j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Available online at www.sciencedirect.com

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmrt

Review Article

A review on metallurgical aspects of laser additive

manufacturing (LAM): Stainless steels, nickel
superalloys, and titanium alloys

Kh. Moeinfar a, F. Khodabakhshi a,b,c,*, S.F. Kashani-bozorg a,

M. Mohammadi b, A.P. Gerlich c
a
School of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Tehran, P.O. Box: 11155-
4563, Tehran, Iran
b
Marine Additive Manufacturing Centre of Excellence (MAMCE), University of New Brunswick, 3 Bailey Drive, P.O.
Box 4400, Fredericton, E3B 5A1, NB, Canada
c
Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada

article info abstract

Article history: Additive Manufacturing (AM), likewise branded as 3D printing, is a field of significant in-
Received 19 September 2021 terest that has been recognized as an advanced process for production of engineering
Accepted 10 December 2021 components in a layer-by-layer approach. It both offers an alternative fabrication route for
Available online 21 December 2021 existing designs, as well as enables new designs with complexity unattainable using
conventional techniques. Amongst different AM processing routes, Laser Additive
Keywords: Manufacturing (LAM) is one of the supreme encouraging additive manufacturing means
Laser additive manufacturing (LAM) due to the potential to fabricate products at low cost with high quality and productivity.
Metallurgical characteristics Considering many studies are in progress in this new and exciting field, this review paper
Microstructure-mechanical argues the present state of the art and considers new avenues for future research studies. It
property correlation explores the key metallurgical phenomena during LAM and the differences between
Stainless steel various routes of LAM technology in terms of powder bed fusion (PBF) or directed energy
Titanium deposition (DED) involving different forms of powder-bed, powder-fed, and wire-fed as-
Ni-based superalloy sembly. The reported microstructural aspects, functional, and mechanical properties of
advanced and high applicable materials classified as stainless steels, nickel-based and
superalloys, titanium-based alloys, and metal matrix composites (MMCs) for various
practical applications are highlighted along with the effects of different pre- and post-
treatment characteristics. Hereafter an evaluation of the field is provided; the gaps in the
scientific understanding are underlined, which may limit the growth of LAM technology for
the design of metallic parts.
© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC
BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (F. Khodabakhshi).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2021.12.039
2238-7854/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
1030 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

LAM technologies have become more suitable for industrial

1. Introduction applications, particularly in industries with small-scale pro-
duction and focused on manufacturing of unique products
Additive manufacturing (AM) has been demarcated by the with tailored specifications, especially for applications in the
American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) as “a process medical and aerospace fields [20]. Medical and dental im-
of joining materials to make objects from 3D model data, usually layer plants, as well as the patient-matched implants are required
upon layer, as opposed to subtractive manufacturing methodologies”, in short times with high quality and improved biocompati-
and may also be termed in the literature as 3D printing, rapid bility. These have been particularly impacted by LAM fabri-
prototyping, and direct digital manufacturing [1,2]. By this cation to cover the complexity and quality issues for these
definition, all classes of materials can be treated by AM, implants, as they also accelerate the patient's healing process.
comprising ceramics, metals, composites, polymers, and In other words, a more significant number of personalized
organic structures [2,3]. AM has been used for over two decades medical and dental equipment can be fabricated in a short
as a method of processing materials [4], though it was limited to time for a reasonable price using LAM technology, considering
rapid prototyping of porous structures initially. Over time the the capability of the layer-upon-layer metal deposition
technology improved to produce parts with acceptable density methodology for manufacturing of complex geometries [21]. It
and quality for field applications [5]. Recently, it is evolving as can also provide the unique potential for manufacturing and
an essential commercial production technology [2,6,7], capable repair in harsh conditions (in isolated areas) including space,
of fabricating reliable and dense parts from several materials, the arctic, or at sea. Consequently, LAM has earned a lot of
including steels, nickel-based alloys, titanium-based alloys, attention from the aerospace and biomedical sector, and has
metal-matrix composites [8]. AM techniques can be categorized heavily motivated research on four groups of materials used
based on the feeding system (powder bed, powder fed, and wire mainly in these industries (steels, nickel-based alloys,
fed) as well as the energy source (laser beam, electron beam, titanium-based alloys, and metal-matrix composites (MMCs))
arc, plasma, etc.), and material (metal, ceramic, polymer, com- [22e25]. However, it is well-mentioning that, the fabrication of
posite, etc.), etc. [2,9,10]. sound (defect-free) counterparts from different metals and
AM of metallic components can be considered an advanced alloys by LAM technology with acceptable cost and perfor-
combination of traditional manufacturing tools for instance mance remains challenging [26].
powder metallurgy, and welding and joining in terms of Achieving satisfactory mechanical performance in engi-
powder preparation and treatment, fusion zone formation, neered components manufactured by LAM technology is the
and stacking of cladding layers, respectively. Though it is most significant challenge to broader utilization [26]. In this
useful to draw upon these knowledge areas, they do provide a regard, the contribution of various laser treating factors
full understanding of the various significant aspects of Metal (including laser power, laser scan speed, scan pattern, etc.)
Additive Manufacturing (MAM) [9]. This technology may play a critical role in the LAM fabrication process and these
dramatically change the face of the construction and design must be controlled and optimized for a specific powder and
industry for metallic parts [11,12]. Therefore, considerable deposition geometry of product [26,27]. Altering these critical
research activity has been especially aimed at 3D production parameters can primarily affect the processing circum-
of metallic materials, which has inspired several reviews stances/conditions for example the melt pool formation,
focusing on the correlation between processing parameters, temperature, thermal gradient, cooling rate, and other heat-
microstructural features, mechanical properties, and func- dependent properties. Subsequently, by changing the micro-
tional performance [13e16]. However, considering the rapid structure of the manufactured part, structural features
advances in applying this technology to more metals and al- involving defect formation, residual stresses, grain size, phase
loys, the literature must be updated quickly to cover new transformation, and crystallographic texture hamper me-
concepts and issues specifically related to metallurgical fea- chanical properties of manufactured parts [26,28]. The direc-
tures. This article provides an overview of literature involving tional heat transfer phenomenon in LAM processes usually
AM with an emphasis on laser energy sources for selective leads to large-scale anisotropy in the manufactured parts,
melting and 3D fabrication of metallic components, or laser mainly caused by remelting and directional solidification
additive manufacturing (LAM). This LAM technology can be [29,30]. Numerous studies have focused on evaluating
categorized in two different classes based on their feedstock anisotropy in microstructure and mechanical goods of por-
as (i) powder bed fusion (PBF, e.g., selective laser melting (SLM) tions constructed by LAM technology [31,32]. Anisotropy in
and selective laser sintering (SLS)) and (ii) directed energy LAM depends on the metallic system and directional solidifi-
deposition (DED, e.g., direct metal deposition (DMD) and laser- cation behavior, leading to potential heterogeneity in the
engineered net shaping (LENS)) [17,18]. manufactured part, which depends on processing parameters.
Since LAM can fabricate complicated geometries, there is Also, the generation of the other LAM-related issues/short-
an excellent opportunity to modify the design of industrial comings such as micro-pores, balling [33], lack of fusion, etc.,
products and achieve lighter and more efficient parts that may also result in anisotropy and degradation of mechanical
enable manufacturing products faster with lower costs. Cost properties in the invented parts [34].
and time reduction while minimizing human-related errors, The main attention of this review article is on the LAM of
along with the capability to build almost any shape, result in metallic components, their processes, microstructure, and
less need for part assembly with a faster product development their mechanical and functional properties. The aim is to
cycle, and these are the primary advantages of LAM over inaugurate a correlation between process treatment settings
conventional manufacturing techniques [17,19]. Meanwhile, and material characteristics of the fabricated structures.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1031

Considering the importance and current state of the art in parameters. The ASTM F2792 standard defines seven cate-
literature, a focus is placed on four classes of materials in this gories for AM technologies, mainly based on the deposition
critical assessment: stainless steels, nickel-based superalloys, method [35]. Among them, powder-bed fusion (PBF), directed
titanium and its alloys, and metal-matrix composites. The energy deposition (DED), and sheet lamination (SL) are appli-
critical metallurgical phenomena involved in the LAM pro- cable for additive manufacturing of metallic materials (see
duction and the possessions of pre-and post-manufacturing Fig. 1). Based on heat source in the process, AM techniques
dealings are discussed in detail. The results of LAM consoli- may be classified further as laser-, electron beam-, arc-,
dation on the metallurgical aspects of these materials are plasma-, and ultrasonic-based systems [20,36]. Depending on
considered in terms of grain size, phase transformations, the processing method, these AM technologies can be applied
stability of phases, texture and preferred orientations, tensile to fabricate polymers, biological materials, metals, ceramics,
strength, elasticity, flow behavior, shear strength, residual and composites. Another typical classification for AM pro-
stresses, creep and high-temperature property, fatigue, and cesses is based on the mode of feedstock as (i) powder-bed, (ii)
cyclic behavior. By evaluating the state of the art, gaps in the powder-feed, and (iii) wire-feed systems [14,16,37]. This
literature and obstacles to a deeper scientific grasp of the field important categorization as the accepted arrangement in the
are revealed. Also, topics worthy of further investigation are current article as well provides a distinction between the AM
highlighted, which may help the LAM field to grow. processes in the manner of introducing the feedstock material
and compare different technologies in terms of deposition
rate (production speed), complexity (dimensional tolerance,
2. Additive manufacturing systems accuracy), part distortion, residual stresses, and structural
performance.
AM systems are rapidly being deployed with many new sys-
tems being designed to function in a layer-based manner. 2.1. Powder bed systems
These systems can be classified in terms of layer-by-layer
deposition strategy, energy source, building volume (size PBF is a process that applies a heat source (usually laser or
and shape), fabrication materials, feedstock form, and other electron beam) to melt or sinter powders on a platform in

Fig. 1 e Classification tree for laser additive manufacturing (LAM) technologies.

1032 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Fig. 2 e Schematic illustration of PBF system.

layer-by-layer steps in a series of sections derivative from a 2.3. Wire feed systems
specific CAD file (that is defined based on the geometry or
design of the 3D counterpart) [38]. At first, a layer of metallic Another type of DED system involves using feed material in
powder is deposited on the build table. Usually, a roller or a wire form, and the heat source (frequently a laser or arc) fuses
wiper blade distributes a uniform layer of powder on the the metal in a layer-by-layer style. This process continues
surface. Then, the heat source selectively melts or sinters the until the designed three-dimensional structure is fabricated,
dropped powder. Next a layer is completed, the build table is as schematically shown in Fig. 4. Wire feed systems offer the
lowered, or the powder table rises so the powder can be highest deposition duties thanks to the rapid mass transfer of
deposited on the preceding layer. This process repeats a solid wire and are suitable for processes needing a high
pending the component is fabricated [13]. Direct metal laser deposition rate. They also have the capability of being
sintering (DMLS), selective laser melting (SLM), selective laser employed for large build envelopes [13,31]. However, due to
sintering (SLS), laser CUSING (concept laser), and laser metal their wire-based feedstock, they face some challenges, like
fusion (LMF) are some of the PBF-based LAM techniques for low part accuracy and poor surface finish [45]. Also, distortion
metallic components [39]. There are some slight differences and residual stress control are of greater importance in these
between these techniques, but they all work with the same wire feed systems due to their higher heat input [46]. In fact,
principles in the manufacturing process. Fig. 2 displays a higher heat input would be required to melt the feeding wire
representative set up of LAM technology using the powder- and consequently the large molten pool volume deposition
bed organization. can lead to generation of higher levels of residual stress with
more thermal distortion of the geometry.
2.2. Powder feed systems
2.4. Comparison between different routes of laser
Powder feed systems based on direct energy deposition (DED) additive manufacturing
use a heat source to fuse metallic powder onto a preferred
platform. The fine particles are passed over a nozzle above the Table 1 provides a comparison of parameters in LAM systems
build surface and traces the shape of the component cross- and their typical ranges. This comparison includes key vari-
sectional area in a layer-by-layer procedure (see Fig. 3). Laser ables such as power, beam diameter, scan speed, deposition
Engineered Net Shaping (LENS), Direct Metal Deposition (DMD), rate, build size, layer thickness, and post-processing treat-
Laser Metal Deposition (LMD), and Laser Free-Form Fabrication ments, which affect the microstructure and material goods of
(LF3) are some of the well-known powder feed techniques the constructed parts. In powder-based LAM progressions,
[40e42]. The thickness of the deposited layer is usually more due to the limited powder feed rate, lower layer thickness and
than 0.1 mm [16]. Also, these systems typically have larger build limited scan speed, fabrication times are longer. In contrast,
volumes and can manufacture larger parts than PBF systems. In wire feed systems offer higher deposition rate, making them
some techniques, the nozzle moves, and the workpiece is fixed; more suitable to fabricate larger parts, with multiple com-
however, it is also possible to arrange a fixed nozzle, while the mercial suppliers offering 6-axis robotic systems capable of
part moves in order to create the desired shape [2]. Finer grain build volumes of more than a meter in each direction [47]. On
structures were noted for the 3D metallic parts manufactured the other hand, powder-based techniques can manufacture
using DED technology compared to the traditional parts with better surface finish and more complex designs,
manufacturing components due to higher induced cooling and much higher dimensional accuracy due to their finer laser
rates after the melting process during solidification [43,44]. spot size and layer thickness. Parts fabricated with wire feed
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1033

Fig. 3 e Schematic of LAM technology based on the powder feed system.

systems usually need machining and surface finishing to meet a vacuum atmosphere and increasing the vaporization of
many dimensional tolerances, since the surface finish is molten materials can affect the chemical composition of al-
generally inferior to conventional processes such as sand loys due to variations in the vapor pressure for different ele-
casting. In contrast, powder-based ones need little or no fin- ments [16,50]. Also, in systems with inert gas flow, the flow
ishing to be practical. However, powders are expensive feed- rate and gas turbulences can introduce porosity in the struc-
stock materials, and are often several times more costly ture [51].
compared to equivalent commercial alloys often produced as In the DED processes, the material deposition angle is
welding consumables in wire form [48]. essential in controlling defects during the process [52]. In PBF
The build environment in the AM processes is another techniques, the scan strategy plays a crucial role in pre-
factor that plays an essential role in the microstructure and venting defects [53]. Scan strategies also have an impact on
mechanical characteristics of fabricated portions. If atmo- the texture of grains attributable to the role of thermal
spheric gases are present in the environment, they can gradient direction. Since this direction remains nearly con-
negatively impact mechanical properties [49]. Moreover, using stant during deposition, this can often lead to highly

Fig. 4 e Schematic of LAM technology based on wire feed deposition.

1034 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Table 1 e Comparison between the parameters and capabilities for different routes of LAM technology.
Systems Powder bed Powder feed
Energy source Laser Laser
Power (W) 50e1000 100e4000
Max. beam dia. (mm) 200 250
Rapidity (mm/s) 10e1000 5e20
Max. deposition rate (cm3/min) 0.7 4.1
Max. bulk dimension (mm
mm
mm) 400
400
400 2000
1500
750
Construction while High High
Layer thickness (mm) 20e100 130e380
Dimensional accuracy (mm) 0.04e0.2 0.05e1.0
Surface roughness (mm) 7e20 40e91
Post processing treatment HIP HIP and grinding
References [16,59e61] [16,62]

directional solidification with strong crystallographic tex- LAM offers numerous advantages for fabrication of com-
tures that lead to anisotropy in materials. Carefully con- ponents over conventional techniques during the past years.
trolling the scan strategy can allow one to produce equiaxed It has been in the spotlight primarily due to the enhanced
or columnar grains [54,55]. Scan strategy and deposition control and flexibility in terms of energy, design, material, and
angle are important factors to control anisotropy and het- geometry [63,64]. However, many challenging issues remain
erogeneity in metal AM fabricated parts [56]. in the LAM processes. Various physical phenomena occur
In the case of powder deposition, the powder characteris- during part fabrication by LMAM techniques: vaporization,
tics can have an impact on output quality. Different powder fluid flow, Marangoni flow, convention, conduction, radiation,
production methods lead to different morphology, size, dis- phase change, balling, curling, heat transfer, mass transfer,
tribution, etc. These other characteristics in powders can lead consolidation, etc. [65,66]. Among these phenomena, those
to a non-uniformed powder distribution, which affects the that affect the dimensional accuracy or play a role in residual
density of the fabricated parts [57]. In the case of wire feed- stresses are considered the most challenging ones. Based on
stock materials, these variabilities can be reduced; however, this, heat transfer and consolidation, residual stress, delami-
other defects in the wire may lead to defects in LAM parts. nation, balling, porosity, and stair-stepping effect are the most
Imperfections such as cracks, scratches, and contaminations critical phenomena requiring special attention in LMAM to
like moisture and grease on the wire surface could yield to achieve higher quality in products.
generation of porosity in the fabricated parts [16].
The deposition rate and beam size affect geometrical ac- 2.6. Solidification
curacy and grain structure. A drop in deposition rate and laser
ray dimension regularly leads to enhanced geometrical pre- Solidification mechanisms devise a weighty bearing on the
cision for fabricated parts [43]. Also, high deposition rates lead resulting microstructure and texture of the processed mate-
to a structure with a higher percentage of equiaxed grains. In rials. Likewise, the microstructure directly controls the prop-
Fig. 5, the correlation between the laser power absorption and erties of the fabricated parts. The laser melts the material
beam scanning speed for different routes of LAM treatment is along a path and creates a melt pool, which rapidly freezes as
established. As shown, depending on the material feeding the laser interchanges to another spot. The cooling rate of the
route for LAM processing, a combination of higher levels of melt pool depends on the factors involving scan speed, laser
absorbed power or beam velocity are required for deposition power, substrate initial temperature, scanning interval, etc.
of sound 3D components. Higher linear heat input due to an intensification in laser
power followed by a lessening in scan promptness leads to a
2.5. Metallurgical phenomena in laser metal additive rise in the melt pool volume [67]. This domino effect to a lower
manufacturing (LMAM) technology chilling level through the consolidation of the material, which
can lead to the melting of the former layer or substrate due to
Laser additive manufacturing of metallic components, the prolonged presence of the weld nugget. This can be sup-
abbreviated here as LMAM possesses high cooling rates pressed by reducing the heat in the substrate as a heat sink to
resulting from the layer-based material deposition leading to achieve more rapid cooling in some systems [68].
some unique phenomena, some of which are not yet fully Also, during the process, the grains of the deposited ma-
explained. These may also take a substantial impression on terials grow in crystallographic ‘easy-growth’ orientations,
the mechanical and functional goods of the fabricated struc- which originate from the orientation of grains in the substrate
ture. Understanding these phenomena (which range from layer. The substrate acts as a seed for grain growth during
phase transformations to residual stresses in the fabricated epitaxial grain growth in fabricated parts, such that columnar
part) is essential to successful fabrication of functionally grains can grow through layers in the reverse path of the heat
enhanced parts. Hence, it is useful to briefly review the details flow [69,70].
of various phenomena involved in LMAM and their impact on Scan speed can significantly impact the cooling rate. This
the fabrication process. parameter can change the microstructure of the products
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1035

Fig. 5 e A schematic diagram showing the difference between scanning speed/beam velocity and power ranges for different
routes of AM technology [58].

from a coarse microstructure to a fine one in which rapid manufactured process because the new layers favor the
cooling rates promote an equiaxed microstructure [71e73]. crystal structure and distortion in the products [76]. Hence,
Altering processing parameters significantly impact the cool- the prior thermal cycle repeats new residual stresses in the
ing rate and may typically provide more favorable micro- last layers.
structure and properties when more refined structures are
formed [74,75]. 2.8. Residual porosity

2.7. Residual stresses, delamination, and cracking One of the most probable difficulties in LAM techniques is
residual porosity due to the presence of gases or lack of fusion.
Due to the high cooling rates of the LAM processes and the The main reasons leading to fusion porosity is insufficient
cyclic nature of the thermal history, residual stresses is often melting of the powder/wire material. Such porosities usually
an issue in the fabricated parts. Residual stresses may also have irregular shapes and are mostly elongated in the plane of
cause delamination and cracking of the components. Thus, to the layer. Porosities are instigated by entrapped gas from the
achieve higher quality and density in the products, the level of powder/wire feeding scheme or gases released during pro-
residual stresses must be controlled. cessing materials, especially when they are trapped inside
By reason of the thermal gradients present in these pro- powder or wire during the building process. These porosities
cesses, the higher temperatures of the upper layer lead to a usually have a spherical shape and can occur at any location,
thermal expansion in this layer, which is resisted by the pre- as addressed in Fig. 7a for 17-4PH stainless steel. Gas poros-
viously solidified layer below it. If the induced stress exceeds ities usually have a smaller number and size than the poros-
the upper layer's yield strength, plastic deformation can ities caused by the lack of fusion. Any deviation from the
happen. If this residual stress locally surpasses the ultimate optimum processing parameters can lead to an increase in the
tensile stress of the material, it can cause distortion or even porosity of the fabricated parts. Higher scan speed and laser
crack initiation and delamination of the products, as shown in power below the optimum parameter can lead to more po-
Fig. 6 for M2 high speed and 304L stainless steels. rosities in the fabrication process, as shown in Fig. 7b, c for
The later mechanism can potentially lead to cracking Tie6Al-4 titanium alloy [69]. Other than laser power and scan
based on the thermal contraction of the melted layer, and the speed, hatch spacing is another key factor that affects the
resistance of the substrate against this shrinkage results in fusion of the materials, and thus affects the porosity of the
the tensile stress in the melted layer and compression in the fabricated parts. Increasing hatch spacing can lead to insuf-
substrate. Controlling thermal gradients is a critical factor in ficient overlap between scan tracks, resulting in insufficient
decreasing such thermal stresses and reducing the number of consolidation and more porosity in the parts. Laser power has
cracks in the manufactured parts (see Fig. 6a, b). Also, pre- been considered the most important factor on specimen
heating the substrate leads to a lower thermal gradient and porosity. In the PBF techniques, gas flow due to evaporation
cooling rate, since this also leads to a reduction of crystal can clear away powders near the beam path and lead to small
lattice strains or distortion. Re-melting layers is not a prom- gaps with insufficient material to fill the space, and results in
ising way to reduce cracks and delamination in the microscopic defects in the part [79].
1036 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Fig. 6 e Macro images are showing (a) delamination of the LAM M2 high speed steel samples [77] and (b) formation of the
micro-and macro-cracks in the 304L stainless steel samples during LAM deposition as marked [78].

2.9. Balling effect build trend. The layer thickness during the process dramati-
cally affects this phenomenon and directly impacts the sur-
During the LAM processes, molten material along the beam face finish. Higher layer thickness results in a poor surface
track tends to decrease its surface energy through surface finish on the fabricated specimen. Choosing the right depo-
shrinkage, and this phenomenon leads to the balling effect. sition direction and process parameters are the key factors to
The most influential parameters to control this phenomenon control this effect [87].
are oxygen content, scan interval, laser power, and scan speed
[83,84]. This phenomenon is a metallurgical process based on
the processing conditions and physical properties of the ma- 3. Characterization of the laser additive
terials, specifically the surface tension, and it can lead to an manufactured metallic parts
increase in the porosity and surface irregularity of the parts,
while also causing problems for the power spreading system 3.1. Textural evolution and microstructural
and blade movement in the PBF system due to excessive development during LAM technology
surface roughness [33]. This effect is shown in Fig. 8 in case of
316L stainless steel after laser deposition of single tracks 3.1.1. Crystallographic texture and additive manufacturing
under different scanning speeds. Due to the critical role that texture plays on mechanical ma-
The attendance of oxygen in the build compartment re- terial goods of the LAM parts, studying the correlation con-
sults in the oxidation of the molten pool. The presence of cerning the processing conditions and resulting texture has
oxide at the surface reduces the wettability of the material become a top priority for researchers [89]. The response of a
[85]. Elevating the scan speed or decreasing the laser power given design and size can significantly differ in their texture
from the optimum parameters results in a lesser molten pool, when fabrication parameters change [90,91]. The tremendous
which means a minor interface between the molten pool and impact of heat input over thermal gradient can drastically
substrate. Such circumstances lead to unsuitable wettability affect the consistency of fabricated components [92,93]. This
and molten flow, which causes the balling effect. Other than part discusses this matter for PBF and DED methods
optimizing the process parameters, re-melting the scan track separately.
can help control this phenomenon by re-melting the balls to
reach more suitable wettability in the interface [85,86]. 3.1.1.1. Texture in PBF systems. Texture growth in the build-
ing direction ( < 001 > or Z-axis) in these systems is frequently
2.10. Stair-stepping effect reported. Coarse columnar grains are oriented in the building
direction instead of assuming the solidification front [94,95].
The layer-by-layer buildup process in AM techniques leads to Grains grow to dimensions exceeding the size of the layers,
a stair-stepping consequence that negatively impacts the meaning that they make their way through multiple layers.
surface finish of the products as schematically displayed in Due to the scan strategy shifting from backward to forward
Fig. 9. This phenomenon mostly appears in the building di- and with multiple rotations in consecutive layers, the building
rection in curved geometries or surfaces at an angle to the direction is the preferred direction of grain growth. This
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1037

Fig. 7 e (a) Spherical and irregular morphologies for the porosities inside the LAM deposited part 17-4PH stainless steel [80].
Distribution of porosities with different morphologies for the porous manufactured Tie6Ale4V titanium alloy materials for
two different laser traverse velocities of (b) 360 and (c) 1560 mm/s under a constant laser power of 120 W [81,82].

oriented grain growth leads to a fiber texture in the Z-axis direction for all tracks (see Fig. 11a). A third more likely pattern
direction, as displayed in Fig. 10. Grains that grow aligned in was presented, suggesting a 45 angle between grains align-
the solidification front or the maximum thermal gradient di- ment and scan direction, as shown in Fig. 11. This enables the
rection have an advantage of the change in single beam pass. primary dendrites in the upper layers to grow epitaxial to the
However, when it comes to part fabrication, rotation and secondary dendrites of the previous layer. Grains in the newly
reversion in beam direction are challenging to their align- deposited layer have a 45 angle with the horizontal line
ment, leading to a structure that, grains, oriented in building leading to a 15 deviation from the supreme heat flow route in
direction take over the texture [94]. every layer (see Fig. 11) [89,96].
The crystallographic texture data revealed by EBSD grain
3.1.1.2. Texture in DED systems. Applying a constantly structural maps, inverse pole figure (IPF), and pole figure (PF)
changing beam scan strategy during the DED processes leads plots for S316L austenitic and S410L martensitic stainless
to a tilted cube texture in the specimen, while scanning in a steels are presented and compared in Figs. 12 and 13,
line results in a fiber texture component [91]. The crystallo- respectively. For austenitic stainless steel with a face-
graphic textures induced by these conditions are halfway centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure and without solid-
between the preferred growth directions and the highest state austenitic to ferritic phase transformation, directional
thermal gradient direction. In some scanning strategies, solidification leads to the generation of a relatively directional
grains may grow in a direction different than that of the solid texture (J-index ¼ 11.5) by a diamond array of ð111Þ close-
thermal gradient as the primary pattern [89]. packed planes toward the direction of < 200 > as the domi-
Considering growth patterns for grains, the potential to nant component [97]. Meanwhile, in the case of martensitic
match the maximum thermal gradient in each layer would be stainless steel with a body-centered cubic (BCC) crystal
unlikely, based on the high driving force required for nucle- structure, LAM deposition can induce complex crystallo-
ation in each layer. Another pattern suggests, dendrites align graphic textures by forming martensitic laths upon rapid
vertically to adjacent layers. This pattern would be unlikely to cooling and their preferred orientations as well as the micro-
take place due to the significant mismatch between growth twining along the boundaries. Consequently, the formation
direction and preferred heat flow direction. This orientation is of a strong f011g < 111 > textural component (J-index ¼ 17.5)
reported when the scan track is deposited in the same was indexed after transformation in the a-phase state [97].
1038 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Fig. 8 e Deposition of single tracks under different laser traverse velocities showing the existence of balling effect during
deposition of 316L stainless steel [85].

3.1.2. Microstructure controlling the laser material processing parameters in the

In LAM processes, fabricated parts usually go through a range of planar growth region, it may even be possible to
complex thermal cycle [98,99]. During the process, powder/ fabricate a single crystal 3D component according to the LAM
wire absorbs the beam's energy, which is transferred to heat deposition technology [102e105]. However, usually, the LAM
that rapidly increases the temperature above the melting processing parameters in such ranges to locate in the yellow
point. When the heat source moves to another point, solidi- region, as demonstrated in Fig. 14, can define the alteration of
fication quickly takes place. This is repeated until the whole microstructure during LAM deposition between columnar,
volume is fabricated, and all layers experience similar thermal dendritic, and equiaxed morphologies. A red line is plotted in
cycles [99]. Due to these cycles, fabricated parts contain non- the curve and named as columnar to equiaxed transition (CET)
equilibrium and meta-stable phases, varying from one layer boundary and displays the critical situation for such a signif-
to another, making it challenging to accurately predict the icant transition. It is worth mentioning that according to such
microstructure. Since the LAM technology is based on layer- graph, the cross-product of temperature gradient and solidi-
upon-layer melting and solidification of metallic material, fication speed yield the cooling rate, and that is the reason
two parameters strongly control the solidified structure, as behind microstructural refinement from the left-bottom side
illustrated in Fig. 14. The two critical parameters are defined in of the curve toward the upper-right area.
terms of solidification speed (R) and temperature gradient (G), Based on the specific thermal cycle of the LAM techniques,
whereas they can be primarily affected by the foremost laser fabricated parts usually have a fine-grained structure
treating bounds in terms of laser power (P), traverse speed (v), compared to conventional methods [108,109]. This is because
laser beam diameter (d), focusing geometry, powder charac- of the localized heat input in these methods and the small
teristics, shielding gas (type, purity, and pressure), etc. molten pool volume, which results in rapid solidification of
Depending on the magnitude of the G:R and G
ratios, the the material. Also, many parameters influence the tempera-
R
solidification front growth morphology can vary, ranging from ture gradient like the energy density, beam size, scanning
planar toward columnar, dendritic, and finally equiaxed speed, layer thickness, preheat temperature [110]. Likewise,
[100,101]. Based on this correlation with these ratios, by the base material and the environment have a major impact

Fig. 9 e Schematic image illustrating the stair-stepping effect in the AM fabricated parts [88].
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1039

Fig. 10 e Schematic demonstration for the textural growth during the layer-upon-layer deposition in the PBF-based
processes [94].

on the temperature gradient. Even in a given process with a fabricated components [114e116]. The larger the melt pool
uniform material, areas surrounded by powder show different grows, the lower the cooling rate can be, and this leads to
heat conduction than regions with solidified material. The coarse microstructure and strengthens the textures. Instead, a
microstructure of fabricated parts may vary within the lesser melt pool leads to fine grain and weakly textured mi-
domain, especially between surface and bulk components of crostructures [117]. DED methods usually have larger melt
the material [99]. Heat conduction varies with direction, usu- pools than PBF methods, leading to larger grains of
ally being higher in the build direction (Z) than the other di- 100e140 mm and more highly oriented microstructure.
rections (X, Y) because of the solidified material of the Simultaneously, intervals between layers fabrication signifi-
previously build layers. This causes anisotropy in the me- cantly affect the cooling rate, substantially impacting grain
chanical properties and microstructure of the invented prod- size and texture [118].
ucts [32,99,111]. Austenitic stainless steels (e.g., 304L and 316L) usually
consume an entirely austenitic microstructure following the
3.1.2.1. Microstructure of steels with different grades. As dis- LAM processes [115,119,120]. However, in the LMD processes,
cussed, a fine-grained microstructure is often formed during almost 10.9% retained d-ferrite has been reported in the
LAM fabrication of steels due to the high cooling rates fabricated 316L samples, which can be transformed to
[112,113]. Based on fabrication parameters, elongated grains austenite by heat treatment at 1150  C for 2 h surveyed by air
and oriented grains are the most likely structures for cooling [118]. In 304L components manufactured by LBM,

Fig. 11 e Microscopic image showing the dendritic growth for Inconel 625 superalloy via (a) single directional and (b)
bidirectional scanning strategies [96].
 1040
j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8
Fig. 12 e EBSD results are showing the (a) grain structural maps, (b) inverse pole figure (IPF), and (c) pole figure plots for the S316L austenitic stainless steel after LAM
deposition [97].
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8
Fig. 13 e EBSD results are showing the (a) grain structural maps, (b) inverse pole figure (IPF), and (c) pole figure plots for the S410L martensitic stainless steel after LAM
deposition [97].

1041
1042 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Fig. 14 e Prediction of grain structure during LAM deposition depending on the correlation between the solidification speed
(R) and temperature gradient (G) (according to [106,107]). It is noteworthy that the scales on both axes of this graph are
typical and the stability regions can vary considerably depending on the metals/alloys being processed.

elongated grains in the building direction were reported, and re-heating of the layers during the fabrication process, which
the base metal was fully austenitic. Due to the high cooling assists the diffusion of the austenitic stabilizers. The whole
rate, no chromium carbides were detected in the grain mechanism leads to the appearance of relapsed austenite
boundaries [115]. The microstructure of 316L is almost the and/or growth of the areas with retained austenite [123].
same in the LBM processes. Layers that were further from the Aging 17-4PH stainless steel and 18Ni-300 maraging steel
substrate usually show a coarse microstructure due to the fabricated through the PBF route resulted in retained
inferior heat transmission of the consolidated assembly austenite. During heat treatment, a partial transformation of
compared to the build plate [114,121]. Fig. 15aec shows the austenite generated during the PBF process to martensite was
resulting microstructure of the LAM fabricated parts in a observed. This may be due to the stress relief during the heat
layer-based perspective. As a result of the high cooling rate treatment. Due to mechanically stable austenite in their
during LAM, a fine dendritic structure formation was observed structure, they both show transformation-induced plasticity
in the specimen. (TRIP) [112,113,124]. Fig. 15d, e shows the microstructure of
Martensitic grades of stainless steel often remain in an 18Ni-300 steel and fine martensite formation in the structure
austenitic phase following the LAM fabricated microstructure. of such parts.
Other grades such as 17-4 PH stainless steel, 18-Ni300 mar- In Fig. 16, the EBSD grain structures for the laser additive
aging steel, and AISI type 420 stainless steel also often contain manufactured S316L austenitic and S410L martensitic stainless
austenite phase when fabricated by LAM processes steels are likened with the conventional rolled sheet of these
[113,122,123]. The 17-4 PH stainless steel processed by PBF has steels. Generally, by comparing the scale bars for the micro-
been found to contain 28% martensite in its structure with a graphs of both stainless plates of steel in two circumstances of
balance consisting of austenitic phase. Martensitic plates commercial and additive, it is evident that the structure of
were highly twinned, while areas near the martensitic phase additive fabricated products has very coarse grains rather than
had a high stacking fault and dislocation density [116]. Other the commercial ones. For instance, the microstructure of
studies on this alloy suggested that retained austenitic phase austenitic stainless steel in the conventional state of sheet
results from residual thermal stress caused by the high cool- production seems cold-worked containing a high fraction of
ing rate of the PBF. Therefore, any parameter that affects the low-angle grain boundaries (LAGBs), white-color lines in
cooling rate may dramatically affect the phase distribution Fig. 16a, due to the applied previous thermo-mechanical
[124]. It was noted that, even a change in the cover gas had a treatment, where the size of grains with irregular morphology
significant effect on microstructure due to the difference in is varied in the range of 7.5e29 mm. However, after LAM depo-
the thermal conduction [122,125], and stainless steels are sition of this steel, the grain structure was completely altered
particularly sensitive to nitrogen, as this is an austenite due to the mechanisms active during layer-upon-layer melting
stabilizer. and solidification. The formation of coarse and elongated
Experiments show that in martensitic steels processed by structure of grains caused by directional solidification with the
LAM, the presence of austenite phase due to the austenitic size range of 250e650 mm can be noted, as shown in Fig. 16b. For
relapse is probable. The amount of retained austenite in the this kind of stainless steel, the austenite phase is stable under
specimen varies from 21% at the top layers to almost 57% all processing conditions; therefore, without any possible solid-
austenite and tempered martensite at central areas of the state phase transformation, the grain structure can only alter
fabricated parts. This is believed to be a result of continuous depending on the solidification mechanism and cooling rate of
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8
Fig. 15 e SEM pictures showing the (a) layers and (b) dendritic structure for the S316L austenitic stainless steel after LAM deposition according to the PBF route [126]. (c) SEM
micrograph of three layers in a fabricated component [118]. (d) Low and (e) high magnification SEM images from 18Ni-300 steel show its microstructure and fine dendrites
formation at a lower scale due to the rapid cooling of the LAM process [113].

1043
1044 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Fig. 16 e EBSD analysis maps comparing the grain structure of (a, b) S316L austenitic stainless steels and (c, d) S410L
martensitic stainless steels under two states of commercial and additive manufacturing [97].

the molten pool. By changing the type of stainless steel from 3.1.2.2. Microstructure of Ni-based alloys. LAM processing
austenitic into martensitic, the situation would be totally factors consume a noteworthy influence on the microstruc-
different due to the possibility for the occurrence of austenite to ture of nickel-based deposited parts [128e130]. Depending on
ferrite phase transformation upon cooling from melting tem- the fabrication conditions, additional precipitation and
perature down to the ambient atmosphere [127]. Accordingly, a intermetallic phases can form resulting in varying micro-
non-stable shear-based transformation such as martensitic structures. The thermal history and chemical composition
also can have the chance of formation depending on the range exhibit a major character to determine the microstructure of
of operative cooling rate. Fig. 16c illustrates the grain structure these parts. Some alloys develop precipitate structures during
of S410L martensitic stainless steel in the commercial state of the fabrication process, while in some cases, this occurs after
production. The presence of refined and equiaxed grains with manufacturing and during post-annealing modifications
00
the equivalent size varied in the range of 6e23 mm through the [131]. In the case of Inconel 718 superalloy, g0 and g phases
structure can be announced attributing to the production his- precipitate during post-processing heat treatment, while,
tory of alloy as rolling and subsequent annealing treatments. Rene-142 displays g0 structure without any secondary
Meanwhile, after conducting the LAM deposition process, the annealing treatment [131,132].
alloy's microstructure was changed entirely, as shown in The size, shape, distribution, sequence, and volume frac-
Fig. 16d. By considering the incidence of martensitic phase tion of the precipitate phases affect the properties of fabri-
transformation for this steel during high cooling rates of the cated components. To achieve better properties in fabricated
LAM process, very large martensitic laths with the size in the parts than conventional methods, controlling the micro-
range of millimeters as surrounded by micro-twins were structure is a crucial factor. To achieve this goal, the chem-
formed. For the case of S410L martensitic stainless steel, severe istry, process parameters, and post-processing heat treatment
interfacial shear phenomenon between the martensite laths parameters must be optimized [132,133]. LAM processes are
during martensitic phase transformation can activate the known for their high chilling degrees and frequent heating
micro-twining mechanism at the interfaces. The formation of and cooling cycles, impacting the phase formation and
such micro-twins between the martensitic laths is addressed in microstructure of parts. During fabrication, layers are exposed
the EBSD drawing of Fig. 16d as the broad black lines. to varying thermal cycles depending on parameters and part
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1045

Fig. 17 e (a) Macro-images are illustrating the three-dimensional microstructures of Inconel 625 fabricated by the LAM
deposition route [96]. (b) Microstructure of dendritic and equiaxed grains within the fabricated part in the previous
macrograph [96]. (c) High magnification SEM image from the g phase grains showing the Lave phase and carbides inside the
LAM deposited Inconel 718 superalloy [142].

geometry, and so the size of the precipitate phases may vary A dendritic grain structure significantly affects the
based on their location in the fabricated part. Thermal pro- morphology and distribution of the intermetallic phases [135].
cesses can also alter the grain structure, leading to equiaxed Due to the supersaturation in the interdendritic areas, larger
and dendritic grain structures in different fabricated parts. precipitates, intermetallic phases, and eutectic products are
Bottom layers go under more thermal cycles with more most likely to be formed. Intermetallic crops containing Laves
extended periods, resulting in coarse precipitate phases in phase and NbC carbide enclose a large amount of Nb in their
these layers compared to the layers near the top [134]. Fig. 17a background. Therefore, enriched precipitation arises in g dis-
shows the microstructure of the different areas in the fabri- tricts near eutectic grades upon heating and cooling cycles [136].
cated parts from bottom to top, while Fig. 17b and c shows the This leads to heterogeneity in the microstructure which results
equiaxed dendritic grain structures at higher magnification in varying mechanical properties. In order to achieve a homo-
containing Laves phases and carbides. geneous microstructure, post-annealing modification is crucial.
1046 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Fig. 18 e Microstructures of Tie6Ale4V titanium alloy after LAM deposition showing the (a) back-scattered SEM image of
martensitic phase with needle-like morphology [154], (b) acicular a0 martensitic phase [110], (c) a and a0 phase formation in
prior b grain [147], (d) acicular microstructure and the presence of a phase in the boundary of prior b grains [111], (e) coarse
Widmanstaten structure [155], and (f) the lamellar a þ b structure with a phase being the gray shade [153].

Phases such as Laves, Nb-rich metallic carbides are usually G

common in low cooling rates with high R (temperature
perceived at the interdendritic constituencies or grain gradient to growth rate, portion) [137,141].
boundaries [90,137,138]. Oxide films at the grain boundaries
are the prospective nucleation substrate for intermetallic 3.1.2.3. Microstructure of titanium and Ti-based alloys.
phases [138]. The formation of intermetallic phases is often Regarding commercially pure Ti, the resulting microstructure
known to affect the mechanical properties negatively. Espe- is mainly determined by scan speed [143,144]. At low scan
cially in the case of Laves phase, weakening the effect of speeds (high volume energy), transformation of the b phase to
00
precipitation by decreasing g0 and g phases and adversely the a phase occurs during cooling, leading to coarse lath-
affecting the solid solution strengthening are the main rea- shaped grains. With higher scan speeds (medium volume
sons for the deterioration of mechanical properties [139,140]. energies) the cooling rate is higher, so the b phase transforms
The Laves phase and carbides produced in fabricated com- to a0 phase (martensitic phase) and grains are refined to
ponents are presented in Fig. 17c for the case of Inconel 625 acicular shaped. Increasing scan speed beyond this point re-
alloy. The solidification process is the following key parameter sults in grain refinement, and a zigzag pattern appears
that can impact the formation of intermetallic phases. [145,146]. Fig. 18a, b shows the acicular morphology and
Continuously distributed, coarse Laves phase particles are backscattered image of the martensitic phase in the structure.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1047

Table 2 e A Summary of reported mechanical properties for varying grades of laser additive manufactured austenitic
stainless steels compared the conventional manufacturing state of these alloys with the sample specifications, depending
on different processing parameters: Heat input (HI, J/mm); Relative density (r, %); Yield stress (sY , MPa); Ultimate tensile
strength (sUTS , MPa); Elongation to failure (e, %).
Alloy HI r Orientation sY sUTS e Ref.
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Systems
S304 8 100 X,Y 520 710 38 [170]
Z 450 580 58
S304L 1.36 e X,Y 182 393 25.9 [115]
1.06 e 156 389 22.1
S304L 0.143 99.99 e 485 712 61 [182]
S304 0.8 e XeY 568 ± 2 715.5 ± 1.5 41.7 ± 1.1 [170]
S316 >0.2 99.9 X,Y 602 ± 47 664 ± 7 30 ± 0 [181]
Z 557 ± 14 591 ± 12 42 ± 2
S316L 0.17 98.5 ± 1.4 X,Y 379 ± 17 489 ± 28 23 ± 6 [180]
Z 287 ± 6 317 ± 11 7±4
0.17 98 ± 1 X,Y 399 ± 29 486 ± 40 9±3
Z 316 ± 6 367 ± 6 7±1
0.25 97.2 ± 1.2 X,Y 438 ± 28 528 ± 23 10 ± 2
Z 435 ± 2 504 ± 12 16 ± 3
S316L 0.25 97.5 ± 1 X,Y 534 ± 5.7 653 ± 3.4 16.2 ± 0.8 [177,183]
93.8 ± 2.6 Z 444 ± 26.5 567 ± 18.6 8 ± 2.9
S316L 0.33 98.6 e e 501.1 ± 8.3 e [184]
S316L 0.24 e Z 640 760 30 [185]
Powder Feed Systems
S304 e 100 X,Y 448 710 59 [186]
Z 324 655 70
S304L 271 >99.9 X,Y 337 ± 29 609 ± 18 48.2 ± 2.5 [30]
Z 314 ± 6 606 ± 13 56.4 ± 5.8
371 X,Y 277 ± 27 581 ± 20 41.8 ± 3.5
Z 274 ± 7 560 ± 12 50.5 ± 6.7
S316 e 100 X,Y 593 807 33 [187]
Z 448 793 36e66
S316 76e500 e X,Y 558 639 21 [178]
Z 352 536 46
S316L 45 99.6 X,Y 490 ± 8 685 ± 5 51 ± 2 [188]
Z 280 ± 6 580 ± 10 62 ± 5
S316L 167 e X,Y e 812e901 9e15 [189]
S316L 27 100 X,Y 576 776 33 [190]
Z 479 703 46
S316L 69 e Z 410 460 22 [176]
71 Z 450 510 20
73 Z 440 470 18
75 Z 420 440 15
80 Z 405 430 14
Commercially Manufactured Alloys
S304L Annealed e e 168 556 61 [191]
S304L Annealed e e 265 ± 9 722 ± 14 62.3 ± 2.6 [30]
S316L Cast e e 365 ± 22 596 ± 16 69 ± 9 [180]
S316L annealed e e 241 586 50 [190]

Alternatively, in Tie6Ale4V based components, during different locations of a single layer based on the local thermal
LAM processing, when the temperature increases above the b cycle experienced at each location [67]. The cooling rate also
transition temperature during heating cycles, transformation determines the width of the grain boundary of a, but the size of
of a phase to b phase occurs. During subsequent cooling, a colony depends on the size of b grains that has transformed to
phase transformations occur similar to those pure Ti, where a phase. At high cooling rates, acicular martensitic a0 phase
low cooling rates (low scan speeds) facilitate the transforms of results in low ductility and high strength [148]. Fig. 18d shows a
b phase back to a phase, and high cooling rates promote the micrograph of the a phase present at a grain boundary.
formation of a0 martensite [110,111]. Fig. 18c shows a and a0 Transformation of a0 martensite to a phase through post-
martensitic phase formed in prior b grain in the microstruc- fabrication heat treatment is common. The undercooling or
ture of a Tie6Ale4V component [147]. transformation temperature below the b transition tempera-
Increasing the cooling rate decreases the lamellar spacing ture determines the width of a plates. Enhanced strength and
of the a phase, and the exact rate determines the amount of this ductility were achieved when a heat treatment under b tran-
phase. Even the lamellar spacing of a phase can vary in sition temperature was applied, for example by cooling inside
1048 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Fig. 19 e Histograms showing the main tensile properties of LAM deposited (a) S316L and (b) S304L austenitic stainless
steels at different manufacturing parameters. These plots are corresponding to the critical tensile data expressed in Table 2.

a furnace. On the other hand, increasing the heat treatment Controlling the microstructure and properties is possible
temperature over the b transition temperature would deteri- by adding alloying elements to the powder. The alloying of
orate mechanical properties. In the case of water quench after 10 wt% Mo element with Tie6Ale4V composition does not
such heat treatment, a0 martensite would result in poor allow the transformation of the b phase to martensite in
ductility. In contrast, cooling samples in the furnace results in higher cooling rates. The resulting parts show increased
a lamellar a þ b structure, and air-cooled samples consist of strength and sufficient elongation due to the dispersion of Mo
a-Widmanstatten colonies. These structures have lower particles in the fully b matrix [152].
strength than the specimens with structures resulting from An investigation of DED processed Tie6Ale4V component
under b transition temperature heat treatment [148,149]. For showed that three regions could be imagined for these parts.
example, Fig. 18e, f shows the microstructure of a-Widman- The lower region near the build plate had a fine lamellar a
statten and lamellar a þ b structures. structure with a0 martensitic. The middle area consisted of a
Aside from post-fabrication heat treatment, optimizing the coarse lamellar structure with an Al-rich a phase and V-rich b
process parameters may also transform the martensitic phase phase. Due to the low cooling rate in these layers, small
into a more ductile microstructure. Martensite was decom- lamellar a in the b matrix was observed in the top layers. On
posed to refined lamellar a þ b structure during the PBF pro- the other hand, a þ b colonies were the dominant structure
cess due to the thermal cycles applied to previously build along the grain boundaries [153].
layers during deposition of upper layers [98,110]. PBF param-
eters for instance layer thickness, focal offset distance, and 3.1.2.4. Other alloys (Al-based, Mg-based, Zr-based, and high
energy density are the critical parameters to achieve the entropy). Considering the importance of the mentioned alloys
desired structure. Though changing these parameters do not (stainless steels, nickel superalloys, and titanium-based ones)
help transform the a0 phase in the upper layers of the fabri- is enormous based on their potential in structural applica-
cated part, and typically the last eight layers may still contain tions, aerospace, and biomedical industries, these are often
martensite [150,151]. not suitable for the other applications. Hence, various
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1049

activities were reported on the development of other metals 3.2. Mechanical properties
and alloys by LAM routes, as well. Aluminum-based alloys
have garnered substantial interest for marine and aerospace 3.2.1. Influence of residual porosity on the LAM fabricated
applications due to their excellent corrosion resistance and parts
outstanding strength to weight ratio [156,157]. In general, It is possible to build high-density metallic parts via LAM with
these alloys do not involve the solid-state allotropy but are mechanical properties analogous to counterparts fabricated by
very sensitive to thermal and cooling cycles upon printing and conventional approaches. A major challenge to manufacturing
post-processing modifications to control the structure and high-quality parts with the desired mechanical properties is to
distribution of precipitates, specifically in the case of age- avoid a porous structure of these parts. These pores may pro-
hardenable alloys. mote crack initiation and mechanical deterioration of both
Magnesium and its alloys are a unique class of materials ductility and impact properties. Hence, fabricating parts with
considering their extremely low density of these metals, high density has become the number one mission of parameter
although they are more sensitive to corrosion attack in service optimization in LAM treatment [164,165].
environments. There is also a possibility for solid-solution The density of the products is often dictated by the applied
precipitation in some cases of magnesium-based alloys, volumetric energy intensity of the beam. If energy input is too
such as; AZ31, AZ61, and AZ91. Also, the dominant deforma- low, insufficient melting during fabrication causes voids in
tion mechanism for this alloy with hexagonal closed packed fabricated parts reducing bulk density. On the other hand,
(HCP) crystal structure is twining considering reduced number excessive volumetric energy leads to more severe melt pool
of independent slip systems and lower stacking fault energy dynamics, volatile spatter, evaporation of materials, and
(SFE) level. Moreover, the mechanical behavior of these alloys entrapment of gases inside the region, which also induces
can be very anisotropic and directional. Processing magne- porosity, leading to a reduction in density due to the presence
sium and its alloys through LAM technologies is very chal- of spherical-shaped pores. This can also cause thermal stress
lenging due to the highly reactive potential of these materials and trigger a balling effect in the surface layer [98,166].
when they melt caused by the high affinity of Mg for oxygen Excessive deviation from the optimized parameters can
and forming magnesium oxide, imparting both safety issues lead to the deterioration of mechanical properties. On count of
during powder handling and stringent shielding requirements Tie6Ale4V alloy [166] and 316L stainless steel [167], insuffi-
for equipment. Meanwhile, 3D printing of Mg alloys is of great cient melting can cause a cluster of defects, which can have a
interest to biomedical applications as biodegradable implants much additional destructive outcome on the mechanical
to process the related geometrical complexities. Hence, in the properties of the fabricated structure than spherical pores
case of these alloys, the activities were toward laser sintering [165], as the larger defect can result in a greater stress con-
of metallic powders to consolidate three-dimensional struc- centration in the material.
tures in the solid-state or by the addition of some agents to In a study on Tie6Ale4V alloy, spherical pores were
reduce the processing temperature as in the case of liquid- observed, not caused by gas entrapment [154]. These pores
phase sintering [158,159]. were caused by insufficient melting of the surface of the
As another HCP material, zirconium and its alloys (such as substrate layer in the building-up process. To examine the
commercial Zircaloy) are exciting refractory metals for nu- validity of this theory, these pores were closed by HIP and then
clear applications attributed to their low neutron cross- heat-treated, and they did not reopen afterward. The HIP
section, and good corrosion resistance at low temperatures. procedure has been considered a successful method to mini-
Newly developed LAM technologies have been implemented mize the porosities and control their destructive effect on the
for deposition of zirconium-based alloys in complex compo- belongings of fabricated components. It is possible to achieve
nents or as multi-metal structures with other materials a maximum density of 99.95% by optimizing the LAM and HIP
[44,160]. The Zircaloys have a possible a to b solid-state phase processing parameters yielding the removal of almost all of
transformation depending on the oxygen level, however, the the porosities [154].
main challenge for additive manufacturing of zirconium- Re-melting a layer before applying the powder on it has
based alloys would be the high affinity of this element to been considered another method to decrease residual poros-
reacting with oxygen at elevated temperatures. Recently, the ities. By doing so, porosities amongst the melt pools were
development of high-entropy alloys (HEAs) by the combina- barred, and the grain structure was refined, resulting from the
tion of different elements with equiatomic stoichiometry high heat conduction of the consolidated material related
resulted in the generation of advanced classes of materials with powder [168]. On the other hand, research on the rela-
with exceptional mechanical properties [161]. Phase trans- tionship between heat treatment and porosity has not shown
formations in these complicated systems involve solid- promising results [165], since it is well known that it is ther-
solution and intermetallic phases formation, which their modynamically impossible to remove voids by thermal
structure and stability can vary drastically due to altering the treatment alone.
chemical composition of the alloy and consequent heat
treatments during and after processing. The main interest in 3.2.2. Strength and elongation of LAM products
HEAs would be improving the mechanical stiffness for severe Microstructure and density of the fabricated parts are critical
loading service applications. Therefore, LAM technologies are factors determining strength. Due to the rapid solidification
of interest for deposition of these new alloys, as well, effect, the LAM fabricated parts have been known to have a
considering the combination of alloying treatment with more refined microstructure and higher tensile strength than
manufacturing of complex geometries [162,163]. those counterparts built by conventional methods. The
1050 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

HallePetch relationship is a well-established way to correlate ii. Usual high dislocation density of the fabricated parts
the yield strength to average grain size in LAM parts [110,169]. caused by rapid solidification and residual stress [175,176].
The relationship between microstructure and tensile
properties implies that the texture and anisotropy of the Low elongation of LAM products could be argued utilizing
microstructure can also cause anisotropy in tensile properties. several factors:
This has been proven true in the case of LAM through
numerous studies [32,111,170], where these properties are i. The strength-ductility tradeoff
usually highest along the building direction. ii. Higher dislocation density of LAM fabricated parts
In this section, the mechanical strength and ductility of the iii. Internal imperfections for instance linear-shaped po-
LAM fabricated parts are reviewed, and the connection be- rosities or sharp lack of fusion that cause stress
tween microstructure, texture, anisotropy, and properties are concentration
discussed. With the intention of be capable to compare iv. Dislocation pile-up due to the refined grain structure
different processes with variant parameters, linear and volu- [30,177,178].
metric heat input are defined. Linear heat input (H) is
expressed according to the below relationship [171,172]: Austenitic stainless steels manufactured by DED exhibit
lower yield and ultimate tensile strength by elevating linear
P heat input. However, the strength of the fabricated parts
H¼ (1)
v seems to act independently from any change in the volu-
where P and v are relating to the laser power and scan speed, metric heat input. The inferior linear heat input reaches, the
respectively. On the other hand, the volumetric heat input, HV slighter melt pool, which means higher thermal gradient and
(also known as volumetric energy density), can be demarcated faster cooling rates for LAM fabricated parts. This leads to the
as follows: formation of refined microstructure, resulting in higher yield
and tensile strength [13,30,176]. Due to the insufficient data
P reported in articles, deriving the volumetric heat input in
HV ¼ (2)
vhd most cases would be impossible, and thus no clear rela-
where d and h are the layer thickness and the spacing between tionship can be made between strength and volumetric heat
hatches, respectively [9,173]. These parameters are the means input.
to compare studies as much as possible, but in many cases, A share of the laser's energy is applied to melt the sub-
insufficient data leads to difficulties in comparing data strate, which depends on the component's laser energy ab-
consistently. Also, in different laser-based processes, the ab- sorptivity. Other than that, based on the type of laser we are
sorptivity of the materials must be considered when calcu- using, absorbed energy may differ. Comparing CO2 laser with
lating such parameters. Nd: YAG laser, energy absorption using a Nd: YAG laser is
higher when equal linear heat input is applied [179].
3.2.2.1. Steels. Based on the variant structures of the LAM PBF manufactured austenitic stainless steels do not exhibit
processed steels and the resulting mechanical properties of a clear relationship between their strength and the linear or
such products, their properties are discussed in two sub- volumetric heat input applied during their fabrication process.
sections. The first part focuses on the properties of austen- In this technique, the scan strategy determines the thermal
itic stainless steels that are mainly used without any heat history of manufactured parts [170,180,181]. Different studies
treatment. The second section discusses the properties of use different scan strategies, which may be one factor
heat treatable precipitation hardening stainless steels. shrouding the relationship between strength and heat input
3.2.2.1.1. Austenitic stainless steels without eutectoid phase in these studies.
transformation. Among austenitic stainless steels, 304 stain- As discussed before, the thermal gradient during powder
less steel (304), 304L stainless steel (304L), 316 stainless steel bed LAM processes in the building direction is highest, and
(316), and 316L stainless steel (316L) have been the most grains are oriented in this direction [30,178,180]. This may
popular alloys studied in terms of their LAM processed cause anisotropy in the LAM parts. Generally, the strength of
structure, and these may formed either g-austenite and d- the fabricated austenitic stainless steel components in longi-
ferrite grains in as-fabricated conditions [30,119,172,174]. tudinal directions (XeY) is higher than the building direction
When processed by conventional processes, their structures (Z). Elongation of austenitic stainless steel components pro-
are fully austenitic; however, when fabricated by LAM tech- duced by the DED process typically is inversely proportional to
niques, these alloys generally show higher yield strength, ul- strength, meaning that, at best, elongation in the longitudinal
timate tensile strength, and hardness than conventionally path is equal to that of the building direction. In the case of
manufactured counterparts due to a refined structure con- PBF techniques, no specific relation can be defined between
taining, as summarized in Table 2. However, they usually energy density, thermal gradient, direction, and mechanical
exhibit lower ductility than those fabricated through the strength.
traditional methods due to the dissimilarity in the micro- Fig. 19a, b represent the highest mechanical properties
structure and rapid solidification of the fabricated compo- achieved for LAM processed the 316L and 304L stainless steels,
nents through LAM routes. respectively. Based on the data tensile strength of the PBF
High strengths of the LAM parts are linked to: processes is more elevated than DED and commercial spec-
imen. However, in the case of 316L, higher strength comes
i. The refined grain structure due to the rapid solidification with the price of a reduction in ductility. On the other hand,
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Table 3 e Influence of precipitation hardening on the mechanical properties of stainless steels in the as-built condition.
Alloy HI Primary condition r Orientation sY sUTS e Ref.
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Systems
17-4 PH 0.24 As-built 98.7 X,Y 661 ± 24 1255 ± 3 16.2 ± 2.5 [124]
Z 570 ± 13 944 ± 35 50 ± 1 [194]
0.27 X,Y 610 ± 10 1050 ± 20 11 ± 0 [196]
Z 610 ± 10 910 ± 10 3.5 ± 1.5
e Stress-relieved XeY 600 1300 28 [116]
18Ni-300 0.67 As-built e e 1214 ± 99 1290 ± 114 13.3 ± 1.9 [113]
Powder Feed Systems
FeeCr 36.1 As-built e e 400 ± 100 900 ± 200 5±3 [195]

the 304L specimen exhibits suitable ductility while having At this point, no clear relation between strength and linear
better strength than the commercial parts. heat input of the as-built 17-4 PH stainless steel can be noted
3.2.2.1.2. Stainless steels involving austenite to ferrite phase due to the lack of data. However, aging seems to positively
transformation. Among precipitation hardening (PH) stainless affect the strength of the LAM fabricated 17-4 PH stainless
steels processed by LAM, 17-4 PH stainless steel (17-4 PH), also steels compared with as-built components. However, it
known as AISI grade 630 precipitation hardening martensitic should be noted that solution annealing followed by peak
stainless steel and 15-5 PH stainless steel (15-5 PH) also known aging (H900) are more effective than direct aging of the fabri-
as AISI grade S15500 precipitation hardening martensitic cated material [124]. In this context, the mechanical property
stainless steel are the supreme popular materials elaborated. findings for precipitation hardened LAM deposited compo-
Fabricated parts have a microstructure consisting of austenite nents produced using different systems and materials are
(50e75 vol%) and martensite when processed in nitrogen, and summarized in Table 3.
typically martensite (92 vol%) when processed in argon It is well-established that Cu is highly soluble in the
[122,192]. Then through heat treatment, controlled precipita- austenite phase and preserving the austenite structure in
tion of Cu-rich phases in the martensitic background occurs, aged 17-4 PH stainless steel is a challenge to optimize the
which improves strength [122,124,193]. precipitation hardening. Throughout the solution annealing,
In general, fabricated parts exhibit lower yield strength in austenite transforms to the martensite. This outcomes in the
as-built conditions than the traditionally manufactured and precipitation of Cu-rich phases, leading to the enhancement
heat-treated counterparts. This may be due to the soft of the yield and ultimate tensile strengths [194]. Nevertheless,
austenite that exists in the structure of the LAM parts. the subsequent aging process must be chosen carefully to
Retained austenite can transform to martensite when plastic prevent the formation of the coarse precipitates. As shown in
deformation is applied on the LAM part. This means excep- Table 4, over aging (H1025 and H1150) negatively affects the
tional work hardening for these parts, leading to better elon- strength of the metallic components [124,194].
gation and ultimate tensile strength than heat-treated LAM The manufactured specimens with a less than 0.1%
parts or conventionally manufactured and heat-treated porosity exhibit ductile fracture when subjected to tensile
counterparts [194,195]. testing, which is similar to counterparts deposited by

Table 4 e Effects of post-fabrication heat treatments on the mechanical properties of LAM printed stainless steels
controlled by precipitation hardening as compared with the commercial steels with the same specifications.
Alloy Heat treatment cycles Orientation sY sUTS e Ref.
17-4 PH H900 (480  C for 1 h) X,Y 945 ± 12 1417 ± 6 15.5 ± 1.3 [124]
H1025 (550  C for 4 h) X,Y 870 ± 25 1358 ± 8 13.3 ± 1.5
H1150 (620  C for 4 h) X,Y 1005 ± 15 1319 ± 2 11.1 ± 0.4
SA (solution annealed, 1040  C for 30 min) X,Y 939 ± 9 1188 ± 6 9 ± 1.5
SA þ H900 X,Y 1352 ± 18 1444 ± 2 4.6 ± 0.4
SA þ H1025 X,Y 1121 ± 9 1172 ± 2 9.6 ± 1.7
SA þ H1150 X,Y 859 ± 11 1017 ± 15 16.6 ± 1.2
17-4 PH 650  C for 2 h Z 619 ± 1 915 ± 38 12 ± 1 [194]
788  C for 2 h Z 857 ± 14 1487 ± 10 7±1
788  C for 2 h þ H900 Z 1126 ± 14 1457 ± 3 12 ± 3
17-4 PH SA þ H900 X,Y 910 1210 ± 10 8±1 [196]
Z 700 ± 10 1050 ± 20 3.2 ± 1.5
15-5 PH H900 X,Y 1297 ± 1.0 1450 ± 2.1 12.5 ± 1.1 [193]
18Ni-300 Aged at 480  C for 5 h e 1998 ± 32 2217 ± 73 1.6 ± 0.26 [113]
Conventionally Fabricated Steels
17-4 PH Wrought, solution annealed, and aged 992 1018 13.4 [198]
17-4 PH Solution annealed followed by peak aging 1170 1310 10 [199]
18Ni-300 Wrought 828 ± 68 1085 ± 85 10.5 ± 4.5 [113]
1052 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Fig. 20 e Histograms showing the main tensile properties of LAM deposited 17-4 PH stainless steel according to different
PBF and DED routes compared with the other commercial methods of manufacturing (combined casting, forming, and heat
treatment). It is noteworthy that this graph is a histogram plot for the reported tensile data in Tables 3 and 4 regarding this
steel material.

commercial procedures. Instead, a remaining porosity of as material, although wrought components normally exhibit
much as 2.4% would result in a brittle failure and dramatically superior toughness.
decrease the metallic components' elongation [167]. LAM de- When considering the crystallographic textures devel-
fects that cause stress concentration during the tensile testing oped in Figs. 12 and 13, as well as the microstructural fea-
result in reduced ductility in PH stainless steels due to rapid tures in Fig. 16 for S316L austenitic and S410L martensitic
crack nucleation. Pores caused by lack of fusion or insufficient stainless steels in the wrought condition versus after laser
powder melting, and secondary phase particles are the most additive manufacturing, the mechanical properties of these
common defects, which result in the lower ductility of LAM materials can differ drastically. It is worth mentioning that
components [196]. the S316L is austenitic and does not undergo further trans-
Fig. 20 provides an illustration of the best mechanical formation, and S410L is martensitic with an austenite to
properties achieved in different processes and different di- ferrite phase transformation. In this context, the tensile flow
rections. Based on the data, the yield strength achievable in behaviors of these materials are illustrated and compared in
as-invented LAM components is inferior than that of the Fig. 21. For the austenitic stainless steel after LAM deposi-
wrought sample. The elongation of the specimen varies tion, both strength and ductility are drastically inferior to the
considerably with processing parameters and test orientation. commercial wrought material, which has been attributed to
However, PBF parts exhibit comparable ductility compared to formation of very coarse and elongated grains promoted by
their wrought counterparts. Heat-treated LAM specimens directional solidification. However, for the martensitic
exhibit superior strength compared to as-fabricated LAM stainless steel, LAM deposition offers a considerable tensile

Fig. 21 e Engineering stressestrain curves comparing the tensile flow behavior of laser additive manufactured austenitic
and martensitic stainless steels with those produced by commercial manufacturing via rolling [97].
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1053

Table 5 e Summary for the main tensile properties in the as-built and heat-treated Ni-based alloys as compared to the
conventional state of these alloys with the same specifications.
alloy HI Condition Orientation sY sUTS e Ref.
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Systems
Inconel 625 0.1625 As-built XeY 783 ± 23 1041 ± 36 33 ± 1 [204]
Aged XeY 1012 ± 54 1222 ± 56 23 ± 1
Solutionized XeY 396 ± 9 883 15 55 ± 1
Inconel 625 0.25 HIP X,Y 380 900 58 [212]
Z 360 900 58
Inconel 625 0.29 Pre-heated powder X,Y 396 ± 33 906 ± 28 62.34 ± 1.98 [203]
Z 349 ± 5 842 ± 29 56.3 ± 6.24
Inconel 625 0.3 Annealeda X,Y 718 ± 13 1069 ± 11 37 ± 2 [213]
Z 685 ± 87 1009 ± 56 43 ± 5
HIP X,Y 442 ± 6 933 ± 14 43 ± 4
Z 425 ± 9 923 ± 21 46 ± 5
Inconel 625 0.38 As-built X,Y 800 ± 20 1030 ± 50 8e10 [214]
Z 720 ± 30 1070 ± 60 8e10
Inconel 718 0.1665 As-built XeY 830 1120 25 [131]
Inconel 718 0.4 As-built XeY 898 ± 9 1142 ± 5 22.5 ± 3.4 [215]
Inconel 718 1.17 As-built XeY 643 ± 63 991 ± 62 13 ± 6 [142]
Z 572 ± 44 904 ± 22 19 ± 4
Inconel 718 e As-built XeY 816 ± 24 1085 ± 11 19.1 ± 0.7 [216]
Z 737 ± 4 1010 ± 10 20.6 ± 2.1
Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Systems by Powder Feeding
Inconel 718 e As-built X,Y 650 1000 38% (Reduction in area) [217]
Heat treated X,Y 1257 1436 13% (Reduction in area)
HIP X,Y 1155 1380 20.4% (Reduction in area)
Inconel 718 294 As-built X,Y 590 845 11 [218]
HT X,Y 1133 1240 9
X,Y 1170 1360 18
Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Systems by Wire Feeding
Inconel 625 e As-built X,Y e 722 ± 17 42.27 ± 2.4 [219]
Z e 684 ± 23 40.13 ± 3.7
Inconel 718 e As-built X,Y 473 ± 6 828 ± 8 28 ± 2 [220]
Inconel 718 e As-built X,Y 666 1022 26.1 [221]
HT X,Y 947 1242 23.5
HT X,Y 932 942 22.2
Conventionally Fabricated Nickel Based Superalloys
Inconel 718 Annealed and aged e 862 1034 20 [222,223]
Inconel 625 Wrought e 440 ± 27 899 ± 19 52 ± 3 [213]
a
At a temperature of 870  C for 1 h.

strength improvement by more than two times higher, However, the results suggest a slight increase in the
although at the cost of a drastic ductility loss. The realization strength of the components when subjected to mechanical
of martensitic laths and micro-twins around the boundaries tests in the longitudinal direction. Studies do not show any
is responsible for changing the plastic deformation mecha- reliable pattern to describe the anisotropy in the mechanical
nisms, which control the hardening and brittle tensile characteristics of the LAM structures compared in the longi-
behavior [97,197]. tudinal and transverse directions [130,205,206]. However, the
grains are highly oriented towards the building direction [207].
3.2.2.2. Nickel-based superalloys. Inconel 625, Inconel 718, An overall trend suggesting an increase in tensile character-
and Invar 36 are among the major Ni-based alloys, which have istics of the specimen with increasing the linear heat input
attracted the most research interest in additive can be noted, especially in Inconel 718. However, a lack of data
manufacturing. Based on the ability of Ni-based superalloys has made it impossible to draw any strong conclusions about
(Inconel 625 & 718) to maintain their strength at elevated the relationship between mechanical properties (yield
temperatures, they have been considered good choices to strength, ultimate tensile strength, and ductility) and linear or
fabricate parts in high-tech industries such as aerospace volumetric heat input in LAM fabricated Ni-based alloys
[129,200,201]. Table 5 summarizes the main mechanical [208e210].
properties of LAM fabricated parts. Generally, a tradeoff be- Thermal treatment of the parts has been shown to affect
tween the strength and elasticity of the metallic components their mechanical properties significantly. During thermal
is expected. According to the available data in the literature, treatment, the tensile strength of components usually de-
no clear connection between the strength of these alloys and creases due to the precipitation, although this occurs in
their ductility can be observed [202e204]. conjunction with dislocation annihilation during recovery and
1054 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Fig. 22 e Stressestrain curves for as-built and heat-treated Inconel 718 specimen (S: Solution annealed at a temperature of
1000  C for 1 h and then air-cooled/A: Aged at a temperature of 720  C for 8 h and then furnace cooled by a rate of 50  C/h
down to a temperature of 621  C and then stood at a temperature of 621  C for 8 h followed air cooling/H: Hot isostatic
pressed at a temperature of 1150  C under a pressure of 1000 bar for 4 h and subsequently furnace cooled) [211].

grain growth. Specimens further processed by HIP treatment mechanical properties to those of the commercial and PBF
usually exhibit lower tensile strength, with improved ductility manufactured counterparts.
and fatigue performance due to closure of porosity. Treat-
ments like solution treatment would significantly alter the 3.2.2.3. Titanium-based alloys. The mechanical properties of
phases in the microstructure and greatly impact the overall Ti-based alloys have a strong relationship with their corre-
properties of the specimen. When followed by aging, this sponding microstructure [143,224,225]. Therefore, parameters
process can lead to higher strength in the component with that can impact the microstructure of fabricated parts, along
acceptable ductility. Fabricated parts with LAM processes with their properties especially those parameters that deter-
exhibit properties comparable to components built with con- mine the thermal history of the fabricated part such as cooling
ventional manufacturing methods [204]. rate, scan speed, heat input, size, geometry, surrounding
Narrow examinations have been conducted out in the case environment, etc. have significant effects [226e228]. In the
of DED techniques. Based on the results presented in the case of Tie6Ale4V, mechanical properties are sensitive to
literature, no general conclusion can be made about the even small changes in the cooling rates, which can be influ-
relation of mechanical properties with linear or volumetric enced by component size or geometry. A study subjected
heat input. Also, further studies in the manner of heat input samples with build diameters around 1.7 mm and 7 mm to
and heat treatment effect over anisotropy of the parts must be mechanical tests to prove such hypotheses. Smaller samples
carried out. (with 1.7 mm diameter) exhibited 20% higher strength and
Fig. 22 compares the tensile properties of the Inconel 718 80% lower ductility than those with 7 mm diameter. The faster
superalloy specimen before and after different treatments. cooling rate of the smaller sample resulted in finer ductile a
HIP treatment and solution annealing of the sample resulted laths, which could lead to higher strength. Also, pores were
in ductile behavior of the produced parts. The model had relatively large in the small sample, and this factor contrib-
shown a significant increase in elongation while maintaining uted to lower ductility [229].
the ultimate strength in exchange for a slight decrease in the The porosity is often varying with the structure geometry,
yield strength. The similar ultimate strength of the specimen which impacts the mechanical properties. Specimens
results from the strength hardenability of the specimen after extracted from the middle region of a build had over twice the
such treatments. Samples undergoing aging modification porosity of those manufactured on the edge of the building
exhibited higher tensile strengths with comparable ductility envelope [144,146,224]. Defects may have a different impact
to that of the as-fabricated part. However, the ductility of the on mechanical properties in other directions. In linear-shaped
aged material is significantly underneath of the HIPed or so- imperfections such as lack of fusion, pores impair mechanical
lution annealed ones [211]. properties in the building direction (Z-axis) much more than
Fig. 23 illustrates a comparison between the main tensile longitudinal directions (XeY axis). This is due to the posi-
properties achieved in the literature. Data suggests a slight tioning of such defects in the longitudinal direction, resulting
increase in the strength and elasticity of the Inconel 718 su- in high-stress concentration at their edges when the load is
peralloy in PBF-printed mode compared to the commercial conducted in the transverse direction and no significant stress
states. Powder feed samples exhibit undesirable mechanical concentration while subjected to longitudinal loads. Nearly a
properties compared to the commercial and PBF models. 30% difference in the elongation of such components has been
However, heat treating of such specimen leads to comparable reported [230].
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1055

Fig. 23 e Comparison of the tensile properties of laser additive manufactured Inconel 718 superalloy before and after heat
treatment with the commercial wrought alloy (this graph is related to the tensile results in Table 5).

Table 6 displays the mechanical properties of LAM An increase in the linear heat input during PBF processes
consolidated Tie6Ale4V components. According to these can enhance mechanical properties by eliminating the lack of
presented data, increasing melt pool size due to the increase fusion defects. It can also help to decrease the porosity in the
in laser energy results in larger prior b grains and thicker laths parts. However, excessive linear heat input leads to evapora-
by decreasing the temperature gradient. This coarsened tion of the material leading to gas porosity formation. Such
structure deteriorates the strength and hardness of the pores have a deteriorating effect over elongation properties
products [67,231,232]. Also, an increase in flexibility typically and negatively affect strength-related properties [164]. Similar
occurs with a significant loss in strength due to the slight work behavior is expected in DED-deposited materials; however,
hardenability of the Tie6Ale4V alloy. Based on the expressed further studies in this matter are crucial before any deduction.
data in Table 6, a correlation between tensile strength and On the other hand, heat-treating the specimen is a helpful
elongation to failure of additive manufactured titanium alloys approach to control the anisotropy of mechanical properties
can be established depending on the additive route as in them. Even a slight stress relieving heat treatment can
compared to the conventional state of these alloys. This trend impact the anisotropy of the specimen, as demonstrated in
is plotted in Fig. 24. According to that, by shifting from the Fig. 25a, b, enhancing ductility without a significant reduction
conventional state toward the DED wire, DED powder, and PBF in strength [166,233]. This approach can enhance mechanical
printed alloys, the structure displayed higher strength and properties to be analogous to that of the commercial and
became more brittle (lower ductility). This development can wrought Tie6Ale4V parts. Fig. 25c illustrates a simple com-
be interrogated to change the material deposition fashion and parison between the stressestrain diagram of the SLM built
increase the solidification cooling rate between these AM samples and wrought ones in different directions. The spec-
strategies. imen exhibits slightly better tensile properties than the
A fine martensitic structure (a0 ) resulting from a rapid wrought material, though their ductility is inferior. According
cooling rate leads to the highest strengths in the manufac- to a comparison of the highest mechanical properties
tured components. Both yield strength and ductility can be achievable, represented in Fig. 26, LAM fabricated parts
enhanced by controlling parameters to achieve refined grains exhibit slightly higher tensile strength than the commercial
[237]. Also, finer laths of the martensitic phase, compared to counter parts. Again, an issue remains in that their ductility is
lamellar a structure, offer higher strength while maintaining under that of the commercially manufactured structures.
ductility [232,238].
An optimization of the LAM parameters can lead to 3.2.2.4. Other alloys (Al-based, Mg-based, Zr-based, and high
microstructural refinement during the fabrication process so entropy). The microstructural details and solid-state phase
that heating cycles act as a heat treatment for previously transformations mentioned in section 3.1.2.4 can control the
deposited layers. Such a method leads to in situ decomposition functional performance of these advanced/new alloys
of the martensite phase, thus achieving high strength and (particularly for Al-based [156], Mg-based [159], Zr-based [160],
ductility [110]. The yield strength of the DED processed in- and high entropy alloys [163]), when compared to conven-
gredients is usually lower than PBF manufactured parts due to tional alloys (stainless steels, Ni-based superalloys, and tita-
their lower cooling rates. This is based on the importance of nium alloys). By comparing the properties of these alloys with
the cooling rate and microstructure of the fabricated parts commercially manufactured versions, some similarities and
over mechanical properties [109]. differences between leading mechanical characteristics were
1056 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Table 6 e Summary of mechanical properties in the as-built and heat-treated titanium-based alloys as compared to the
conventional state of these alloys with the same specifications.
Condition HI Density Orientation sY sUTS e Ref.
Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) Systems
Tie6Ale4V/As-built 0.7 e XeY 1075 ± 25 1199 ± 49 7.6 ± 0.5 [233]
0.7 e Z 967 ± 10 1117 ± 3 8.9 ± 0.4
Heat treated at 730  C for 2 h e XeY 974 ± 7 1065 ± 21 7.0 ± 0.5
e Z 937 ± 9 1052 ± 11 9.6 ± 0.9
Tie6Ale4V/As-built 0.08 95% Z 813 ± 23 978 ± 32 3.7 ± 0.6 [164]
0.095 99% Z 932 ± 16 1112 ± 13 6.6 ± 1.4
0.125 100% Z 1098 ± 15 1237 ± 13 8.8 ± 0.6
0.222 99% Z 1150 ± 91 1257 ± 74 8.0 ± 2.0
0.3 95% Z 1066 ± 91 1148 ± 80 5.4 ± 3.8
Tie6Ale4V/As-built 0.267 e XeY 1137 ± 20 1206 ± 8 7.6 ± 2 [166]
e Z 962 ± 47 1166 ± 25 1.7 ± 0.3
Heat treated at 950  C for 1 h e XeY 994 ± 8 1036 ± 30 8.5 ± 1
e Z 925 ± 14 1040 ± 4 7.5 ± 2
Tie6Ale4V/As-built 0.136 e XeY 1195 ± 19 1269 ± 9 5 ± 0.5 [193]
e Z 1143 ± 30 1219 ± 20 4.89 ± 0.6
Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Systems by Powder Feeding
Tie6Ale4V/As-built 189 e XeY 960 ± 26 1063 ± 20 10.9 ± 1.4 [111]
e Z 970 ± 17 1087 ± 8 13.6 ± 0.5
Tie6Ale4V/As-built 492 e XeY 1105 ± 19 1163 ± 22 4±1 [234]
Heat treated at 950  C and air cooled e 975 ± 15 1053 ± 18 7.5 ± 1
Heat treated at 1050  C and air cooled e 931 ± 16 1002 ± 19 6.5 ± 1
Directed Energy Deposition (DED) Systems by Wire Feeding
Tie6Ale4V/As-built 350 e XeY 818 ± 30 895 ± 40 4±1 [235]
e Z 792 ± 15 870 ± 20 11 ± 3.5
Tie6Ale4V/As-built 438 e XeY 890 ± 30 965 ± 15 8±2
e Z 860 ± 10 935 ± 20 17 ± 3.5
Conventionally Manufactured Titanium Based Alloys
Tie6Ale4V/Wrought e XeY 948 994 21 [236]
e Z 962 1008 19
Tie6Ale4V/Wrought e e 930 995 14 [166]
Tie6Ale4V/As-cast e e 865 980 13.5

emphasized. One can find a typical trend based on the reports yielded superior mechanical strength in all cases (Al-, Mg-, Zr-,
in the literature, associated with the consolidation of 3D and HEAs-based) when compared to conventional
counterparts by optimization of LAM processing conditions, in manufacturing. Thus, the assessed correlations for
general, leads to a finer grain structures upon layer-by-layer microstructure-mechanical property relationship regarding
deposition due to high cooling rate and cyclic treatment the other classes of laser additive manufactured metals and

Fig. 24 e The broad range of tensile strength and elongation to failure reported in the literature (see Table 6) for Tie6Ale4V
titanium alloy as processed by different additive manufacturing technologies concerning its conventional state before and
after post-annealing treatment.
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1057

Fig. 25 e Stressestrain diagrams for the LAM deposited Tie6Ale4V alloy: Tensile data for the specimens tested in different
directions of (a) as-build and (b) stress-relieved conditions [233]. (c) Comparison between longitudinal and transverse tensile
flow curves for wrought and SLM printed materials showing directionality in mechanical properties [236].

alloys are strongly consistent with the expressed trends in the connection to their microstructure. The fatigue strength of
current literature survey for well-commercialized industrial Tie6Ale4V alloy as a commonly used component in medical,
materials (Fe-, Ni-, and Ti-based). aerospace, and marine industries has been thoroughly stud-
ied. However, the experimental results comparing fatigue
3.2.3. Fatigue properties of laser additive manufactured vary widely due to the numerous practical issues playing a
products role in determining the fatigue behavior. The scatter in
In a similar manner to static mechanical properties, the fa- experimental data may be caused by internal flaws such as
tigue strength of the LAM fabricated components has a deep porosity and unsatisfactory layer bonding of the LAM
1058 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

Fig. 26 e Main tensile properties of laser additive manufactured Tie6Ale4V titanium-based alloy at different production
routes before and after heat treatment compared to the commercial sheet material (this graph is related to the tensile results
in Table 6).

fabricated parts. Hence, it is demanding to conclusively fore- Besides surface quality, internal defects exhibit an
cast the fatigue properties of the produced components [239]. important influence on the fatigue properties of LAM
Wherever cyclic loading is applied to a structure, fatigue deposited parts. Porosity and defects resulting from insuffi-
life is of great importance. The presence of defects (on the cient melting are the most mutual interior defects of LAM
surface or in the matrix) can form a stress concentration fabricated components. When it comes to the effect these
resulting in the faster failure of the products under cyclic have on the fatigue life of the members, size, amount, loca-
loads and a much lower fatigue life or endurance limit tion, and shape of defects, are the most critical factors.
[240,241]. Linear-shaped defects with sharp edges are the most detri-
The most critical fatigue strength-related concern in LAM mental defects caused by the high-stress concentrations
components is the surface roughness of fabricated parts, as developed at corners, leading to the initiation of a crack at
this may act as a stress concentration point, leading to faster much lower loads. Experiments on the DED manufactured
crack initiation. In the case of Tie6Ale4V alloy, this premise Inconel 718 superalloy suggests that during high cycle fatigue
was put to the test, and it was shown that a reduction in the testing, the specimen having apparent pores caused by low
surface roughness leads to enhanced fatigue life in fabricated melting, at best exhibits half the fatigue life of the conven-
components [18,242,243]. Furthermore, 316L and 15-5 PH tionally manufactured ones [207].
stainless steels were examined in as-built conditions versus The use of pre-heating in the build platform in the PBF
after machining. The fatigue limit of the as-fabricated 316L technique resulted in lower fatigue properties than a platform
stainless steel parts increased from 200 MPa to 255 MPa after with no secondary heating; however, performance comparing
surface machining. A combination of machining and polish- these varied considerably [247]. Observations suggested that
ing led to a fatigue limit as high as 269 MPa. In comparison, the any lack of fusion voids (over 50 mm) near the surface of the
fatigue limit for the wrought 316L stainless steel is at best specimen has a more deleterious effect on fatigue properties
207 MPa. In the case of 15-5 PH specimens, machining the LAM when an elevated temperature is applied to the build plat-
built structure led to a fatigue limit of 849 MPa, which was form. The significant number of gas porosities might distress
significantly higher than that of the wrought parts the fatigue life of components negatively. In the case of the
(270e372 MPa) [185]. Other research on DED fabricated small number of such defects, changes in the fatigue perfor-
Tie6Ale4V component suggested the presence of large voids mance are not as drastic as those caused by lack of fusion
with sharp features near the surface have the most damaging voids due to their small size and spherical shape [247].
effect on fatigue life of the parts [244]. Other features that can provide nucleation sites for
Investigations on DED fabricated Inconel 718 superalloy and cracking deteriorate the fatigue properties for the LAM
Tie6Ale4V titanium alloy exposed to heat treatment resulted deposited components. Brittle intermetallic, secondary pha-
in almost the same fatigue limit as the wrought counterparts ses, and oxides can facilitate the growth of the cracks. Their
even though the LAM fabricated parts had a porous structure. It effect is more deteriorating when they have an elongated,
is worth mentioning that the nucleation of cracks was started irregular shape with sharp edges due to the stress concen-
near the surface of the specimen, where a high density of po- tration [248].
rosities caused by gas and lack of fusion could be identified on Due to the role that the microstructure plays on mechan-
the fracture surface after testing [245,246]. ical properties, any variation in the microstructure can alter
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1059

Fig. 27 e The SeN curves for (a) Inconel 718 superalloy depending on the orientation of fatigue samples with respect to the
building direction [253], and (b) Tie6Ale4V titanium-based alloy processed under different LAM parameters [164]. Shaded
color patterns on the second graphs means the scattering boarder range of fatigue data variation for the high heat input
index processed titanium alloys via SLM.

fatigue performance. Changing the geometry or size of the treatment. Results suggest similar fatigue properties for heat-
specimen can lead to a different thermal history during the treated and HIPed specimens. It has been considered that
fabrication process. This may be due to the variation of inter- porosity has less of an effect on fatigue properties than re-
layer time. Also, an additional number of specimens built with sidual stresses, dislocation density, and microstructure
the same size but in numbers, when made on the same build [230,250]. A study on HIP and heat treatment effect on the
plate, can lead to different interlayer timing, affecting thermal fatigue threshold and crack propagation of the AM fabricated
gradient and thermal history and final microstructure. This Tie6Ale4V component was carried out. Results for both of the
can cause a difference in the fatigue performance of the as- processes were almost the same, leading to an improvement
built specimen [118,249]. of fatigue performance of the members [251].
Post fabrication heat treatment and HIP are the other No significant change in fatigue properties of specimens in
processing methods that have been used to achieve better as-built surface finished condition was observed when they
fatigue performance. Thermo-mechanically treated samples were subjected to HIP. However, milling followed by HIP
usually have coarsened microstructure, with increased den- treatment was found to enhance the fatigue properties [242].
sity due to closing porosity. Other than that, stress relief and In another study, reducing the surface roughness and closing
reduction in dislocation density is another result of the heat the voids in the matrix of the PBF processed 316L stainless
1060 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8

steel was considered the most promising method to enhance can act as heat treatment, which would alter the final struc-
the fatigue properties of fabricated parts. Surface machining ture of produced component. These thermal cycles affect the
increased the fatigue limit of as-built material from 108 to specimen's structure differently, such as decomposing brittle
267 MPa. Subsequent annealing further enhanced this to phases like the martensitic phase to more ductile grades,
294 MPa, while material subjected to machining followed by stress relief, and grain growth. Though, post-fabrication heat
HIP achieved a fatigue life of 317 MPa [252]. A study on the treatment can adjust the microstructure and mechanical
Tie6Ale4V sections exposed to multiaxial loading revealed characteristics in a more effective way. Based on the reported
that conventionally manufactured specimens had signifi- microscopy details in the literature, microstructural charac-
cantly better fatigue properties except for the low cycle fatigue teristics for LAM fabricated metals and alloys are
torsion test [243]. solidification-based in the form of cellular, dendritic, and
Fig. 27a demonstrates the effects of building direction on equiaxed morphology, those can affect by operation of solid-
the fatigue performance of Inconel 718 superalloy in the form state phase transformations depending on the material
of SeN curves. Results suggest that specimen subjected to chemistry.
cyclic loading in the build direction (Z-axis) exhibit lower fa- LAM metallic parts have difficulties matching the dynamic
tigue performance. It was suggested that variations in load performance of conventional materials due to sensitivity
microstructure in different directions combined with surface to parameters and anisotropy issues. Results of static me-
roughness are the main factors leading to the anisotropic chanical properties of these structures can suppress those of
behavior in the fabricated parts. Also, residual stresses in the commercially consolidated bodies. The leading mechani-
differently oriented specimens are considered to impact the cal response in the form of indentation hardness and tensile
fatigue properties of the samples significantly [253]. strength for LAM deposited components exhibited superior
Heat input possess a crucial contribution in defining the trends with respect to the traditional state of manufacturing
microstructure and residual stresses in the consolidated in almost cases of alloys (at least compared with the sheet
counterparts. Owing to the link between these parameters product form). This attributed to the formation of a cellular
and the fatigue performance of the specimen, heat input can structure and refined grains caused by rapid cooling of LAM
be considered as an influential parameter over fatigue prop- treatment during layer-upon-layer metal deposition. Various
erties. Fig. 27b show the SeN diagrams for LAM printed sam- studies on the different LAM fabricated metallic parts suggest
ples of Tie6Ale4V titanium alloy deposited with different that fatigue properties comparable to conventionally manu-
linear heat inputs. The SLM-printed specimens fabricated factured parts are achievable. Current studies over fatigue
using heat inputs from 0.3 to 0.08 J/mm suggest that properties of the LAM parts draw a promising landscape for
increasing heat input can achieve a slight improvement in LAM fabricated parts. Due to the rapid growth in our grasp of
fatigue performance when 0.222 is used versus 0.125 J/mm. the manufacturing parameters effect over the resulting
However, an excessive increase to 0.3 J/mm led to a decrease properties, manufacturing highly functional parts from
in fatigue strength from 350 MPa to 300 MPa. This was various alloys with desired properties will be achievable.
considered the result of pore formation in large numbers and Finally, a shift in studies from the determination of the
bigger sizes. On the other hand, samples built with energy mechanical properties and fabrication of different alloys to
densities lower than 0.125 J/mm had a significant drop in their optimize potential properties, avoiding structural defects,
fatigue endurance limit (around 100 MPa) due to insufficient controlling chemical composition, and utilizing LAM-based
melting. Results are a testament to the higher impact of the phenomena to produce tailored and complex structures in
lack of fusion and elongated defects over fatigue properties of the fabricated parts will be an expanding field for producing
fabricated parts [164]. functionally graded materials. Moreover, alloy design by LAM
layer-upon-layer consolidation would be an interesting topic
for further development of the field in the future by generation
4. Summary, concluding remarks, and of new advanced materials for high-tech applications, since
outlook this review only surveyed on steels, superalloys, and titanium
alloys, considering their crucial importance and impact in
This article focuses on the present state of the art in LAM various industries.
consolidation of metallic parts, emphasizing the relationship
between different manufacturing routes, microstructure, and
achievable functional properties. A high-temperature Originality Statement
gradient due to the laser involvement in melting down the
raw materials results in a fine grain structure for fabricated Newly, additive manufacturing (AM) is under development as
parts. Also, rapid solidification leads to non-equilibrium new technology to produce 3D engineering counterparts in
microstructure and phase formation, which can vary locally. competition with the traditional large-scale production tech-
Due to the variation in the processing parameters and nologies such as casting, metal forming, powder metallurgy,
manufacturing method, heat flow is usually anisotropically mechanical assembling, and CNC machining. AM is defined as
favoring the build direction as the highest heat conductivity layer-upon-layer manufacturing of materials, including 3D
direction. Hence microstructural texture and elongated grains printing, rapid prototyping, and direct digital manufacturing.
leading to anisotropic properties in fabricated parts are ex- According to plans and prospects, this technology can play a
pected. Cyclic heating and cooling of the previously solidified significant role in the 4th industrial revolution in the central
layer due to the layer-on-layer processing in the LAM methods aspect of digital manufacturing. To the field, laser additive
 j o u r n a l o f m a t e r i a l s r e s e a r c h a n d t e c h n o l o g y 2 0 2 2 ; 1 6 : 1 0 2 9 e1 0 6 8 1061

manufacturing (LAM) is a promising technology for layer-by- components e process, structure and properties. Prog Mater
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