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Mental Toughness

Mental toughness is one of the most common terms used in sport – by

athletes, coaches, spectators and the media. However, it is also one of the
least understood terms. This book examines the characteristics and develop-
ment of mentally tough sport performers, and presents the cutting-edge
research in this area. In these chapters, the author proposes that mental
toughness is a personality style and mindset, and presents a compelling case
for its inclusion within the positive psychological paradigm.
This second edition has been updated to include new material on the
characterisation, conceptualisation, measurement, and development of
mental toughness. As in the first edition, the book includes a historical over-
view of empirical research, and also describes the conceptual arguments
behind this research.
Now packed with even more rigorous scientific evidence and bang up-to-
date anecdotes from the world of sport, the book presents a fascinating
explanation of why some athletes are successful, and how and why they
stay on top. Mental Toughness: The Mindset Behind Sporting Achievement
will be essential reading for all sport psychology, sport science, sport
studies, and coaching students.

Michael Sheard has enjoyed a distinguished teaching, research and consult-

ancy career. Specialising in teaching Research Methods, and Sport and
Exercise Psychology, Michael has presented his investigative work at
conferences worldwide. He is currently working on his first novel. Michael
lives in the northeast of England, and can be contacted on drsheard@
hotmail.com.
“This book authoritatively updates what was already an excellent and
highly readable exposition on mental toughness in sports. All major theo-
retical and research bases are touched and supported with up-to-date cita-
tions. Additionally, scientific concepts are fleshed out with vivid anecdotal
citations that make the book come alive. Michael Sheard has established
himself as a leading authority on mental toughness.” – Arnold LeUnes,
Professor of Psychology, Texas A and M University, USA

“Michael Sheard has managed to successfully draw together a wide range

of academic and applied material to dissect the phenomenon of mental
toughness. The underlying academic credentials are extremely sound and
are coupled with an engaging presentation style which I find very appealing.
The book updates the previous edition very well, and the new material is
excellent.” – John Kremer, Honorary Research Fellow, Queen’s
University, Belfast, UK

“Solidly anchored in scientific research, the second edition of Mental

Toughness goes even further in the analysis of what mental toughness is,
how to assess it, and its determinants. Written in a lively style, the book
contains both research and anecdotes that make it accessible to both
scholars and students alike.” – Robert J. Vallerand, Lab Recherche sur
le Comport Social, Department of Psychology, University of Québec,
Canada

“This book is an ideal companion for coaches, athletes and sports studies
students who are interested in sport psychology. The references and quotes
from key academics and sporting greats allow the reader to understand the
concept of mental toughness, its relationship to sporting success and the
ways in which it can be nurtured through practice and training.” – John F.
Mathers, Director of Learning and Teaching, School of Sport, Univer-
sity of Stirling, UK

“The scholarly review of existing mental toughness research presented in

this book is informative, and in particular, the critical analysis of previous
attempts to create measures of mental toughness provides an insightful
summary for scholars and students alike. Dr. Sheard’s discussion of the
factors which contribute to the development of mental toughness – cultural
influences in particular – is also illuminating.” – Robert Harmison,
Kibler Professor of Sport Psychology, James Madison University, USA
Mental Toughness
The Mindset Behind Sporting
Achievement
Second edition

Michael Sheard
First published 2010
by Routledge
This edition published 2013
by Routledge
27 Church Road, Hove, East Sussex BN3 2FA
Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada
by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2013 Psychology Press
The right of Michael Sheard to be identified as author of this work
has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of
the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available
from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Sheard, Michael, 1968
Mental toughness : the mindset behind sporting achievement/
Michael Sheard.—2nd ed.
p.cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-415-57895-0 (hardback)—ISBN 978-0-415-
57896-7 (paperback) 1. Sports—Psychological
aspects. 2. Athletes—Psychology. 3. Mental
discipline. 4. Achievement motivation. I. Title.
GV705.4.S45 2012
796.01–dc23
2012002352

ISBN: 978-0-415-57895-0 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-415-57896-7 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-203-10354-8 (ebk)

Typeset in Times
by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk
Cover design by Andrew Ward
For Julie
Tempores mutant et nos mutamus in illis,
sed amantium nostrum est fidelis.
Nothing on earth can stop the man with the right mental attitude; nothing on
earth can help the man with the wrong mental attitude.
Thomas Jefferson

Opportunities multiply as they are seized.

Sun Tzu

What we call results are beginnings.

Ralph Waldo Emerson

No one can make you feel inferior without your consent.

Eleanor Roosevelt

Whatever you can do, or dream you can, begin it. Boldness has genius,
power, and magic in it.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

To travel hopefully is a better thing than to arrive.

Robert Louis Stevenson

Character and self-control.

Marcus Aurelius

Possunt quia posse videntur.

Virgil
Contents

List of figures viii

List of tables ix
The Mental Toughness Code x
Preface and acknowledgements xi

1 Introducing mental toughness 1

2 Characterising mental toughness 30

3 Conceptualising mental toughness 54

4 Measuring mental toughness 69

5 Developing and maintaining mental toughness 91

6 Concluding mental toughness 129

Appendix A: Measuring mental toughness:

construct validation of the alternative Psychological
Performance Inventory (PPI-A) and the Sports
Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ) 139

Appendix B: Resisting stress in sports officiating:

the moderating role of positive psychology 150

Notes 157
References 163
Index 239
Figures

3.1 A facet model of mental toughness and human

performance 55
3.2 The hardiness model for performance and health
enhancement 59
4.1 The PPI-A model 80
4.2 The SMTQ model 83
6.1 The position of mental toughness as a contributor to
superior sport performance 133
A.1 The PPI-A model tested in this investigation 144
A.2 The SMTQ model tested in this investigation 145
B.1 Elite-level rugby league referees’ inductive analysis
results 153
Tables

1.1 Characteristics identified anecdotally from the print

media as contributory to sporting achievement 21
2.1 Personality characteristics associated with superior
athletes 31
2.2 Mental toughness attributes and importance ranking 34
2.3 G. Jones and co-workers’ (2007) mental toughness
framework 35
2.4 Summary of key published studies investigating mental
toughness 40
2.5 The commonality of attributes identified by G. Jones
and co-workers (2002) and Loehr’s (1986) previously
identified mental toughness subscales 45
2.6 The commonality of descriptions identified by G. Jones
and co-workers (2007) and Loehr’s (1986) previously
identified mental toughness subscales 47
4.1 Ten-Pin Bowling Performance Survey mental toughness
items 71
4.2 PPI-A item wording 81
4.3 SMTQ item wording 84
A.1 Summary of participants’ demographic characteristics 141
A.2 Intercorrelations among PPI-A, SMTQ, and criterion
positive psychological scales 142
A.3 CFA factor loadings, error variance, fit indices, and
reliability 146
A.4 Means and standard deviations of the PPI-A and SMTQ 147
B.1 Means and standard deviations of positive psychological
measures 155
B.2 Illustrative quotes elicited from the semi-structured
interviews 156
The Mental Toughness Code

With clarity of mind and firmness of purpose, mentally tough performers

aspire to be great. Settling for being good is never enough. They know how
to win, and have the courage to stand tall in the face of adversity. It is not
denial of the problem, but the efficiency of the response. Champions do the
ordinary things better than anyone else. They make fewer mistakes and
possess a work ethic, winning mentality, and self-confidence. Mentally
tough performers refuse to be intimidated; instead, they intimidate the
opposition with their presence. It is about holding yourself together, dealing
with the inevitable nerves that are fluttering around, however much you
wish they weren’t. Winning is not all that matters. Character also matters.
Compete with talent, enthusiasm, guts, dignity, and integrity. Mentally
tough athletes do not dwell on defeat, but, rather, accept losing as an inevit-
able consequence of meeting someone better on a particular day. In defeat,
they remain gracious. They remain positive about the future. They believe
in themselves and in all they can achieve. This is to take the first step on the
path to achievement. Success does not come with time; it comes with toil.
Ultimately, we are responsible for our success. And we measure success by
the experiences we live. Mental toughness is the stuff of champions.
Preface and acknowledgements

Mental toughness enjoys the status of being one of the most ubiquitous
terms used in sport; it is used by performers, managers, coaches, spectators,
owners, and administrators. The sporting print and broadcast media, in
particular, continue to be preoccupied with ‘mental toughness’. The term is
used frequently in interviews, newspaper reports, and during match
commentaries. However, it also remains one of the least understood terms.
It is the aim of this second edition of Mental Toughness: The Mindset
Behind Sporting Achievement to continue to help clarify what this construct
is and, just as important, what it is not.
Personality is a meaningful concept and the measurement of it a useful
tool. However, there is a growing tendency to put everything that is desir-
able in terms of personality attributes under the umbrella term ‘mental
toughness’. This is misguided and is also a failure to recognise that there are
perfectly adequate existing psychological constructs that represent many
attributes. It has also added weight to claims that mental toughness is too
broad a construct even to consider defining. This is nonsense. The problem
is, as it always has been, that it is a phrase that everyone takes for granted:
‘Mental toughness . . . you know what I mean . . . you know . . . resilient . . .
you know . . . digs deep . . . you know . . .’ Well, actually, I didn’t know –
until the first edition of this book.
The book is targeted primarily towards psychology, sport psychology,
sport science, and sport studies students, but its audience domain is likely to
include related fields such as coaching, health psychology, occupational
psychology, and social psychology. The first edition of this text, Mental
Toughness: The Mindset Behind Sporting Achievement, was published in
2009 with the global purpose of summarising the state of knowledge with
regard to research in mental toughness. Like its predecessor, this edition of
the text has also been written to provide a comprehensive and up-to-date
review of the issues germane to this most intriguing of psychological
concepts. Again, the text has been written in such a way that, if desired, it
xii Preface and acknowledgements
may be read from cover to cover. However, it is more likely that specific
chapters will be dipped into. With this in mind, I have written each chapter
so that it may stand alone. It is hoped that, having read the entire book, the
reader will have developed a greater appreciation of mental toughness in
sport, and will have been made aware of the important advances in its
origins, characterisation, conceptualisation, measurement, development
and maintenance, and possible hereditary traits.
Specific chapter content has changed significantly, in response to changes
that have occurred in the field. The book’s introductory chapter looks at the
anecdotal evidence that suggests mental toughness is a contributory (some
would say even a decisive) factor in successful sport performance. The end
of the chapter begins to consider situational evidence of displays of mental
toughness and suggests that it is a personality style and mindset. This is
rigorously extended in Chapter 2, where a theoretical exposition of the char-
acteristics constitutive of mental toughness is given. This is considered
further in Chapter 3, which deals with a number of antecedents in the history
of its conceptual clarification that have informed its development. It is also
in this chapter that the case for mental toughness to be considered within the
positive psychological paradigm is presented.
As valid and reliable instruments are essential to the study of any defined
construct, Chapter 4 explores the validation of various measures of mental
toughness. Dealing as it does with psychometrics, this chapter may appear
somewhat esoteric and separated from the rest of the book. It is written and
presented in a deliberately more academic style, reflecting the topic’s intri-
cacies. I respectfully ask for your, the reader’s, indulgence, because the
chapter has been written with a researcher-based audience in mind. Chapter
5 investigates how mental toughness can be acquired and, crucially, main-
tained. This chapter also examines the research evidence of cultural and
nationality differences in mental toughness in sport performers, and
considers mental toughness in that all too common band of sport brothers
and sisters – the injured athlete. Finally, Chapter 6 offers a concluding
commentary and possible directions for future mental toughness research.
This includes giving consideration to the genetic inheritance × environ-
mental mediation interaction debate, presently at the forefront of personality
theory. Specifically, it is proffered that perhaps, as well as being learned, an
element of mental toughness is innate. Perspectives on explaining the attain-
ment of superior sport performance vary, considering dedicated practice
over many years and hereditary contributors. The premise that genetic deter-
minants are as powerful as experiences and environments in life is not new.
The evidence is clear from adoption studies and identical twin studies that
genetic transmission is, at best, 50 per cent, though more likely in the order
of 16–25 per cent. However, considering the potential contribution of
 Preface and acknowledgements xiii
genetic factors to mental toughness is a novel departure. I must emphasise at
this point that the suggestion is not one of a predetermined inherited mental
toughness capacity. That would ignore the effect of environmental influ-
ences. Rather, it is advocated that research should be conducted to pursue
this potentially fruitful orchard of possibility. It is also stressed that it is not
the aim of this book to demonstrate an interaction between genetic and envi-
ronmental factors. Compelling research evidence exists already to this
effect. Rather, the model depicted ultimately in Chapter 6 shows the interac-
tion between genetic and environmental factors, their contribution to a
combination of physical, physiological, perceptual-cognitive, and sociolog-
ical factors, and their contribution to superior sport performance. Whether
this interaction is related to mental toughness, or indeed any other key corre-
late positive psychological constructs, is yet to be determined. More research
must be conducted if the null hypothesis is to be rejected.
Sport reveals character. Sport examines and exposes the robustness and
the frailties of human nature – often, brutally. I am sure we can all think of
examples of talented sportspeople who get so far (indeed, beyond most), but
who do not fulfil that potential by becoming ‘a great’. For many, this is due
to personality deficiencies, be they mental frailties or more serious disor-
ders that are contributors to maladaptive behaviours. I would argue that all
greats obviously have talent, but that the manifestation of consistently
optimal performance is given expression due to a package of mental
attributes that I call an ‘achievement mindset’. Certainly, talent and this
achievement mindset (I call it ‘mental toughness’) are inextricably linked.
Indeed, in this book, I state clearly that the two enjoy a symbiotic relation-
ship. No sporting contest is decided exclusively by any one variable.
Two particular sporting events prompted my decision to write a second
edition of this text. First, FC Barcelona’s victory over Manchester United
FC in the 2009 Uefa Champions League final, when Barcelona played
better football on that particular Wednesday evening. (They repeated the
feat over the same opponents in 2011.) However, I would proffer that their
doing so was, to a great extent, afforded by their opponent’s tactical play
that was, in turn, influenced by the defensive mindset that evening of the
Manchester United manager and players. Second, I suspect that Everton FC
couldn’t believe their good fortune in the first minute of the FA Cup final
three days later. But Chelsea FC’s self-belief (a core component of mental
toughness) was more evident and eventually won through. Witness the
frequency with which Everton surrendered possession of the ball. As you
will discover later in the book, there is a whole lot more to mental toughness
than mere defensive, rearguard action or reaction. Each of these exemplars
showed that, even in defeat, there remains an alternative and more desirable
way to lose – demonstrable mental toughness.
xiv Preface and acknowledgements
My point is that mental toughness is one (albeit a crucial one) variable
that distinguishes between performers. Yet, it’s a case of different strokes
for different folks. Athletes demonstrate equivalent expressions of mentally
tough behaviour in all manner of situations across a variety of sports. And
that is the point: the mentally tough mindset is a composite of core attributes.
Others of a more peripheral nature may be more sport-specific. Some
attributes are more apposite in certain situations than others. But, surely,
what is beyond doubt is that, whether singly or in combination, these
constituents of the mental toughness mindset make a substantial contribu-
tion to separating the great from the merely very good, the winners from the
vanquished, the achievers from the also-rans.
My earliest recollection of watching a sporting contest is the 1974 Fifa
World Cup final. As a 5-year-old, I knew nothing of mental toughness. But,
whenever I read about or see footage of that match in Munich’s Olympia-
stadion, it is clear which side was the mentally tougher. For all their talent
(and showboating), Holland’s arrogance (like triumphalism, not a com-
ponent of the mentally tough mindset) lost out to West Germany’s disci-
pline, fortitude, and seizing of the opportunity given them. Yes, admittedly,
a dubious equalising penalty; but resulting ultimately from Dutch contemp-
tuousness. Holland ought to have had the new World Cup boxed up and
wrapped in orange after only 20 minutes. That they didn’t was due to a lack
of the equivalent mental toughness demonstrated by the West German team.
For an engaging narrative of Holland’s ‘Lost Final’, I recommend David
Winner’s Brilliant Orange. (See References for details.)
Many reading this book will know what is constitutive of talent. There is
precious little variation in what separates performers operating at the highest
competitive standards in sport. The evidence, both anecdotal and empirical,
is that mentality is the clincher.
It is believed that the reader will find this edition of Mental Toughness:
The Mindset Behind Sporting Achievement to be even more interesting than
its predecessor. The text contains additions, changes, and expansions, which
reflect the proliferation of published research in the field. In offering such a
comprehensive overview of the literature, it is hoped that the reader will
appreciate the balance that has been struck in this latest effort between
breadth – giving the audience a sense of the scope of the field – and depth
– stimulating thought and reflection. Its publication coincides with the 2012
Olympics, and I hope to witness many feats of mental toughness deserving
of the sporting legacy the London Games will bequeath.
I have always believed that the true definition of a champion or great
athlete is someone who wins a title or championship and then goes out and
defends it successfully, at least once, and/or someone who repeatedly
demonstrates behaviour that overcomes seemingly intolerable adversity.
 Preface and acknowledgements xv
Raising the achievable standard is the function of the champion. Suffice to
say, most readers will recognise the mental toughness mindset presented in
this book in the likes of champions and greats such as: Maggie Alphonsi,
Lance Armstrong, Mike Atherton, Sir Roger Bannister, David Beckham,
Allan Border, Sir Ian Botham, Geoffrey Boycott, Sir Donald Bradman, Mark
Cavendish, Sir Bobby Charlton, Kim Clijsters, Dónal Óg Cusack, Laurie
Daley, Novak Djokovic, Charlotte Edwards, John Elway, Jessica Ennis, Sir
Nick Faldo, Andy Farrell, Roger Federer, Sir Alex Ferguson, Sir Ranulph
Fiennes, Andrew Flintoff, Clare Francis, Jack Gibson, Steffi Graf, Dougal
Haston, Sally Haynes, Stephen Hendry, Dame Kelly Holmes, Sir Chris Hoy,
Tomaž Humar, Phil Jackson, Magic Johnson, Martin Johnson, Vivien Jones,
Michael Jordan, Jens Lehmann, Jeremy Lin, Darren Lockyer, Dame Ellen
MacArthur, Richie McCaw, Tony McCoy, Phil Mickelson, Joe Montana,
José Mourinho, Ambrose Murtagh, Rafael Nadal, Martina Navratilova, Jack
Nicklaus, Brian O’Driscoll, Manny Pacquiao, Victoria Pendleton, Michael
Phelps, Oscar Pistorius, Ricky Ponting, Paula Radcliffe, Sir Steve Redgrave,
Sir Vivian Richards, Joannie Rochette, Pete Sampras, Michael Schumacher,
Doug Scott, Kevin Sinfield, Mark Spitz, Martin Strel, Mike Stroud, Claire
Taylor, Phil Taylor, Tim Tebow, Sachin Tendulkar, Bert Trautmann, Beth
Tweddle, Grete Waitz, Shane Warne, Steve Waugh, Erik Weihenmayer,
Kepler Wessels, Jonny Wilkinson, Betty Wilson, Tiger Woods, Louis
Zamperini, to name but a few. Each of these performers did the best they
could with the talent they had, because they had mental toughness.
I am compelled to add three more names. First is Eddie Izzard – the
British actor, comedian, and (he would be the first to admit it) non-athlete.
I was privileged, and humbled, to watch a BBC television programme of his
completion of 43 marathons in 51 days. In the summer of 2009, Izzard ran
the length and breadth of the United Kingdom to raise money for the charity
Sport Relief. He covered 1,160 miles, and this supreme effort is awe-
inspiring. If ever I have witnessed a demonstrable example of the mental
toughness mindset, then this astonishing achievement is it. What makes this
achievement all the more incredible is his ability to remain cheerful though
he is in agony. He even had enough energy to perform an impromptu gig.
‘I’m a little exhausted,’ he told the audience in the Lake District, ‘because I
ran here from London.’ Second is former Royal Marine and SAS member
Chris Foot, who spent more than 70 days pulling a sledge 1,400 miles on his
own across Antarctica in order to raise funds for Combat Stress, the mental
health charity that helps ex-soldiers suffering from psychological injuries.
And third is Major Phil Packer, whose completion of the 2009 London
Marathon is astonishing. Packer, who was told he would never walk again
after suffering a severe spinal injury while serving in Iraq, raised over
£1 million for charity by walking for two weeks to cover the 26 miles and
xvi Preface and acknowledgements
385 yards. Each of these deeds, their every painful step, is a testament to
Izzard, Foot, and Packer’s courage, determination, and mental toughness;
each an utterly remarkable achievement.
I thank David Fallais and his colleagues at Middlesbrough Central
Library for their invaluable help in retrieving archived news reports. I thank
Psychology Press for its immediate interest in publishing a second edition
of my book. At Routledge, I thank Sharla Plant, Michael Fenton, Mary
O’Hara, and Natalie Meylan. I am also deeply indebted to Project Manager,
Kirsty Holmes, and my diligent copy editor, Kevin Eaton. I thank Andrew
Ward for designing such an eye-catching cover. But, above all, thank you,
to Julie and to my mother Kathleen. Your encouragement kept me going;
your own mental toughness is inspirational.
1 Introducing mental
toughness

A leader is a dealer in hope.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Introduction
It has been suggested that: ‘A sporting contest is defined by the pursuit of a
victor. Other benefits of a more altruistic and social nature may accrue from
sport, but, in essence, the challenge is set down: to find a winner’
(G. Davies, 2007: 19). This is a sentiment echoed by Olympic champion Sir
Matthew Pinsent: ‘Sport is all about rising to the challenge, whether it is
laid down by your own limitations, the prowess of your opposition or the
magnitude of the event; to win you have to have the ability to overcome’
(Pinsent, 2009: 62). Indeed, our enduring fascination with sport may very
well be attributed to ‘its sole objective criterion – winning’ (B. Moore,
2009b: S17). Nowhere is this struggle for quantifiable supremacy more
intense than at the very highest competitive levels, where sport is no longer
a pastime, run and organised by amateurs. Sport’s essence is ‘competition,
if not conflict; more so when it is the livelihood of the participants’
(B. Moore, 2009c: S15), and it exists in a culture where, as Manchester
United FC’s manager Sir Alex Ferguson said: ‘The pressure never eases . . .
where if you’re not winning every game then swoosh, kick in the teeth’
(as cited in Winter, 2009d: S5) and ‘you are in to win and you can’t lose too
many or you lose your job . . . we are all subject to winning’ (as cited in
Rich, 2010: 5). Wales rugby union head coach Warren Gatland summed up
such a culture after a narrow loss: ‘At the end of the day it’s about winning
and we lost’ (as cited in S. James, 2010c: S19).
Competitive sport has developed into a well-established global industry,
operating in an increasingly competitive world (Stead, 2003); and, to some
extent, functions to make money (see Hannon, 2010; Hirshey & Bennett,
2010; Pearson, 2011), too often with deplorable consequences and sapping
2 Introducing mental toughness
much of the joy. Nowadays, there is a far greater commercial importance
attached to how individuals and teams achieve success. Sport is a multi-
billion pound business that competes for scarce resources and uses, among
other things, commercial and professional management techniques
(Robinson, 1999, 2003). These developments have moved sport organisa-
tions towards a more professional and bureaucratic structure (Byers, 2004;
Old, 2004; Slack & Hinnings, 1992). In this push towards efficiency, effect-
iveness, and value for money, it has become of even greater interest to
players, coaches, administrators, spectators, and owners (and, increasingly,
shareholders and sponsors) to identify qualities associated with superior
sport performance as a first stage in facilitating their development. When it
comes down to it, there are two qualities that are necessary for victory in
any sport: ability and mental toughness.
I am concerned primarily with the latter although, naturally, each affects
the other. The two enjoy a symbiotic relationship. Mental toughness is just
as important as natural talent. At the top level of any sport, all the chal-
lengers have the requisite technical skills, but it necessitates mental tough-
ness to use that talent consistently to become a champion athlete. As Dutch
international footballer Robin Van Persie stated: ‘I think it’s the combina-
tion you have to have – the mental toughness and the talent. You have to put
in the quality but as well as have the mental strength to do it over and over
again’ (as cited in Hytner, 2010b). Such a viewpoint corroborates the obser-
vation of experienced football manager Sam Allardyce: ‘You can only play
in the Premier League if you have that mental toughness . . . The ability
comes after that’ (as cited in Szczepanik, 2009: 8). Similarly, Steve Bruce’s
eulogy of his former Manchester United FC teammate Ryan Giggs: ‘His
natural ability has made him the player he is but so has his mentality’
(as cited in L. Taylor, 2009: 5) – reflects that it is about matching sporting
capability with an evoking mentality. Manchester United and Scotland
midfielder Darren Fletcher reflected: ‘In the big games especially, I’m
of the opinion that sometimes it’s more psychological than about actual
ability. I’m a great believer in that. A big percentage of the game is played
in your head’ (as cited in Ducker, 2010a: 9). In the aftermath of back-to-
back title-damaging defeats, France international footballer, and then of
Arsenal FC, Samir Nasri spoke of the team being galvanised: ‘We wanted
to prove we have the strength and the mentality to be winners . . . Last
year we made some mistakes . . . We are stronger in our heads. Now it is
90 per cent in the mind. If you don’t have the mentality you can’t use
your technique’ (as cited in Lawrence, 2010: 4). England cricketer Ian
Bell recognised the need to work on his mental toughness in addition to his
technical skills (Hoult, 2009d). It has been suggested that the travails of
Australian cricket captain Ricky Ponting in the 2010–11 Ashes series were
 Introducing mental toughness 3
born of mental turmoil: ‘If you accept that batting is 25 per cent technical
and 75 per cent mental, and that his technique, while not flawless, has
held him in pretty good stead all these years, it must have been a mental
aberration . . . his mind is scrambled’ (S. Hughes, 2010e: S6). While the
longest tennis match in history elicited this summary: ‘It is very rare that a
single sports match takes players to the edge of their capacity in so
many different areas: physical fitness, mental toughness, competitive fire’
(E. Smith, 2010).
To place emphasis on the identification of ability and a personality style
is to subscribe to the view that ‘sport is neither a moral nor a philosophical
undertaking but an athletic and a psychological one’ (Syed, 2007: 71), and
that the person is a psychophysical unity – something that has both physical
and mental attributes (McGinn, 2008). Personality is known as a source of
moderator variables, and is more likely to manifest in interaction effects,
such as influencing the likelihood of actualising one’s ability into achieve-
ment (Aidman & Schofield, 2004). The field of sport psychology, in particu-
lar, has striven to understand and predict performance excellence primarily
on the basis of personality (P. S. Miller & Kerr, 2002). Considerable
evidence exists within the extant sport psychology literature that desirable
psychological attributes contribute significantly to superior sport perform-
ance. (See Note 1.) Moreover, it has been suggested that as sport performers
move up towards elite levels, only those with adaptive personality charac-
teristics advance (Deaner & Silva, 2002). This is exemplified by former
Great Britain No. 1 tennis player Annabel Croft’s admission to lacking the
emotional toughness necessary to cope with the defeats she suffered in
trying to move upward in her sport (Preston, 2008).
At this level, the differences between competitors in technical, tactical,
and physical ability are minimal (Moran, 2004). Improvements in diet,
hygiene, and medical science have led to the healthiest, most physically
robust sportspeople ever known, with, at the highest competitive level, a
generation of near equals ‘stronger, hardier and more resistant than at any
time in history’ (Goodbody, 2002: 32). Athletes are carefully prepared, both
physically and technically. Physical and technical abilities are more evenly
matched at higher levels especially, so personality becomes increasingly
significant, thus demonstrating that ‘sport is about the revealing of character
and inner spirit as much as it is about technical brilliance’ (Cleary, 2005b:
S6). This is evidenced in the words of three-time Tour de France champion
Alberto Contador, who spoke of his 2010 contest with Andy Schleck, after
a particularly gruelling stage, as ‘a psychological war, we’re both at more
or less the same level physically and this was a test of minds’ (as cited in
Fotheringham, 2010: 15). Team Sky and Great Britain’s cycling general
manager Dave Brailsford recognised the importance of rider psychology:
4 Introducing mental toughness
‘To keep going for three weeks on a bike is such a monumental physical
effort, to carry on must largely be in the mind. That is where there is
an opportunity. Psychology will be everything’ (as cited in White, 2010c:
S10).
As long ago as the 1960s and, in particular, in readiness for their magnif-
icent 1970 Fifa World Cup triumph, the Brazil soccer team recognised that
psychological preparation was as important as technical and tactical
arrangements. Four decades later, in preparation for the 2010 tournament,
England head coach Fabio Capello employed a sport psychologist, Chris-
tian Lattanzio, who doubled as a translator (Burt, 2010). World champion
boxer Alex Arthur insists that: ‘It’s important your mind is as strong as your
body. Boxing makes demands of you that no other sport does. The real
battlefield is in the mind, not in the gym or on the road’ (as cited in Halliday,
2010: 11). Formula One’s 2008 and 2009 world champions, respectively,
sum it up – Lewis Hamilton: ‘The biggest challenge is defeating your oppo-
nents mentally’ (as cited in Ross, 2007), and Jenson Button: ‘Mentally it’s
so, so draining . . . It’s more tough mentally than physically’ (as cited in
Weaver, 2011: 11).
To this end, athletes’ ability to focus attention, to control performance
imagery, and a total commitment to the pursuit of excellence have been
identified as critical psychological attributes (Orlick & Partington, 1988).
Undoubtedly, the advice of one of the most successful Test cricket captains,
the West Indies’ Clive Lloyd, holds true: ‘If you want to improve at your
sport, you have to be dedicated, do little else, train hard’ (Lloyd, 2007: 90).
But, ultimately, those athletes with the appropriate psychological attributes
make the transition upward because their personalities facilitate the adjust-
ment. Success in any sport starts in the mind. The New Zealand rugby union
team, 2011 world champions and the consistently world-ranked No. 1 All
Blacks, has an idiom that sums it up perfectly: ‘It’s all about the top two
inches’ (Loe, 2007). The failing is in the head. Indeed, it has been written of
the All Blacks that: ‘They have a mindset that is unique. It is what sets them
apart’ (Greenwood, 2010b: S2).
From findings of the current literature, it is apparent that several specific
personality characteristics have been indicated that ameliorate sport
performance. After reviewing this research, sport psychologists Jean
Williams and Vikki Krane concluded: ‘Regardless of the source of data or
the nature of the sport, a certain psychological profile appears to be linked
with successful performance’ (J. M. Williams & Krane, 2001: 174–175).
This general profile cited self-regulation of arousal, high self-confidence,
heightened concentration, coping skills for dealing with distractions and
unexpected events, feeling in control, a positive preoccupation with sport,
and determination and commitment (the very attributes which we will see
 Introducing mental toughness 5
later are constitutive of mental toughness) as key psychological characteris-
tics distinguishing successful from less successful athletes.
In two separate studies, Dan Gould and his associates reported that 73 per
cent and 82 per cent, respectively, of their sample pools (i.e., sport performers,
coaches, parents, siblings, significant others) identified ‘mental toughness’
as a vital characteristic associated with successful performance (D. Gould,
Dieffenbach, & Moffett, 2002; D. Gould, Hodge, Peterson, & Petlichkoff,
1987). Indeed, in the D. Gould et al. (2002: 186) study, the largest higher-
order theme from their interviews was ‘mental toughness’, comprised of raw
data responses such as ‘mentally tough, perseverance, resilient, and
persistent’. In a similarly explorative study of the mental skills of National
Hockey League players, one interviewee stated that: ‘Mental toughness is
probably the biggest thing [needed for success] in hockey’ (Barbour &
Orlick, 1999: 29). In addition, high-performance kick-boxers were in agree-
ment that psychological hardiness and mental toughness were necessary in
order to become a successful tournament fighter (Devonport, 2006). More
recent research has also recognised mental toughness as important for
success (Bullock, Gulbin, Martin, Ross, Holland, & Marino, 2009). Thus,
this personality style appears to be central to overall performance excellence.
However, mental toughness is probably one of the most used but least
understood terms in sport psychology. Stemming in part from Jim Loehr’s
research, it is widely alluded to by athletes and coaches, as well as in the
popular media and in applied sport psychology, as a crucial prerequisite of
success in sport (Loehr, 1986). Indeed, researchers have felt the need to
re-label sport psychology as ‘mental toughness’ in order to sell it to English
soccer academy directors and national coaches (Pain & Harwood, 2004).
Why do some athletes and teams perform a little better in pressure situ-
ations? How do some performers cope with being ‘iced’ (e.g., dealing with a
time-out called just before taking a field-goal or free-throw, or facing a goal-
keeper who continually mucks about ahead of a penalty)? What separates
those who thrive on elite competition from those who collapse under pres-
sure? Why do some athletes and teams succeed in the face of adversity while
others fail? Why do some performers bounce back from personal failure
whereas others are beleaguered by it? Why have some athletes consistently
underachieved? Many suggest that the answer lies in mental toughness.
According to Jason Robinson, a Rugby World Cup winner in 2003 and an
all-time great in both rugby codes: ‘Mental toughness is as important as
physical toughness’ (as cited in Lynch, 2008). While former Republic of
Ireland international footballer Tony Cascarino placed even greater
emphasis on its influence, suggesting that: ‘Mental toughness can make the
difference between success and failure’ (Cascarino, 2009: 14). Again from
soccer, it has been suggested that: ‘On the pitch, mental toughness is a most
6 Introducing mental toughness
important attribute’ (The Secret Footballer, 2012, p.1). Accepting the enor-
mous challenge of tackling southern hemisphere supremacy in rugby
league, England head coach Steve McNamara acknowledged: ‘Mental
toughness is an area that we need to look at’ (as cited in Bott, 2010). Indeed,
it has been suggested that at the highest competitive levels ‘the essential
extra element is mental toughness’ and that ‘this mental toughness needs
training just as much as the ability to hit a ball straight and far’ (G. Faulkner,
2006: 27). In the second of her Olympic triumphs in Athens in 2004 (the
1,500 metres), Kelly Holmes’ ‘mental toughness was truly awesome as she
dominated the race’ (Redgrave, 2011). And, in the midst of the fallout from
his infidelity scandal, Tiger Woods has been described as ‘still the mentally
toughest athlete on the planet’ (Gregory, 2010). It would appear that to
progress from strong performer to champion, the breakthrough ingredient is
mental toughness. It is this attribute that allows sport performers to act in an
instinctive and automatic way at the most important moments and the
turning points of a competition or other high-stakes situations. But what
exactly is ‘mental toughness’?

Popular mental toughness

Across a multitude of sports, athletes often attribute achievement and success
to ‘mental toughness’. Upon reaching the considerable milestone of a century
of centuries in first-class cricket, and becoming only the 25th player in the
history of the game ever to do so, Surrey and England batsman Mark
Ramprakash said: ‘I had so many knocks, so many low scores, so many
setbacks, and have shown a lot of mental toughness to keep going – despite
the blows’ (as cited in Kimmage, 2008: 19). Also from cricket, of Alastair
Cook’s second innings century for England against Sri Lanka in Galle, it was
written that: ‘Amid the disappointments, it was great to see such mental
toughness from someone so young, right at the end of the tour’ (Hoggard,
2007: 62). Interviewed on his recall to the England One-Day International
side, wicketkeeper Matt Prior reflected: ‘When you are left out, people give
you stick and say that is the end and he will never be back. To come back and
perform for Sussex the way I have I am quite proud of. It shows mental
toughness’ (as cited in Hoult, 2008: S20). And, on the eve of what turned out
to be a hugely successful tour of Australia, England batsman Kevin Pietersen
said: ‘We’ve got to be mentally tougher’ (as cited in Booth, 2010: 23).
Claire Taylor, captain of the all-conquering England women’s cricket
team said: ‘It took a while but my mental toughness was built on an under-
standing that I wasn’t the best player technically’ (as cited in McRae, 2010d:
6–7). Former Australian spin bowler Shane Warne described India’s talisman
Sachin Tendulkar as ‘very tough mentally’ (Warne, 2009: 15). Upon accept-
 Introducing mental toughness 7
ance of the captaincy of the Australian Test cricket team, the immensely
successful Steve Waugh reflected in his autobiography that: ‘All that was
required was the mental toughness to carry out my plan’ (Waugh, 2006: 52).
And, in addition to the requisite physical fitness for long spells of bowling,
also needed ‘is the mental toughness to be able to bowl your 24th over of the
day as hard and as optimistically as your first’ (S. Hughes, 2010c: S15).
Reflecting upon his Olympic gold medal-winning performance in Beijing,
British yachtsman Ben Ainslie spoke reverentially of other high-achieving
athletes: ‘The mental toughness of those guys, especially [Michael]
Schumacher, was amazing’ (as cited in Snow, 2008: 32). Admitting the need
for urgent psychological repair following a disastrous semi-final perform-
ance in the winter Olympics in Vancouver, British speed-skating coach
Nicky Gooch said: ‘It takes a lot of mental toughness to come back and that’s
what we’re going to work on now’ (as cited in Hart, 2010a: S17). Of getting
through to the third round of the Wimbledon tennis championships for the
first time in seven attempts, Australian player Samantha Stosur reflected: ‘I
think my mental toughness wavered in and out, it certainly wasn’t there all
the time, but I got it back’ (as cited in P. Wilson, 2009). And ahead of the
2011 US Masters, British golfer Graeme McDowell said: ‘I have been
blessed with a certain mental toughness which has stood me in good stead
during my career’ (as cited in Donegan, 2011a: 7).
From rugby league, ahead of a Super League grand final victory, Leeds
Rhinos forward Jamie Jones Buchanan attributed his team’s resurgence to
‘mental toughness and work ethic’ (as cited in Irvine, 2007b: 79). In praise
of their opponent’s challenge after his side’s third consecutive Rugby League
Challenge Cup triumph, St Helens full-back Paul Wellens said: ‘They gave
us as tough a game as any we’ve had all season. The heat and intensity really
took its toll in the second half. In the end our mental toughness got us
through’ (as cited in Malin, 2008: 14). Even rugby league’s world No. 1
referee, Ashley Klein, attributed a large part of his success to mental tough-
ness: ‘It is about being mentally tough. It is about being able to make a deci-
sion and forget about it and not letting external factors cloud your judgement’
(personal communication, June 24, 2008). And from golf, 2009 World
Match Play champion Ross Fisher’s assessment: ‘In all, I think it was mental
toughness that pulled me through’ (as cited in Dixon, 2009b: 79).
From rugby union: ‘mental toughness and unyielding self-belief in the
tightest of corners are two of Jonny Wilkinson’s great attributes’ (Fitzgerald,
2011, p. 94). Speaking prior to his side’s surprise semi-final victory over
hosts France in the 2007 Rugby World Cup, England captain Phil Vickery
acknowledged: ‘We know it will be tough, but I feel we have the players not
just with the skills but with the mental toughness’ (as cited in Slot, 2007a:
120), adding that: ‘This is a once-in-a-lifetime opportunity. It’s mental
8 Introducing mental toughness
toughness we need now, not game plans galore. It’s about physicality, about
bravery, about guts’ (as cited in Cleary, 2011e: S6). Subsequently, teammate
Lawrence Dallaglio wrote of England’s win: ‘In the end, it came down to
mental toughness’ (Dallaglio, 2007: 427). Of the rejuvenation of his interna-
tional career under a new head coach, Wales star Gavin Henson said: ‘It is
all about concentration and it has given us a mental toughness’ (as cited in
Rees, 2008: 11). Ahead of a showdown with the world champion South
African rugby union team, of his own teammates, British and Irish Lion
Nathan Hines spoke of the ‘mental toughness throughout the group. Many of
the players have reached the highest level and sustained that standard’
(as cited in Pearce, 2009). Attributing a personally successful debut season
in the English Premiership, South African Schalk Brits said: ‘You have to be
so tough mentally’ (as cited in Cleary, 2010c: S20). Mental toughness was
strongly referred to by Wales international rugby player Shane Williams
(since retired) during his team’s impressive World Cup showing: ‘[This is]
mentally the toughest squad I’ve ever been involved in . . . We’ve been
pretty switched on. The most important thing is that we realise it’s all about
working hard if we want to be successful. That’s where this mental tough-
ness comes from’ (as cited in Cleary, 2011g: S7), and: ‘We are far more
mentally strong as a team these days’ (as cited in Slot, 2011c: 72).
And, from American football, New England Patriots kicker Stephen
Gostkowski explained:

You have to be able to focus for that one time you get a chance in a
game. Your margin for error is really thin and you only get so many
opportunities and if you don’t take advantage of them you won’t have
a job . . . Not everybody has the mental toughness to be put in situations
like that or bounce back when you don’t succeed.
(as cited in Dart, 2009b)

In order to become a championship-calibre team, Washington Redskins

linebacker and defensive co-captain London Fletcher said: ‘In pro sports,
you have to be mentally tough. That mental toughness part . . . you have to
be extremely mentally tough’ (as cited in J. Reid, 2010).
Retired performers have also written of the positive contribution of mental
toughness to sporting achievement. Of 2008 Junior Wimbledon tennis cham-
pion Laura Robson, Annabel Croft wrote of her ‘impression that she is very
tough, mentally’ (as cited in A. Baker, 2008: S5). Writing of the positive
impact a new national coach has made on Welsh rugby union fortunes,
former Wales and Great Britain international rugby union and league star
Jonathan Davies observed: ‘Most rugby nations nowadays are on a par in
terms of fitness and technique, but the major difference Warren Gatland has
 Introducing mental toughness 9
made is mental toughness. It’s all in the head’ (J. Davies, 2008: 86). While
in response to the question of where yet another defeat to the New Zealand
All Blacks leaves Wales, former Welsh international legend Gerald Davies
commented: ‘In need of the mental toughness and relentless will to win as
expressed by New Zealand on Saturday’ (G. Davies, 2009: 72). England
cricket legend Geoffrey Boycott wrote of another hugely talented interna-
tional batsman: ‘Jonathan Trott is mentally strong . . . Other batsmen have
been better stroke-players but did not have the mental toughness to succeed’
(Boycott, 2011c: S10). And, former world No. 1 and winner of five grand
slam titles Martina Hingis has suggested that: ‘Maria Sharapova’s greatest
strength has always been her mental toughness – she gives opponents nothing
. . . Sharapova is so strong in the mind’ (Hingis, 2011: F6).
Similarly, coaches have spoken of mental toughness in terms of its
contribution to performance and results. Ahead of Amir Khan’s Olympic
boxing lightweight semi-final in Athens, Great Britain team manager Terry
Edwards considered that: ‘An important factor for the rest of this tourna-
ment will be mental toughness. This is something that we have been
developing’ (as cited in Goodbody, 2004b: 50). Seeking to rectify a dip
in his Australian rugby league team’s form, Newcastle Knights coach
Brian Smith commented: ‘We need mental toughness to grind out the win
for the whole game’ (as cited in McDonald, 2008). Craig Bellamy, coach of
Melbourne Storm spoke of his side’s mindset: ‘One of the things that,
during the pre-season, we wanted to make sure we had is a mentally tough
team . . . we certainly trained for them to be a team capable of being a
mentally tough team with plenty of resolve . . . I’d like to think they’re a
pretty mentally tough footy team’ (as cited in R. Gould, 2011). Of the
St George-Illawarra team, Brisbane Bronco’s Darren Lockyer said: ‘The
Dragons are by far the best team in the competition . . . They’re all mentally
tough players’ (as cited in McDonald, 2011). And ahead of the 2011 State
of Origin series, Queensland’s coach Mal Meninga pinpointed the influence
of his opposite number, New South Wales’ Wayne Bennett: ‘One of
Wayne’s great attributes is his man-management skills, being able to talk to
the players and make them mentally tough’ (as cited in McDonald, 2011).
Reacting to criticism, former Leicester Tigers (English rugby union)
coach Marcelo Loffreda countered: ‘I have felt high-pressure situations
with the [Argentina] national side but that wasn’t about professionalism,
this is. I’ll tackle it with a lot of hard work, commitment and mental
toughness’ (as cited in Hands, 2008a: 68). Also from rugby union, Glasgow
coach Sean Lineen spoke of injured Scotland flanker Donnie Macfadyen’s
efforts during rehabilitation: ‘I’ve been very impressed, he has shown a real
mental toughness’ (as cited in L. Stuart, 2008: 85). While across Scotland,
appointed to shore up the defence of Edinburgh, coach Billy McGinty said:
10 Introducing mental toughness
‘My outlook is that it’s going to be a game where you hurt afterwards.
Hopefully, I can instil a kind of mental toughness’ (as cited in A. Reid,
2011). Of the England team’s change in fortune during the 2007 Rugby
World Cup, former rugby league icon and present Wales rugby union
defensive coach Shaun Edwards wrote: ‘Ashton’s men had the character,
the mental toughness, to turn things round in France last autumn’ (Edwards,
2008: 9). While ahead of the British and Irish Lions 2009 tour of South
Africa, and working as the assistant Lions coach, he asserted: ‘We’ve
certainly tried to select players who have that mental toughness’ (as cited in
Ackford, 2009).
Reflecting on his side’s heroic defensive effort, London Irish director of
rugby Toby Booth said: ‘Mental toughness and resilience are often words
that are bandied around and if you look at the sequence of defence in our
own 22 . . . it indicates that people care about what they are doing’ (as cited
in Mairs, 2010c: S20). On retirement from playing Australian Rules foot-
ball, Collingwood coach Mick Malthouse reminisced: ‘When a new season
starts you tend to forget the agony that you went through, how hard it
becomes to get up and running, the cold, the injuries, the effort and mental
toughness’ (Malthouse, 2008).
Ahead of trips to Northwestern and Michigan State, coach of the unde-
feated Michigan Wolverines, Brady Hoke, said: ‘I’m interested to see how
we react and what we’re made of, our mentality, our mental toughness’ (as
cited in Lage, 2011). Of selection controversies, the University of Southern
California athletic director, Pat Haden mused: ‘Every quarterback goes
through this. It’s why the position requires such mental toughness’ (as cited
in Foster, 2011). And from soccer, Glasgow Rangers FC coach Ally
McCoist stated: ‘It is about mental toughness, a little bit of luck, a certain
attitude as well, and a desire as much as anything’ (as cited in Spiers, 2008b:
108). Reflecting on a come-from-behind victory, Brendan Rodgers, manager
of Swansea City FC, said: ‘We talked about the definition of mental tough-
ness and how it’s about coming back from disappointment and setbacks and
not dwelling on the negatives . . . our mental toughness was put into ques-
tion and we came up with all the answers’ (as cited in Lucas, 2011: 49).
While Sir Alex Ferguson spoke of his championship-winning team: ‘There
is a mental toughness about the team these days and that will stand us in
good stead as the pressure builds’ (as cited in Ogden, 2009).
Similarly, athletes’ below-par performances and failures have often been
attributed to a lack of mental toughness. Of her defeat in the final of the
2009 French Open, Russian tennis star Dinara Safina suggested: ‘I put pres-
sure on myself because I wanted to win so much. I didn’t handle it. I didn’t
stay tough mentally’ (as cited in Pitt, 2009: 11). When another former world
No. 1, Jelena Jankovic, suffered a shock first round exit at the China Open,
 Introducing mental toughness 11
she admitted that she had been lacking ‘mental toughness’ (as cited in P.
Simpson, 2011). Of the Wales international rugby union team’s decline in
fortunes since its 2005 Six Nations grand slam triumph: ‘No one doubts that
talent but it’s been legitimate over the last two seasons to question their
resolve and their mental toughness’ (Ackford, 2007). When Scotland failed
for the first time to qualify from the group stage of a Rugby World Cup,
hooker Ross Ford said: ‘It is a mental thing’ (as cited in L. Stuart, 2011: 67),
adding that Scotland had to start finding the mental toughness to convert
game opportunities into victories.
When his Denver Broncos side were pounded by the Baltimore Ravens
in the National Football League (NFL), coach Josh McDaniels said: ‘For
the first time I thought our mental toughness was questioned’ (as cited in
Hensley, 2010). Of Dallas Cowboys quarterback Tony Romo, NFL Hall of
Famer Deion Sanders (2011) said: ‘He proved that he has heart, he has
mental toughness.’ While Baltimore Orioles manager Buck Showlater said
of Zach Britton, the team’s pitcher: ‘You don’t do the things he has done
over a long period and not have some mental toughness. The mental tough-
ness part of it is never a question with him’ (as cited in Connolly, 2011).
And, Everton footballer Tim Cahill attempted to explain a dreadful run in
the team’s form: ‘It’s the overall attitude and mental toughness . . . noth-
ing’s going to fix it except our mental attitude’ (as cited in Hunter, 2009a).
Other examples include: ‘His [Dimitar Berbatov] encouraging response
removed the doubts about his appetite and mental toughness in adversity’
(Hayward, 2010b); ‘They’re [Celtic and Rangers] supposed to have the
nurturing skills and coaching sophistication required when presented with a
young player with abundant ability but perhaps lacking mental toughness’
(A. Smith, 2010: 13); ‘Now is the time for a new wave of northern hemi-
sphere player to emerge with the mental toughness to put behind them last
weekend’s failure’ (Best, 2005); ‘Shane Williams has hit back at critics who
question the character and mental toughness of the British and Irish Lions’
(as cited in D. Lewis, 2009); ‘The statistics back up Behrami’s point about
a side lacking mental toughness’ (D. Kent, 2010); ‘Scotland midfielder
Rhona Simpson criticised her team’s lack of mental toughness after their
hopes of a top-six finish at the European Nations Cup fell by the wayside
against Ukraine’ (C. Middleton, 2003). Indeed, the player herself stated: ‘At
this level you need attention to detail because every touch matters. There’s
no point huffing and hiding; if you have that attitude you should get off the
pitch. You have to grind out the phases that count – it’s about mental tough-
ness’ (as cited in ibid.). Launching a stinging attack on his players, Sam
Allardyce reiterated comments mentioned earlier in this chapter: ‘In the
Premiership, the mental side is even more important than the ability side.
You can only play in this league if you have that mental toughness and
12 Introducing mental toughness
resilience. Ability comes after that. But, at the moment, the mental resil-
ience is not there’ (as cited in Fifield, 2009b: 8). While counterpart Alex
McLeish said of one player that he has ‘certainly shown the mental tough-
ness to handle it’ (as cited in McLoughlin, 2011: 105). And, enduring their
third game in eight days in pursuit of a play-off place, Gloucester RUFC
players were reminded by their coach Bryan Redpath: ‘The key thing is that
everyone going to Saracens gets there with a mindset that they’ve got to be
mentally strong’ (as cited in P. Morgan, 2011).
Occasionally, individuals somehow avoid using the term ‘mental tough-
ness’, even when we pretty much know that is what is being referred to; for
example, ‘[Manchester] United possess resilience in their DNA’ (Winter,
2012e). Here, Hibernian manager John Hughes vents spleen and laments
his team’s apparent lack of mental toughness after a particularly dismal
showing: ‘We are turned over, we do not have that resolve, that character,
that toughness to see games out, to win ugly, that mental attitude’ (as cited
in Hardie, 2010). Similarly, the England football team’s ‘psychological
fragility’ (Kay, 2011f: 96) has been apparent; indeed, the players’ mental
toughness, when faced with a penalty shoot-out situation, is being ques-
tioned in this example: ‘It is hoped that Capello’s decisiveness will strengthen
the players’ often brittle psychological resolve’ (Winter, 2010i: S4).
Arsenal FC manager, Arsène Wenger, sought to explain a surprise
reversal in terms of his team’s being ‘not completely there on the mental
side’ (as cited in Rich, 2008: S2). In addition, it has been noted that: ‘Wenger
is less worried about his players’ physical attributes than their mental
strength . . . psychological weaknesses have undermined Arsenal’ (M.
Hughes, 2010b: 4); while Champions League and FA Cup exits coupled
with four Premier League draws meant that ‘the mental toughness of
Wenger’s squad has been questioned’ (Hytner, 2011a: 4). Approaching the
end of Arsenal’s 2010–11 season, it was written: ‘Here . . . was a demon-
stration of how profoundly a lack of mental fortitude has damaged a
campaign that once contained such promise’ (R. Williams, 2011d: 10).
Further, ‘mental fragility’ has been attributed to indifferent runs of form for
not only Arsenal (Hytner, 2010a: 7; Kay, 2011c: 84), but also Chelsea FC
(M. Hughes, 2010c: 3). Tim Henman’s failings were suggested as evidence
of ‘mental frailty under pressure’ (Bierley, 2001). And a ‘fragile mental
state’ was blamed for tennis player Tommy Haas’ squandering a two-set
lead to Roger Federer in the 2009 French Open (Hodgkinson, 2009: S20).
The phrase ‘mental toughness’ appears to be used somewhat liberally in
the popular media. For example, an examination of the print media, and their
respective websites, yields a plethora of reports where the term has been
used to explain preparation, performances, and results in a variety of
sports, ranging from American football through to tennis. (See Note 2 for a
 Introducing mental toughness 13
comprehensive list.) The following are examples of the term’s appeal in the
sporting media: ‘Lennon’s view is simple: that his players all too often lack
mental toughness’ (Murray, 2011c: 7); ‘England’s . . . mental toughness
took them to a famous victory’ (Walsh, 2008a: 2); ‘Wasps, the champions,
are the benchmark for any aspiring team, for their mental toughness, and
their sheer cussedness’ (Cleary, 2008: S12); ‘Wenger praised the grit and
determination of his young side, pinpointing their mental toughness’ (Dall,
2007); ‘Gordon Strachan insisted yesterday that Scotland’s players possess
the mental toughness required to finish their Euro 2008 qualifying job’
(P. Gordon, 2007: 96); ‘Now bubbling Boro are a mentally tougher team’
(Vickers, 2011b: 38); ‘. . . a common trait in all the champions . . . including
Prost, Senna, Michael Schumacher and Mika Hakkinen, has been an
immense mental toughness. They all had the willpower to burn . . . the differ-
ence between winning and losing’ (Garside, 2008: 15); ‘It’s a three-way
battle for the title and mental toughness will be a major factor’ (Perry, 2008);
‘India claim to be the best in the world. To pull off a remarkable victory here
to go with their recent defeat of Australia, will prove they have the requisite
self-belief and mental toughness to go with their undoubted skill’ (S. Hughes,
2008b); ‘. . . a tactical triumph and a glorious vindication of Leeds’ mental
toughness to recover from their mauling by Saints in the qualifying semi-
final two weeks earlier’ (Irvine, 2008b); ‘Kidney cannot be criticised for
checking Sexton’s mental toughness’ (O’Reilly, 2011: 2); ‘Leicester . . .
Theirs is a game based on mental toughness’ (Souster, 2011a: 62); ‘Ryder
Cup captain Colin Montgomerie has hailed Graeme McDowell’s mental
toughness’ (US Open 2010); ‘Danny Lennon insists his St Mirren players
need to develop a mental toughness to deal with flak from the fans’ (Baillie,
2011); ‘No one can doubt the South Africans’ mental toughness’ (B. Moore,
2009d: S9); ‘The match starting at the Oval today is not about ability – there
is nothing between the teams – it’s about character, commitment and mental
toughness’ (Boycott, 2009c: S4); ‘Certainly, McIlroy seems mentally
tougher than 18 months ago’ (Donegan, 2011b: 12); ‘We should hope
McIlroy can find the mental toughness to return and win’ (B. Moore, 2011:
S11); in the obituary of tennis great Jack Kramer: ‘As an outstanding
Wimbledon and US champion of the 1940s, he developed a powerful, ruth-
less serve and volley game, with one of the best second serves in history and
immense mental toughness’ (Gray, 2009); of England cricketer Paul Colling-
wood’s batting: ‘He never reflects on what has gone before. He shuts out a
play and miss or an lbw appeal, retaining a calm composure. Mentally, he
must be one of the toughest men ever to play for England’ (S. Hughes,
2010a: S4), and of goalkeeper Robert Green’s potential selection ahead of
the 2010 Fifa World Cup: ‘Does he have the sheer belief and mental tough-
ness to do football’s loneliest job, at a World Cup, for England?’ (Northcroft,
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