The 18th and 19th Century Social

Thoughts: John Locke, Thomas

Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and
Henri de Saint-Simon
 John Locke and Social Thought
• John Locke was born August 29, 1932, Wrington, Somerset, England
• Died October 28, 1704, High Laver, Essex
• He was an English Philosopher and political theorist
• His works lie at the foundation of modern philosophical empiricism and political
liberalism – liberal democracy, human rights and modern notions of the social
contract.
• His philosophical thinking was close to that of the founders of modern science,
especially Robert Boyle and Sir Isaac Newton amongst others
 Contributions of John Locke to Social Thought
• 1. Natural Rights and the State of Nature : Locke believed that all individuals are born
with certain natural rights—namely the right to life, liberty, and property. In his work Two
Treatises of Government (1689), Locke argued that in a state of nature (a society without
government), people are free and equal, governed by natural law. This law is discoverable by
reason and obliges everyone not to harm others.
• 2. Social Contract: Locke’s concept of the social contract involves individuals consenting
to form a government in order to protect their natural rights. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, who
believed in a powerful sovereign to prevent chaos, Locke emphasized limited government
that is accountable to the people.
• 3. Government by Consent
• Locke insisted that legitimate government must be based on the consent of the governed.
If a government fails to protect the natural rights of its citizens or acts against their interests,
the people have the right to rebel and establish a new government.
Contributions of John Locke to Social Thought
4. Separation of Powers: Although not as explicitly as Montesquieu, Locke advocated for a division of power within
government—particularly distinguishing between the legislative and executive branches—to prevent abuse of power.

5. Religious Tolerance and Civil Society

• In A Letter Concerning Toleration (1689), Locke supported religious tolerance (excluding atheists and Catholics, due to
the context of his time) and argued for the separation of church and state. He believed that civil society should not
impose religion but rather promote peaceful coexistence among various beliefs.
6. Impact on Social Thought
• Locke’s ideas influenced:
• The American Revolution and the Declaration of Independence (Thomas Jefferson drew heavily on Locke).
• The French Enlightenment and later democratic developments.
• Modern ideas of individualism, human rights, and constitutional government.
 Thomas Hobbes and Social thought
• Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) was an English philosopher, which was best known for his political
philosophy particularly, the Leviathan (1651).
• He was one of the first modern thinkers to systematically explore the foundations of society, authority,
and government.
• Hobbes’s ideas represent a fundamental turning point in Western social thought, especially concerning
the nature of human beings and the justification for political order.
• 1. Human Nature and the State of Nature
• Hobbes had a pessimistic view of human nature. He believed that, without government, humans
would live in a state of constant fear, driven by selfishness, competition, and the desire for self-
preservation. In his famous description of the state of nature, life would be:
“solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.”
• This chaotic condition, he argued, made human life intolerable without a strong central authority.
 Thomas Hobbes and Social thought
2. The Social Contract
• To escape the state of nature, individuals enter into a social contract, agreeing to
surrender some of their freedoms to a sovereign power in exchange for security
and order. For Hobbes, this contract is not between the ruler and the people,
but among individuals who consent to be ruled.
3. Absolute Sovereignty
• Hobbes believed that only an absolute sovereign—whether a monarch or an
assembly—could maintain peace and prevent civil war. The sovereign’s authority
must be undivided and unquestioned, as any limitation would threaten the stability
of the state.
 Thomas Hobbes and Social thought
4. Law and Authority
• In Hobbesian thought, law is the command of the sovereign, and justice
consists of obeying the laws created by that authority. He rejected the idea of
natural rights as a basis for rebellion, arguing instead for order over liberty.
5. Secular Basis of Government
• Hobbes separated politics from religion, arguing that civil government should
not be subject to ecclesiastical control. This was a significant shift in a time when
political and religious authority were often intertwined.
Contributions of Thomas Hobbes to Social Thought
• Hobbes laid the foundation of modern political realism, emphasizing power
and self-interest in politics.
• His work influenced later thinkers like John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and
Carl Schmitt.
• Hobbes introduced a scientific and rational approach to politics, modeling his
ideas on geometry and physics.
• His emphasis on authority, sovereignty, and order continues to inform debates
on state power and security.
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778)
• Held that the social contract is the means by which civilized society, including
government, arises from a historically or logically preexisting condition of stateless
anarchy, or a “state of nature.”
• Man lived a happy live
1. Human Nature and the State of Nature
• Rousseau believed that human beings are naturally good, peaceful, and cooperative
in their original state of nature, which he described as a condition of innocence and
freedom. According to him, it is society—and especially private property—that
corrupts human nature, creating inequality and conflict. Famous quote: “Man is born
free, and everywhere he is in chains.”
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Social Thought
2. The Social Contract
• In The Social Contract, Rousseau proposed a new political order based on popular
sovereignty and the general will. Unlike Hobbes or Locke, Rousseau argued that
true freedom is found not in individual liberty alone, but in participation in
collective self-rule.
• The social contract is a pact among free and equal individuals to form a community (the body
politic).
• General will represents the common good or collective interest of the people.
• The legitimacy of government rests on its alignment with the general will, not on the will of a
monarch or elite.
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Social Thought
3. Freedom and Moral Autonomy
• Rousseau introduced a concept of positive freedom: the idea that people are free when
they obey laws they prescribe for themselves through democratic participation. This differs
from negative freedom (freedom from interference), favored by earlier liberals.
4. Critique of Inequality
• In Discourse on the Origin of Inequality (1755), Rousseau traced social inequality to the
institution of private property. He argued that this led to domination, exploitation, and loss
of natural compassion among humans.
5. Education and Socialization
• In Emile, Rousseau discussed how education should foster the natural development of
children, emphasizing experience, individual growth, and emotional development. He
believed that society should nurture, not suppress, human potential.
Contributions J. J. Rousseau to Social Thought
• Inspired modern democratic theory, especially ideas about direct democracy and
civic participation.
• Influenced the French Revolution, especially the radical Jacobin movement - The
Jacobin movement was a radical political movement during the French Revolution
(1789–1799) that played a central role in transforming France from an absolute
monarchy into a republic based on equality, secularism, and popular
sovereignty.
• Prefigured modern ideas of social justice, equality, and education reform.
• Sparked debates on individual vs. collective freedom and the limits of state
power.
 Henri de Saint-Simon (1760-1825)
• Henri de Saint-Simon, in full Claude-Henri de Rouvroy, Comte (count) de
Saint-Simon, (born Oct. 17, 1760, Paris, Fr.—died May 19, 1825, Paris)

• French social theorist and one of the chief founders of Christian Socialism. Saint-
Simon proposed that scientists take the place of priests in the social order. He argued
that the property owners who held political power could hope to maintain themselves
against the propertyless only by subsidizing the advance of knowledge. Saint-Simon
correctly foresaw the industrialization of the world, and he believed that science and
technology would solve most of humanity’s problems.
 Saint-Simon and Social Thought
1. Scientific and Industrial Reorganization of Society
• Saint-Simon believed that society should be governed not by kings, aristocrats, or clergy,
but by scientists, industrialists, and experts—those who produce and improve the material
conditions of life. He called for a “scientific elite” to plan and direct economic activity for
the benefit of all.
• Emphasis on industrial development as the foundation of social progress.
• Advocated for a technocratic society guided by rational planning and technical knowledge.
2. Class and Social Harmony
• Saint-Simon proposed that the main social conflict was between the idle classes (nobility,
clergy) and the productive classes (workers, engineers, scientists, industrialists). He believed
that social harmony could be achieved by abolishing parasitic elites and empowering the
productive sector.
• His motto: “From each according to his ability, to each according to his contribution.”
 Saint-Simon and Social Thought
3. New Christianity
• Saint-Simon developed a secular and social version of Christianity, which he called
“New Christianity.” It focused on brotherhood, morality, and social justice,
emphasizing service to humanity rather than ritual or dogma.
• Religion, he argued, should serve as a unifying moral force promoting the welfare of
all, especially the poor.
4. Role of the State
• Saint-Simon did not advocate violent revolution, but rather a peaceful
transformation of society led by reason and science. He believed the state should
organize economic production and ensure that resources are used to meet the needs of
society.
 Saint Simon and Social Thought
5. Influence on Later Thinkers
• Saint-Simon’s ideas greatly influenced:
• Auguste Comte (his secretary), who later founded sociology.
• Saint-Simon is considered one of the founders of utopian socialism. He envisioned a
society based on cooperation, social justice, and economic planning, rather than
competition and exploitation. His work inspired later socialist thinkers like Charles Fourier,
Robert Owen, and even Karl Marx (though Marx later criticized Saint-Simon's approach as
utopian).
• Later socialist and technocratic movements, and even elements of Marxism. Saint-Simon was a
pioneer of technocratic thinking—the belief that experts and scientists should guide
economic and social decision-making. He envisioned a society where decisions are based on
scientific knowledge and social utility, not tradition or privilege.