(continued)
398 B. O. OMIYALE ET AL.

Table 1. Continued.
Mechanical properties
Material Process conditions evaluated Main findings Machine Ref.
Al–Cu–Mn (a) The bypass current ratios Ultimate tensile strengths, With bypass cur- Double-electrode [65]
with = 0%, 50%, 70%, 90%. microhardness rent ratio from 0% to 70% gas metal
(b) Bypass current = 0A, 80A, (a) Increase in ultimate tensile arc additive
112A, 144A strengths was obtained manufacturing
(c) Arc voltage = 22.5V (b) Enhanced elongation. (GE-GMA)
(d) Travel speed = 0.6 m min–1
(e) Total current = 160V.
Al–Zn–Mg–Cu (a) EP Current = 220 A, Microhardness, tensile (a) The average yield strength WAAM [57]
(b) EN Current = 120 A, strength, yield strength and ultimate strength are
(c) EN-EP Balance = 80 % higher in the vertical direction
(d) AC Frequency = 105 Hz, than in the horizontal while
(e) Arc Length = 4 mm the difference in elongation is
small
ER-4043 Aluminium (a) Gas Pressure = 12, 10, 14 bar Tensile strength, hardness, (a) The A3, B3 & C2 specimen WAAM [66]
(b) Current = 55, 60, 65 Ampere has maximum tensile strength
(c) Nozzle distance = 6, 8, while A3, B3 & C3 specimen
10 mm has maximum Hardness
Al–Mg–Sc (a) Current (I) = (49A, 102 A) Tensile strength, yield (a) High tensile strength, yield Double-Wire [67]
(b) Arc voltage (U) = (14.5V, 18.3 strength strength, and elongation of Arc Additive
V) the horizontally oriented spec- Manufacturing
(c) Travel speed (TS) = 10 mm imens
s–1
(d) Wire feed speed = (3 mm
min–1 , 6 mm min–1 )
Al–Si (a) Travel speeds = 600 mm microstructure and (a) CMT parameters leads to the WAAM [68]
min–1 , 1200 mm min–1 , morphological aspect understanding of the metal
2400 mm min–1 of the deposited weld transfer process, which could
(b) Average power = 1039 W, beads. be used to control minimal
1470 W, 1660 W, variations of a fixed configu-
ration in order to improve the
geometrical characteristics of
the multilayer deposit
Al–Cu (a) Diameter = 3 mm Microstructure, residual (a) Decrease in grain size WAAM [69]
(b) Wire diameter = 1.2 mm, stress, and tensile (b) Increased percentage of
(c) Wire feed speed = 1.5 m properties grains with low angle
min–1 boundaries
(d) Shielding gas: (c) Modified residual stresses
argon = 99.99% purity, from tensile to compressive
(e) Shielding gas flow rate = 15 L state
min–1
(f) Travel speed = 0.3 m min–1

to achieve through conventional manufacturing of spare parts in the aerospace and automotive indus-
processes [87,88]. tries. High-strength Al–Zn–Mg–Cu alloys are widely
(b) The possibility of use in a wide range of materials utilised in the aerospace industry, owing to their high
[87–89]. strength-to-density ratio and competitive cost. WAAM
(c) Flexibility in making complex parts [90]. has the potential to create aluminium components with
(d) The possibility to create high-quality parts, while a robust design and improved mechanical properties
maintaining the mechanical strength and at the [32,93–95]. The usage of aluminium alloys in WAAM
same time benefiting from a lower weight of the has attracted huge attention in the aerospace and auto-
components [87,91]. motive industries, especially for the production of
(e) The increasing demands of aluminium parts, par- structural parts of airplanes [39,41]. Aluminium alloys
ticularly alloy with high strength in the aerospace are of particular interest due to their high strength
and automobile domain, can be actualised with (Figure 6), low mass density, excellent ductility, and
the use of WAAM as a future economic opportu- high corrosion resistance; high electrical and ther-
nity [92]. Figures 4 and 5 present some aluminium mal conductive properties and very good manufac-
products fabricated with the WAAM process. turability (such as extrusion, rolling, bending, welding,
repairability, and AM) render aluminium alloys the
most promising aerospace and automotive materials
Use of WAAM on aluminium alloys in [5,6]. Josten and Höfemann [97] utilised arc welding-
aerospace and automotive industries based AM for body reinforcement in automotive engi-
In recent years, different research groups are concen- neering. It was reported that the WAAM process can
trating their studies on the usage of aluminium alloys be used to reinforce body components in automotive
for the WAAM system [44,60]. Different range of alu- engineering by generating stiffening elements. In auto-
minium alloys are being examined by many researchers motive industries, WAAM could be used for creating
using the WAAM process to enhance the production local stiffening elements to reinforce critical body parts
 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 399

Table 2. Microstructure properties aluminium alloy WAAM-manufactured component.

Material Process Condition Microstructure Machine Ref.
Al 5087 CMT AF Coarse grain structure WAAM [32]
Rolled (45KN) Fine-grain structure rolling texture
Al 5356 GMAW Ar shield Al and Al3 Mg2 phases WAAM [71]
N2 shield Al, Al3 Mg2 and AIN phases
Al 5183 CMT AF Smaller columnar grain WAAM [72]
CMT + P AF Smaller columnar grain
CMT + ADV AF Coarser columnar grain
Al 4220 CMT T6 heat treatment The size of the α-Al and eutectic silicon grains increased WAAM [73]
Al 5356 CMT + P AF Evenly disperse fine porosity (less than 50 μm) WAAM [8]
Al 5356 CMT AF α-phase (Al) and β-phase (Al3 Mg2 ) WAAM [74]
Al 5556 CMT, AF The average grain size measured in the CMT process was 63.3 μm in WAAM [60]
the lower wall section
(CMT-ADV) AF The multilayer samples welded using the CMT-ADV and CMT-PADV
arc modes with alternating polarity showed a significantly finer
microstructure with a cellular grain structure compared to the
welded sample using the standard CMT method
(CMT + PADV) AF
Al 5056 CSC AF Smaller Coarse grains. Columnar grains are located in the lower part of WAAM [34]
each deposited layer and fine grains in the upper part
Al 2024 CMT + PADV AF The microstructure of the as-deposited alloy was characterised by a WAAM [43]
hierarchical distribution of dendrites, equiaxed grains, and a slight
number of columnar grains
Key: AF: As-fabricated; CMT: Cold metal transfer; P: Pulse; ADV: Advanced; Controlled short-circuiting (CSC) metal transfer.

Table 3. Surface quality of aluminium alloy WAAM-manufactured component.

Material Condition Main findings Machine Ref
Al–Si (a) Wire filling speed = 5.5 m When the milling thickness (t) is at the range of 0.4–1.2 mm. WAAM/ Milling system [75]
min−1 The surface roughness and manufacturing allowance of
(b) Scanning speed = 8 mms−1 the wall was reduced by 22.9% and 31.6% respectively, as
(c) Arc current = 127 A compared to the component deposited by WAAM
(d) Arc voltage = 17.5 V
(e) Feed rate = 25 mm s−1
(f) Spindle speed = 12,000 r
min−1
(g) Milling thickness = (0 mm,
0.4 mm, 0.8 mm, 1.2 mm,
1.6 mm).
Al–Mg (a) Wire feed speed It was stated that an increase in torch speed over the higher WAAM [76]
(WFS) = 4.9 m min–1 limit can result in top surface undulation and a decrease
(b) Shielding and trailing in torch speed below the lower limit can lead to surface
gas = 4.5 waviness. However, the surface waviness of the component
(c) Ar, shielding gas flow can be reduced by pre-heating the substrate to a suitable
(GFR) = 15 L min–1 temperature
(d) Contact tip-to-workpiece dis-
tance (CTWD) = 15 mm
Ni-based superalloys (a) Travel speed = 78 to 90 mm It was demonstrated that when the substrate is heated to 300 WAAM [77]
min–1 °C, the surface waviness was significantly decreased due to
(b) Deposition current = 22 to the increased wettability of each layer
26 A
(c) Feed rate = 4 to 5.5 g min–1

[99] studied metal AM in aircraft, current application,

[97]. Thapliyal [47] reported that the product devel-
opportunities, and its challenges. It is concluded that
oped using WAAM exhibited robust mechanical prop-
metal AM provides a new solution in terms of weight,
erties which are better than the wrought or cast prod-
cost, and time reductions for the production of spare
ucts of aluminium. Hirsch [96] studied recent devel-
parts in the aircraft manufacturing industry.
opment in aluminium for automotive applications. It
is concluded that aluminium is the ideal lightweight
material for the production of car body parts (such as
body-in-white (BIW), hoods, doors, wings, bumpers,
Challenges facing the application of WAAM in
and interiors) as it allows a weight saving of up to
aerospace and automotive industries
50% without compromising safety (Figure 7) [98]. In The application of WAAM aluminium alloys has been
another study, Botila [20] considered that the use of alu- constrained by common defects which include porosity
minium alloys (such as Al–Cu–Mg, Al–Li, Al–Cu-Sn, defect [57,63,77], oxidation (surface oxidation and oxi-
Al–Si–Mg, and Al–Mg) in the construction of aircraft dation anomalies) [59], humping effect [63,77], crack-
structural elements reduces their total mass and thus ing [101,102], distortion [103], high levels of resid-
allows them to become more efficient in terms of fuel ual stress [77,103], geometrical accuracy, delamination,
consumption (as shown in Figure 8). Zhang and Liang and deformation [104]. These defects usually affect the
400 B. O. OMIYALE ET AL.

Figure 4. (a) Impeller shaft produced by Harlow-FasTech using a combination of WAAM and machining. Reprinted from Ref. [93], (b)
An example of a part printed by Lincoln Electric via WAAM. Reprinted from Ref. [94].

Table 4. Mechanical properties of aluminium alloys fabricated geometric tolerance, delamination of layers during
from WAAM processes. deposition, and deterioration of fatigue performance of
Tensile Yield WAAM-processed products [104]. According to Jarari
Aluminium strength strength et al. [77], the residual stress has been regarded as
alloys Condition (MPa) (MPa) Elongation % Ref.
a major cause of distortions, the loss of geometrical
Al–Zn–Mg HOS 324 208 9.66 [55]
Al–Mg AF 270 110 27 [62] accuracy in WAAM components, due to large thermal
Al–Zn–Mg VOS 299 188 8.98 [55] gradients during repeated melting and cooling pro-
Al–Cu AF 260 132 15.5 [78]
Al3 Nb AF 360 - 20 [53]
cesses, besides its influence on mechanical properties
Al–Mg–Si HOS 176 76.6 11.4 [36] and grain structures [105]. The distortions are caused
Al 5183 AF 293 145 - [70] by thermal expansion and shrinkage of the part dur-
Al–Cu AF 314 244 - [35]
Al–Cu AHT 450 305 - [35] ing repeated melting and cooling processes, which is a
Al–Mg–Mn ILR 344 240 - [32] major challenge for large thin-walled structures [88].
Al 4043 PF 108.6 40 14.5 [79]
Al 7055 AF 230 148.3 3.3 [57]
Al 5356 VOS 264 106 27 [25]
Al 5356 HOS 277 111 33 [25]
Al–Mg–Sc HOS 363 258 26 [67] Porosity
Al 5356 HOS 267 114.9 28.3 [8]
Al 5356 VOS 253 114.9 17.1 [8] One of the challenges facing the acceptability of WAAM
Al–Cu VOS 258 106 15.5 [80] for aluminium component production is high levels of
Al–Cu HOS 263 114 18.3 [80]
Al 5183 AF 293 145 20 [70] porosity [105]. As described in Ryan et al. [106], many
Al 4043 AF 151.91 69.7 16.8 [81] factors might affect porosity, including wire feed speed,
Al–Cu–Mg OH 293 185 12 [43]
Al–Cu–Mg AHT 245 185 4 [43] travel speed, metal transfer mode, and wire batch. WFS
Al 5183 VOS 293 145 - [70] refers to the rate at which the wire is fed to the arc and is
Al–Mg–Si AF 354.5 310 6.3 [12]
influenced by current and voltage. TS refers to the rate
VOS: Vertically oriented built sample; AF: As-fabricated; HOS: Horizontally-
oriented built sample; AHT: After heat treated; ILR: Interlayer rolling; PF:
that the arc moves to the workpiece.
Pulse frequency. In another study, Horgar et al. [70] pointed out
other factors that might influence the porosity in alu-
minium welds such as cleaning of support plate and
wire, wire surface quality, shield gas cleanliness, weld-
ing parameters, and polarity. Gu et al. [107] described
that the surface finish of the wire could significantly
affect porosity as wires with poor surface finish result
in unstable arcs during WAAM, and unstable arcs are
related to porosity.
About WAAM of aluminium alloys, Horgar et al.
Figure 5. Spar made of aluminium alloy for the aerospace [70] and Cong et al. [108] reported that one of the major
industry, using robotised WAAM. Reprinted from Ref. [95]. issues for aluminium alloy is pore formation in the built
parts.
mechanical performance of aluminium alloys WAAM-
manufactured parts in service.
Humping defect
Humping is a common defect in WAAM samples fabri-
Residual stress and distortions or deformation
cated using GMAW [109]. Humping defect also plays
The residual stress results in significant plastic defor- a major role in the reduction of hardness and tensile
mation, leading to warping and distortion, loss of strength of the fabricated WAAM sample [110,111]. As
 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 401

can promote the shrinkage of a liquid channel. The final

factor is the capillary instability, making the weld pool
unstable and susceptible to collapse [112].
Koli et al. [110] described that in the GMAW pro-
cess, the humping defect happens due to inappropri-
ate selection of process parameters, heat input, travel
speed, surface condition, and chemical composition
of the base. It is concluded that the humping defect
can be controlled by using low heat input parameters
which ultimately improve the mechanical properties of
WAAM-manufactured components [110].

Figure 6. Aluminium high strength aerospace components.

Reprinted from Ref. [100]. Cracking
Cracking is another common defect that is often
discussed by Wu et al. [112], three factors are respon- observed in aluminium alloy fusion welds and is a
sible for the humping formation. The first factor is function of how the metal alloy solidifies. The crack
the high momentum of the backward fluid flow, which is located in the high-temperature part of the reheated
causes the initiation and growth of swelling. The sec- area with equiaxed grains and occurred in some other
ond factor is the large variation of the capillary pressure beads as well [70]. According to Koli et al. [110], ten-
of the liquid channel in the welding direction, which sile residual stress causes crack nucleation and further

Figure 7. Final super light car (SLC)-body multi material concept. Reprinted from Ref. [96].

Figure 8. Hybrid metal/composite airframe of aircraft. Reprinted from Ref. [90].

402 B. O. OMIYALE ET AL.

crack propagation under tensile load conditions and force, which is essential for the behaviour in-service
results in tensile failure [113]. In one study, Gu et al. of AM parts. Wang et al. [79] examined the effect of
[114] worked on the design and cracking susceptibility pulse frequency and arc current on the gas pores and
of additively manufactured Al–Cu–Mg alloys with tan- grains for arc AM Al–5Si alloy. It was reported that
dem wires and pulsed arc. It was reported that the heat coarse grains and gas pores are two major problems
input during layer deposition has a significant influ- that limit the application of AM aluminium alloys. The
ence on cracking susceptibility. Recently, some studies experiments conducted on pulse frequency and arc cur-
have shown that high and low cycle fatigues can cause rent have a significant influence on the macrostruc-
crack initiation, crack growth, and finally ultimate fail- ture, microstructure, porosity, and tensile properties of
ure within a material [115,116]. However, fatigue has the fabricated samples. The results showed that finely
been a dominant mechanical failure mode in aero- grained microstructure was obtained with low pulse
engines [117]. High cycle fatigue is regarded as one frequency and low arc current as a result of the rapid
of the major causes of turbine failures in military air- cooling of the molten pool. Honnige et al. [120] exam-
craft [45]. To avoid mechanical failure in an aero- ined the effect of vertical inter-pass rolling and post-
engine, it is crucial to investigate the effect of fatigue deposition side rolling on 2319 aluminium walls fabri-
crack initiation (FCI) and short crack growth (SCG) cated by WAAM techniques. It was demonstrated that
in the aeroengine spare parts produced with the use vertical inter-pass rolling modifies the residual stress in
of additively manufactured aluminium alloys materi- aluminium WAAM, and it also eliminates the distor-
als [118]. In WAAM techniques, process parameters tion. Moreover, post-deposition side rolling is regarded
(such as voltage, wire feed speed, current, inter-pass as an effective method for controlling residual stresses
temperature, and shielding gas flow), material com- and distortion in additively manufactured aluminium
position, environmental conditions (such as gas con- parts with the increase in the hardness by work hard-
tamination) [77], and many other factors can signifi- ening. Hu et al. [121] worked on a region-based plan-
cantly influence oxidation effects. Porosity and cracks ning method with all horizontal welding positions for
have been described as the major dominating setback robotic curved layer (CL) WAAM. The results sug-
which often limits the application of aluminium alloys. gested that the surface waviness and thickness were
These defects serve as the location of stress concen- relatively consistent at the arbitrary region of the com-
tration through which the failure of the part begins. plex surface with the region-based method, and the
The adverse effect of porosity and cracks in WAAM stair-step effect that appeared in flat layer WAAM was
can be completely debased by the optimisation of the significantly alleviated with the CL-WAAM. Zeng et al.
process parameters and by employing advanced tech- [122] investigated the influence of surface profile on
niques such as the CMT method approach. According the laser ultrasonic inspection of WAAM defects. The
to Sames et al. [104], process parameters can be prop- experimental results showed that surface roughness has
erly adjusted to avoid a range of mechanisms that can a significant effect on the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of
create pores in the Al alloy processing parts. Fu et al. internal through-hole detection, and surface waviness
[98] investigated hot wire arc additive manufacturing has a significant effect on the sensitivity of superficial
(HWAAM) of aluminium alloy with reduced porosity crack detection. In one study, Parmar et al. [123] stated
and high deposition rate. It was reported that porosity that the single-bead geometrical errors produced dur-
and low deposition rate are two dominating techni- ing the building process of the next layer of material
cal challenges in the WAAM of aluminium alloy. It in WAAM can be minimised by incorporating robotic
is concluded that the mechanical properties of alu- and welding technologies. Xia et al. [124] investigated
minium components were improved with the reduction the anomalies generated during the deposition process,
of porosity, and the optimal performance of ultimate such as humping, spattering, and robot suspending.
tensile strength, yield strength, and elongation were 399 To recognise these anomalies automatically, convolu-
MPa, 257 MPa, and 12.0%, respectively. tional neural networks (CNN) were employed. The
Duarte et al. [119] proposed a new variant of WAAM results demonstrated that convolutional neural net-
based on hot forging. This process involved the use works (CNN) could obtain high accuracy in classifying
of viscoplastic deformation behaviour at high tem- melt pool images and be helpful to improve the automa-
peratures to reduce residual stresses, increase duc- tion level and production quality for WAAM. Lee et al.
tility, eliminate post-heat treatment operations, and [125] also examined the repair of damaged parts of
homogenise grain structure. The results demonstrated a cross-slide using WAAM in machine tool remanu-
that the hot forging effect refines the solidification facturing. It is concluded that the repair of machine
microstructure, thereby improving the yield strength. tool parts made of grey cast iron was successfully con-
The yield strength increased from 360 to 450 MPa, ducted using WAAM with nickel wire. Colegrove et al.
ultimate tensile strength improved from 574 to 622, [126] investigated the impact of high-pressure rolling
and elongation to fracture reduced from 32 to 28%. on microstructure and residual stress improvement in
The existent internal pores collapsed under the forging WAAM parts. It was observed that a slotted roller
 MATERIALS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 403

can limit the amount of lateral deformation provid- Summary and future work
ing a more effective reduction in residual stress and
WAAM is a promising alternative to conventional sub-
distortion when compared with a roller where no lat-
tractive manufacturing for fabricating large high-value
eral restraint is provided. As described in Wang et al.
metal components. Based on current trends, industry
[127], the porosity rate was reduced to 0.1% with the
experts have a positive outlook about the future of the
online cooling process, and a decrease in the inter pass
WAAM of aluminium alloys in aerospace and automo-
temperature during the WAAM process had a signif-
tive industries to enhance automated process planning,
icant influence on grain refinement. Köhler et al. [8]
monitoring, and control for the WAAM process. The
studied the effects of the welding process on the build-
addition of different alloy elements in aluminium in
up accuracy and material properties during WAAM
WAAM could reduce the weight of aircraft and improve
of aluminium structure. In their study, the built sam-
their structural integrity performance. The combina-
ples were analysed in terms of residual stress, surface
tion of conventional subtractive manufacturing and the
finishing, and hardness. Residual stress was analysed
WAAM process can be further utilised to reduce mate-
through X-ray diffraction in two thin-walled specimens
rial wastage and enhance the manufacturing of complex
each made from 20 layers of either Al-4047 or Al-5356.
parts for the benefit of aerospace and automotive appli-
The inter-pass temperature while welding was 100°C
cations.
in both samples. It is concluded that the residual stress
This review has discussed the various common
magnitudes depended on the yield limit of the filler
defects produced by the application of the WAAM
metals used. The first layer of the thin-walled struc-
for aluminium alloys which can only be controlled
ture as well as the bottom surface of the substrate are
by adopting advanced techniques such as the CMT
in tension, whereas the top layer and substrate surface
method, suitable manufacturing process parameters,
undergo compression [8]. Figure 9 summarises scan-
and post-process treatment to eradicate the caused
ning electron microscope images of the fracture surface
defects (oxidation, residual stress, cracks, porosity,
morphology in the horizontal direction. The fracture
and distortions) and to improve the quality of the
surface was mainly characterised by viewing to study-
printed parts. In addition, the efforts undertaken by the
ing the trend of a ductile fracture. This implied that the
researchers to mitigate the identified challenges have
micropores could be detected embedded in the fracture
been documented.
surface morphology [8].
Despite excellent research activities in the aspect
To produce defect-free parts via the WAAM tech-
of WAAM aluminium alloys, further investigations
nique, there is a need to address WAAM processing
are necessary to improve and drive the technology-
defects during the manufacturing of Al alloy structural
readiness level of WAAM for the production of func-
parts for the benefit of aerospace and automotive indus-
tional aluminium parts for aerospace and automo-
tries. However, many additively manufactured parts in
bile industries. For future work, the following conclu-
the aerospace and automotive industries are made of
sions are drawn from the literature comprehensively
aluminium alloys. Hence, the development of WAAM
reviewed:
processing techniques that can produce defect-free
functional parts in the aerospace and automotive indus-
(i) Further research is required to investigate the
tries is regarded as one of the research directions to
effect of inherent residual stress and distortion
improve mechanical properties of WAAM aluminium
generated during WAAM processing as a result
alloys structures for engineering applications [32].
of high thermal input from heat sources.

Figure 9. Scanning electron microscope microstructure of the fracture sample after the tensile test. Reprinted from Ref. [8].
404 B. O. OMIYALE ET AL.

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