(Ebook) Armstrong's Handbook of Management and

Leadership: A Guide to Managing Results by Michael

Armstrong ISBN 9780749454173, 0749454172 Pdf Download

https://ebooknice.com/product/armstrong-s-handbook-of-management-
and-leadership-a-guide-to-managing-results-2173438

★★★★★
4.9 out of 5.0 (31 reviews )

DOWNLOAD PDF

ebooknice.com
(Ebook) Armstrong's Handbook of Management and Leadership: A
Guide to Managing Results by Michael Armstrong ISBN
9780749454173, 0749454172 Pdf Download

EBOOK

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide Ebook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 EDUCATIONAL COLLECTION - LIMITED TIME

INSTANT DOWNLOAD VIEW LIBRARY

We have selected some products that you may be interested in
Click the link to download now or visit ebooknice.com
for more options!.

(Ebook) A Handbook of Management Techniques: A Comprehensive

Guide to Achieving Managerial Excellence and Improved Decision
Making by Michael Armstrong ISBN 9780749447663, 0749447664

https://ebooknice.com/product/a-handbook-of-management-techniques-a-
comprehensive-guide-to-achieving-managerial-excellence-and-improved-
decision-making-1309574

(Ebook) Armstrong's Handbook of Human Resource Management

Practice: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of People
Management by Armstrong, Michael, Taylor, Stephen ISBN
9781398606647, 1398606642
https://ebooknice.com/product/armstrong-s-handbook-of-human-resource-
management-practice-a-guide-to-the-theory-and-practice-of-people-
management-54873570

(Ebook) A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice by

Michael Armstrong ISBN 9780749441050, 0749441054

https://ebooknice.com/product/a-handbook-of-human-resource-management-
practice-1122918

(Ebook) Strategic Human Resource Management: A Guide to Action

by Michael Armstrong ISBN 9780749453756, 0749453753

https://ebooknice.com/product/strategic-human-resource-management-a-guide-
to-action-1399846
(Ebook) Armstrong's Handbook of Performance Management: An
Evidence-Based Guide to Delivering High Performance by Michael
Armstrong ISBN 9780749481209, 074948120X

https://ebooknice.com/product/armstrong-s-handbook-of-performance-
management-an-evidence-based-guide-to-delivering-high-performance-12199522

(Ebook) Armstrong's Handbook of Human Resource Management

Practice: A Guide to the Theory & Practice of People Management,
16th Edition by Michael Armstrong, Stephen Taylor ISBN
9781398606630, 1398606634
https://ebooknice.com/product/armstrong-s-handbook-of-human-resource-
management-practice-a-guide-to-the-theory-practice-of-people-
management-16th-edition-47710420

(Ebook) A Handbook of Employee Reward Management and Practice

by Michael Armstrong ISBN 9780749449629, 9780749451981,
0749449624, 074945198X

https://ebooknice.com/product/a-handbook-of-employee-reward-management-and-
practice-2400484

(Ebook) A Handbook of Human Resource Management Practice 10th

Edition by Michael Armstrong ISBN 9780749446314, 0749446315

https://ebooknice.com/product/a-handbook-of-human-resource-management-
practice-10th-edition-1309502

(Ebook) Reward Management: A Handbook of Remuneration Strategy

and Practice by Michael Armstrong, Helen Murlis ISBN
9780749445973, 9780749449865, 0749449861, 0749445971

https://ebooknice.com/product/reward-management-a-handbook-of-remuneration-
strategy-and-practice-1556162
 2ND EDITION

ARMSTRONG’S
HANDBOOK
OF MANAGEMENT
AND LEADERSHIP
A guide to managing for results

Michael Armstrong
 i

ARMSTRONG’S
HANDBOOK
OF MANAGEMENT
AND LEADERSHIP
ii

This page is intentionally left blank

 iii

ARMSTRONG’S
HANDBOOK
OF MANAGEMENT
AND LEADERSHIP
A guide to managing for results

2ND EDITION

Michael Armstrong

London and Philadelphia

iv

Publisher’s note
Every possible effort has been made to ensure that the information contained in this book is accurate at the
time of going to press, and the publishers and author cannot accept responsibility for any errors or omissions,
however caused. No responsibility for loss or damage occasioned to any person acting, or refraining from
action, as a result of the material in this publication can be accepted by the editor, the publisher or the
author.

First published in Great Britain and the United States in 2005 by Kogan Page Limited
Second edition 2009

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted
under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or trans-
mitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of
reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licences issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning
reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned addresses:

120 Pentonville Road 525 South 4th Street, #241

London N1 9JN Philadelphia PA 19147
United Kingdom USA
www.koganpage.com

© Michael Armstrong and Tina Stephens, 2005

© Michael Armstrong, 2009

The right of Michael Armstrong to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted by him in accord-
ance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

ISBN 978 0 7494 5417 3

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Armstrong, Michael, 1928–

Armstrong’s handbook of management and leadership : a guide to managing for results / Michael
Armstrong.
p. cm.
Rev. ed. of: A handbook of management and leadership : a guide to managing for results / Michael Armstrong,
Tina Stephens. 2005.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-7494-5417-3
1. Management--Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Leadership--Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Armstrong, Michael,
1928- Handbook of management and leadership. II. Title.
HD38.15.A76 2009
658.4’092--dc22
2009008237

Typeset by Saxon Graphics Ltd, Derby

Printed and bound in India by Replika Press Pvt Ltd
 v

Contents

Preface to the Second Edition xi

Part I The Practice of Management 1

1. The Processes of Management and Leadership 3

Management 3
Leadership 4
Management and leadership compared 7
Influences on management 10

2. The Role of the Manager 15

What is a manager? 15
What do managers do? 17
How do managers do it? 20
What is an effective manager? 25
What do line/middle managers contribute? 27

3. The Role of the Leader 31

What is a leader? 31
Types of leaders 32
What do leaders do? 33
How do leaders do it? 34
What makes a good leader? 36
What is the significance of followers? 39
vi Contents

Part II Approaches to Management 41

4. Managing for Results 43

Planning 44
Setting objectives and targets 45
Organizing 49
Making things happen 49

5. Managing Strategically 54
Strategy 54
Strategic management 55
Developing a shared vision 56
Developing strategic plans 57
Strategic capability 58

6. Managing for Performance 60

High-performance culture 60
High-performance work systems 62
Managing individual performance 66
Managing team performance 68

7. Managing the Business 71

On being business like 72
Preparing a business plan 74
Making a business case 75
Financial budgeting and control 77
Cost–benefit analysis 78

8. Management Skills 79
Communicating 80
Report writing 82
Making presentations 85
Motivating 88
Coaching 89
Decision-making 91
Delegating 93
Facilitating 99
 Contents vii

Giving feedback 100

Networking 102
Problem-solving 103

9. Managing Systems and Processes 105

Managing systems 105
Managing processes 106
Examples of systems and process management 106
The conflict and challenges of managing systems and processes 107

10. Managing Health and Safety 110

The importance of health and safety in the workplace 111
Health and safety policies 111
Conducting risk assessments 112
Health and safety audits 115
Health and safety inspections 116
The distinction between risk assessments, audits and inspections 117
Accident prevention 117
Occupational health programmes 118
The responsibility for health and safety 119

11. Self-development 121

The process of self-development 121
Other methods of management development 123
Self-management strategies 126

Part III Organizations 129

12. Understanding Organizations 131

Organizations and organizing 132
How organizations function 132
Organization structure 134
Types of organization 135
Organizational culture 141
Organizational processes 145
Understanding organizational policies 150
viii Contents

13. Designing Organizations 152

The process of organizing 153
Aim of organizational design 153
Conducting organization reviews 154
Organizational analysis 155
Organizational diagnosis 155
Job design 157

14. Organization Development 159

Organization development defined 159
Organization development strategies 160
Assumptions and values of organization development 160
Organization development activities 161

Part IV Delivering Change 165

15. The Process of Change 167

Types of change 167
How change happens 173
Organizational dynamics – how organizations grow and change 174

16. Change Management 176

Change models 177
The steps to effective change 178
How people change 179
Resistance to change 180
Developing and embracing a change culture 182
Identifying the need for change 182
The benefits of change 183
Risks of change 184
Planning the change programme 184
Requirements for success in managing change 186
Organizational transformation 188
Holding the gains 191
 Contents ix

Part V Enhancing Customer Relations 193

17. The Essence of Customer Relations 195

Developing a customer-centric culture 195
Customer relationship management 198
Customer service 200
Customer service activities 202
Elements of customer satisfaction 203

18. Delivering High Levels of Customer Service 206

Customer service strategy 208
Assessing customer needs 208
Identifying target customers 210
Communicating to customers 211
Measuring customer satisfaction 212
Developing products and services to meet customer needs 214
Providing the infrastructure for customer service 214
Models of customer service 214
Setting standards for customer service 216
Monitoring the delivery of service standards 217
Building satisfaction and keeping customers 218
Internal customers 218
Defining required attitudes, skills, knowledge, behaviours and
competencies 219
Developing attitudes, skills and behaviours 224
World-class customer service examples 227

Part VI Enabling Continuous Improvement 229

19. Continuous Improvement 231

The nature of continuous improvement 231
The requirements for continuous improvement 234
The conditions and behaviour that promote continuous improvement 236
The framework for continuous improvement 238
Approaches to continuous improvement 239
Continuous improvement techniques 241
Continuous improvement programmes 244
x Contents

Barriers to continuous improvement 245

Holding the gains 246
Examples of approaches to continuous improvement 246

20. Quality Management 249

Quality defined 249
Quality management defined 250
Contribution of the quality gurus 250
Quality management approaches 252
Quality standards 256
Quality management issues 258

Appendix: Alignment of Text with Managing for Results:

CIPD Professional Standards 261
Further Reading 265
Index 270
 xi

Preface to the Second Edition

This book is primarily about the practice of management – the art and science of getting
things done. But it is also about leadership – how things get done through people.
Management and leadership are different but complementary activities, as explained in
Chapter 1.
The activities of management and leadership take place in order to make things happen
– to get results. The book therefore also examines the process of managing for results, a
phrase first used by Peter Drucker (1963) in his book of that name. Drucker is quoted
extensively in this book – simply because, as stated in the Harvard Business Review
(Drucker, 2006): ‘He is the pre-eminent management thinker of our time’.
The book is divided into the following six parts:
• The practice of management
• Approaches to management
• Organizations
• Delivering change
• Enhancing customer relations
• Enabling continuous improvement
The content of this book has been extensively revised in this edition but, as set out in
the Appendix, it is still aligned to the Managing for results professional standards of the
Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development, which form part of the overall
Leadership and management professional standards.

Drucker, P (1963) Managing for Results, Heinemann, London

Drucker, P (2006) What executives should remember, Harvard Business Review, February, pp
145–52
xii

This page is intentionally left blank

 1

Part I
The Practice of Management
2

This page is intentionally left blank

 3

1
The Processes of
Management and Leadership

‘Let’s stop the dysfunctional separation of leadership from management. We all

know that managers who don’t lead are boring, dispiriting. Well, leaders who
don’t manage are distant, disconnected.’
Henry Mintzberg (2004) Enough leadership, Harvard Business Review,
November, p 22

The key purpose of management and leadership as described by the Management

Standards Centre (2004) is to ‘provide direction, facilitate change and achieve results
through the efficient, creative and responsible use of resources’. Effective management
is the process of harmonizing individual endeavour to the common good. This intro-
ductory chapter sets the scene for the rest of the book by defining and distinguishing
between the processes of management and leadership. It also deals with the influences
that affect management in the shape of codes of practice and organizational and legal
requirements.

Management
To manage means to bring about, to accomplish, to have charge of or responsibility for,
to conduct. Management is the process of deciding what to do and then getting it done
through the effective use of resources. It is about what managers do to make things
happen. They define goals, determine the resources – people, finance, work systems and
technology – required to achieve the goals, allocate those resources to opportunities and
planned activities and ensure that those activities take place as planned in order to
achieve predetermined objectives. All this adds up to managing for results.
4 The Practice of Management

Purpose of management
The primary function of management in profit-making firms is to satisfy a range of stakehold-
ers. This means making a profit and creating value for shareholders, producing and delivering
valued products and services at a reasonable cost for customers, and providing rewarding
employment and development opportunities for employees. In the public sector, management
is there to ensure that the services the community requires are delivered effectively. In the vol-
untary sector, management is there to ensure that the purposes of the charity are achieved and
also to keep the faith of the community and donors.

The processes of management

The overall process of management as defined above is divided into a number of individual
processes, which are methods of operation designed to assist in the achievement of objectives.
Their purpose is to bring as much system, order, predictability, logic and consistency to the
task of management as possible in the ever-changing, varied and turbulent environment in
which managers work.
These processes were defined by the classical theorists of management such as Henri Fayol
(1916), who stated that: ‘All undertakings require planning, organizing, command, coordin-
ation and control to function properly’. But this classical view has been challenged by the
empiricists such as Henry Mintzberg (1973) and Rosemary Stewart (1967). They believed that
management could not be treated as a group of formal activities as defined by Fayol and other
classical writers. Based on their research into what managers actually do, the empiricists
regarded management as a process involving a mix of rational, logical, problem-solving, deci-
sion-making activities, and intuitive, judgemental activities. It was therefore both science and
art. However, the classical theorists were defining the main processes of management; they
were not attempting to describe how managers actually spend their time.

Leadership
To lead is to inspire, influence and guide. Leadership is the process of getting people to do their
best to achieve a desired result. It involves developing and communicating a vision for the future,
motivating people and gaining their engagement. Other definitions (there are many) include:
• Ivancevich et al (2008): Leadership is ‘the process of influencing people to enable the
achievement of relevant goals’.
• Goleman (2000): ‘A leader’s singular job is to get results’.
• House et al (2004): ‘Leadership is the ability to motivate, influence and enable individ-
uals to contribute to the objectives of organizations of which they are members’.
 The Process of Management and Leadership 5

• Stogdill (1974): ‘Leadership is an influencing process aimed at goal achievement’.

• Dixon (1994) ‘Leadership is no more than exercising such an influence on others that
they tend to act in concert towards the achievement of a goal that they might not have
achieved so readily had they been left to their own devices’.

The significance of leadership

The consulting firm Hay McBer, as reported by Goleman (2000), in a study of 3,871 executives
selected from a database of more than 20,000 executives worldwide, found that leadership had
a direct impact on organizational climate, and that climate in turn accounted for nearly one-
third of the financial results of organizations. The conclusion from research conducted by
Professor Malcolm Higgs (2006) was that leadership behaviour accounts for almost 50 per cent
of the difference between change success and failure. Research by Northouse (2006) into 167
US firms in 13 industries established that over a 20 year period, leadership accounted for more
variations in performance than any other variable.

Leadership theories
There are many theoretical explanations and descriptions of the process of leadership. Three
of the more important ones are summarized below.

Contingent leadership
The theory of contingent leadership developed by Fiedler (1967) states that the type of leader-
ship exercised depends to a large extent on the situation and the ability of the leader to under-
stand it and act accordingly. This is sometimes called situational leadership. Fiedler wrote:
‘Leadership performance… depends as much on the organization as on the leader’s own
attributes. Except perhaps for the unusual case, it is simply not meaningful to speak of an
effective leader or an ineffective leader. We can only speak of a leader who tends to be effective
in one situation and ineffective in another.’
The performance of a group, as Fiedler pointed out, is related both to the leadership style and
to the degree to which the situation provides the leader with the opportunity to exert influ-
ence. He referred to the concepts originated by Halpin and Winer (1957) on the basis of their
research into how aircraft captains acted as leaders. Two dimensions of leadership were identi-
fied: (1) initiating structure, a task-orientated approach that focuses on defining the task and
how it should be carried out, and (2) consideration, a people-orientated approach where the
emphasis is on maintaining good relations through behaviour indicative of trust, respect and
warmth.
Fiedler’s research revealed that an initiating structure approach worked best for leaders in con-
ditions where the leader has power, formal backing and a relatively well-structured task.
6 The Practice of Management

Considerate leaders do better in unstructured or ambiguous situations or where their power

as a leader is restricted.

The path-goal model

The path-goal model first developed by Robert House (1971) states that leaders are there to
define the path that should be followed by their team in order to achieve its goals. It is the lead-
er’s job to guide and help team members to select the best paths towards achieving their own
goals and those of the group. A leader’s behaviour is acceptable to subordinates when viewed
as a source of satisfaction, and it is motivational when need satisfaction is contingent on per-
formance, and the leader facilitates, coaches and rewards effective performance. Leaders have
to engage in different types of leadership behaviour depending on the nature and the demands
of a particular situation. It is the leader’s job to assist followers in attaining goals and to provide
the direction and support needed to ensure that their goals are compatible with the organiza-
tion’s goals. Path-goal theory identifies four leadership styles: achievement-oriented, directive,
participative and supportive. These are described in Chapter 3.

Leader-member exchange theory (LMX)

The leader-member exchange theory of leadership as formulated by Graen (1976) focuses on the
two-way relationship between supervisors and subordinates. It is linked to social exchange theory,
which explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties.
Leaders usually have special relationships with an inner circle of assistants and advisors, who
often get high levels of responsibility and access to resources. This is called the ‘in-group’, and
their position can come with a price. These employees work harder, are more committed to
task objectives, and share more administrative duties. They are also expected to be totally com-
mitted and loyal to their leader. Conversely, subordinates in the ‘out-group’ are given low levels
of choice or influence and put constraints on the leader. These relationships start very soon
after a person joins a team and follow these three stages:
1. Role-taking: The member joins the team and the leader evaluates their abilities and talents.
Based on this, the leader may offer opportunities to demonstrate capabilities.
2. Role-making: In the second phase, the leader and member take part in an unstructured
and informal negotiation whereby a role is created for the member and the unspoken
promise of benefit and power in return for dedication and loyalty takes place. Trust-
building is very important in this stage, and any feelings of betrayal, especially by the
leader, can result in the member being demoted to the out-group. This negotiation includes
relationship factors as well as purely work-related ones, and a member who is similar to
the leader in various ways is more likely to succeed.
3. Routinization: In this phase, a pattern of ongoing social exchange between the leader and
the member becomes established. Being a successful or in-group member usually requires
 The Process of Management and Leadership 7

being similar in many ways to the leader. These members work hard at building and sus-
taining trust and respect. They are often empathetic, patient, reasonable, sensitive, and
good at seeing the viewpoint of other people, especially their leader. Aggression, sarcasm
and a self-centred view are qualities seen in the out-group.
The quality of the LMX relationship varies. It is better when the challenge of the job is extremely
high or extremely low. The size of the group, financial resource availability and the overall
workload are also important. The theory can work upwards as well. Leaders can gain power by
being members of their manager’s inner circle, which they can then share with their
subordinates.

The problem with the leadership concept

In spite of all the research and theorizing, the concept of leadership is problematic. As Meindl
et al (1985) commented: ‘It has become apparent that, after years of trying, we have been
unable to generate an understanding of leadership that is both intellectually compelling and
emotionally satisfying. The concept of leadership remains elusive and enigmatic’.
In The Arts of Leadership, Keith Grint (2000) made the case that leadership is not accessible to
scientific approaches because it is essentially a constitutive process (ie leaders shape and are
shaped by the situation they are in). Instead, he suggests we should think of leadership as an
art because: ‘It appears to have more to do with invention than analysis, despite claims to the
contrary; it operates on the basis of indeterminacy, whilst claiming to be deterministic; it is
rooted in irony, rather than the truth; and it usually rests on a constructed identity but claims
a reflective identity’.
These problems may arise because, as a concept, leadership is difficult to pin down. There are
many different types of situations in which leaders operate, many different types of leaders and
many different leadership styles. Producing one theory that covers all these variables is difficult
if not impossible. All that can be done is to draw on the various theories that exist to explain
different facets of leadership, without necessarily relying on any one of them for a comprehen-
sive explanation of what is involved. Perhaps leadership is best defined as being what leaders
do. This will be considered in Chapter 3.

Management and leadership compared

Some commentators link leadership closely with the idea of management, some regard the two
as synonymous, others consider management a subset of leadership and yet others praise lead-
ership and demonize management.
Hersey and Blanchard (1998) claimed that management merely consists of leadership applied
to business situations; or in other words, management forms a subset of the broader process
8 The Practice of Management

of leadership. They put it this way: ‘Leadership occurs any time one attempts to influence the
behaviour of an individual or group, regardless of the reason. Management is a kind of leader-
ship in which the achievement of organizational goals is paramount’.
Abraham Zaleznik (2004) saw leaders as inspiring visionaries, concerned about substance;
while managers are planners who are concerned with process.
Bennis and Nanus (1985) wrote that: ‘there is a profound difference between management and
leadership and both are important’. They went on famously to explain that ‘Managers do things
right, leaders do the right things’. This aphorism owes a lot to Peter Drucker’s distinction
(1967) between efficiency and effectiveness, which was taken up by Bill Reddin (1970), who
wrote that concentrating on efficiency rather than effectiveness meant that managers ‘do things
right rather than do right things’. But Drucker and Reddin (not acknowledged by Bennis and
Nanus) were focusing on managers, not making invidious comparisons between managers
and leaders. And it seems to be perfectly possible that managers often do the right things, while
leaders often get things right.
In his role as a demonizer of managers, Bennis (1989) identified 12 invidious distinctions
between managers and leaders:
1. Managers administer, leaders innovate.
2. Managers ask how and when, leaders ask what and why.
3. Managers focus on systems, leaders focus on people.
4. Managers do things right, leaders do the right things.
5. Managers maintain, leaders develop.
6. Managers rely on control, leaders inspire trust.
7. Managers have a short-term perspective, leaders have a longer-term perspective.
8. Managers accept the status quo, leaders challenge the status quo.
9. Managers have an eye on the bottom line, leaders have an eye on the horizon.
10. Managers imitate, leaders originate.
11. Managers emulate the classic good soldier, leaders are their own person.
12. Managers copy, leaders show originality.
Paul Birch (1999) also saw a distinction between leadership and management and, without
denigrating management, gave pre-eminence to leadership. He observed that, as a broad gen-
eralization, managers concerned themselves with tasks, while leaders concerned themselves
with people. However, one of the main things that characterize great leaders is the fact that
they achieve. The difference is that leaders realize that tasks are achieved through the goodwill
and support of others (influence), while managers may not. This goodwill and support
 The Process of Management and Leadership 9

originates in the leader seeing people as people, not as another resource for use in getting
results. The manager has the role of organizing resources to get something done. People form
one of these resources, and poor managers treat people as just another interchangeable factor
of production.
More positive distinctions between management and leadership were made by Kotter (1991),
as set out in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Distinctions between management and leadership (Kotter, 1991)

Management involves Leadership involves

Focusing on managing complexity by Focusing on producing change by develop-

planning and budgeting with the aim of ing a vision for the future along with
producing orderly results, not change. strategies for bringing about the changes
needed to achieve that vision.
Developing the capacity to achieve plans by Aligning people by communicating the new
creating an organization structure and direction and creating coalitions that
staffing it – developing human systems that understand the vision and are committed to
can implement plans as precisely and its achievement.
efficiently as possible.
Ensuring plan accomplishment by control- Using motivation to energize people, not by
ling and problem-solving – formally and pushing them in the right direction as
informally comparing results to the plan, control mechanisms do, but by satisfying
identifying deviations and then planning basic human needs for achievement, a sense
and organizing to solve the problems. of belonging, recognition, self-esteem, a
feeling of control over one’s life and the
ability to live up to one’s ideals.

Conclusions
The answer to the issues raised by these various comparisons is that management and leader-
ship are indeed different. Management is concerned with the effective use of all resources,
including people, while leadership concentrates on getting the best out of people. However,
both are needed. As Mintzberg (2004) commented, ‘instead of isolating leadership we need to
diffuse it throughout the organization… It’s time to bring management and leadership down
to earth’.
Perhaps the most familiar definition of management was made by Mary Parker Follett (1924),
a pioneering writer on management. She defined it as ‘the art of getting results through people’,
thus combining the concepts of management and leadership.
10 The Practice of Management

Rather than pursuing the Manichean view (‘leaders good, managers bad’) it is better to accept
that managers have to be leaders and leaders are often, but not always, managers. It is necessary
to allow for a reciprocal relationship between leadership and management, implying that an
effective manager should possess leadership skills, and an effective leader, at least in business,
should demonstrate management skills.

Influences on management
The process of management is influenced by codes of practice (professional, industrial and
official). These codes provide guidance on behaviour and the procedures to be followed and,
in the case of professional codes and some industry codes, are supported by disciplinary sanc-
tions. They usefully define expectations, but the extent to which they can be enforced may be
limited, except that contravention of some official codes is taken into account in Employment
Tribunal cases. Management processes are also influenced by procedures and legal and corpor-
ate governance (organizational) requirements.

Professional codes of practice

Professional codes of practice lay down the behaviours expected of the members of a profes-
sion. They are supported by disciplinary procedures, which hold members to account for
serious contraventions of the code.
For example, the Chartered Management Institute has a code of professional management
practice that sets out the professional standards required of members of the Institute as a con-
dition of membership. It states in the introduction that: ‘As a member, you must demonstrate
high standards of professional conduct, competence, judgement and honesty in your actions
as a practising manager’. The code has sections dealing with standards for individual managers,
relationships with others, supporting policies and practices of the organization, and dealing
with external relationships and the wider community. The section dealing with individual
managers states that: ‘As a professional manager you will:
• Pursue managerial activities with integrity, accountability and competence.
• Disclose any personal interest which might be seen to influence managerial decisions.
• Practise an open style of management so far as it is consistent with business needs.
• Keep up-to-date with developments in best management practice and continue to
develop personal competence.
• Adopt an approach to the identification and resolution of conflicts of values, including
ethical values, which is reasonable and justifiable.
• Safeguard personal information and not seek personal advantage from it.
 The Process of Management and Leadership 11

• Exhaust all available internal remedies for dealing with matters perceived as improper
before resorting to public disclosure.
• Encourage the development of quality and continuous improvement in all manage-
ment activities.’

The code of the Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD) includes the state-
ment that in all circumstances CIPD members ‘must endeavour to enhance the standing of the
profession; adherence to this professional code of conduct is an essential aspect of this’.

Industrial codes of practice

Industrial codes of practice lay down rules for how an industry should conduct its work. For
example, The Recruitment and Employment Confederation (REC) has a code of practice that
aims to ensure that employment and recruitment agencies meet ethical and legal require-
ments. Amongst its general provisions are:
• Members will comply with any REC guidance on ethical, commercial or statutory issues
in the operation of their businesses.
• Members and their staff will deal with and represent themselves to work-seekers, hirers
and others fairly, openly, honestly and courteously at all times.
• Any selection tests used, including psychometric and personality questionnaires, should
be relevant, properly validated and, where appropriate, conducted by trained or licensed
personnel.
The British Computer Society has a Code of Good Practice, the purpose of which is defined as
being to describe ‘standards of practice relating to the contemporary multifaceted demands
found in Information Technology (IT)’. Its provisions include the requirement to maintain
technical competence, adhere to regulations, act professionally as a specialist, use appropriate
methods and tools, and respect the interests of customers. Specific guidance is given on the
whole range of work carried out by IT specialists; for example, the guidelines on designing
software include the requirement to ‘achieve well-engineered products that demonstrate fitness
for purpose, reliability, efficiency, security, maintainability and cost effectiveness’.
Industrial codes of practice in the United Kingdom are also developed by official bodies such
as OFTEL (the Office of Telecommunications). This has overseen the development of codes of
practice for a considerable number of communication service providers. OFTEL has stated
that these codes are ‘primarily aimed at providing consumers with a clear statement of the
range of policies, services and support activities offered by individual communication suppli-
ers – they should provide sufficient information for any consumer to understand the range of
services available, how to contact the supplier in order to, for example, obtain a new service,
clarify the provider’s terms and conditions, obtain support, or make a complaint’.
12 The Practice of Management

Official codes
A large number of codes of practice have been issued by the government, government agencies
or bodies sponsored by the government. Examples include the code on job evaluation schemes
free of sex bias issued by the Equal Opportunities Commission (now the Equality and Human
Rights Commission), the code on disciplinary and grievance procedures issued by ACAS
(Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration Service) and various practice codes issued by the
Health and Safety Executive.

Procedures
Procedures are formal statements of how particular issues should be dealt with. They affect the
way in which people handle certain matters in organizations. Typical procedures are concerned
with people management on such matters as discipline, grievances, redundancy and equal
opportunities, although procedures can be produced for any aspect of administration, such as
handling customer complaints.

Legal requirements
Management takes place within a framework of employment, health and safety, company,
commercial and other legislation. Necessarily, this places obligations and constraints on man-
agements in general and on individual managers.

Organizational requirements and corporate governance

Organizational requirements are expressed in the concept of ‘corporate governance’, which
refers to the system by which businesses are directed and controlled. The Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), in the Preamble to its Principles, has
defined corporate governance as follows:

Corporate governance is one key element in improving economic efficiency and growth
as well as enhancing investor confidence. Corporate governance involves a set of rela-
tionships between a company’s management, its board, its shareholders and other
stakeholders. Corporate governance also provides the structure through which the
objectives of the company are set and the means of attaining these objectives and moni-
toring performance are determined. Good corporate governance should provide proper
incentives for the board and management to pursue objectives that are in the interests
of the company and its shareholders and should facilitate effective monitoring.

Corporate governance is regulated by The Companies Acts, 1985 and 1989. A Combined Code
on Corporate Governance was produced by the Hampel Committee.
 The Process of Management and Leadership 13

The issues covered by the Hampel and other reports include:

• board structure and membership;
• board management;
• directors’ remuneration;
• financial controls;
• accountability and audit;
• relations with shareholders.

References
Bennis, W (1989) On Becoming a Leader, Addison Wesley, New York
Bennis, W and Nanus, B (1985) Leaders: The strategies for taking charge, Harper & Row, New York
Birch, P (1999) Instant Leadership: Reach your potential now, Kogan Page, London
Dixon, N F (1994) On the Psychology of Military Incompetence, Pimlico, London
Drucker, P (1967) The Effective Executive, Heinemann, London
Fayol, H (1916) Administration Industrielle et General, translated by C Storrs (1949) as General and
Industrial Management, Pitman, London
Fiedler, F E (1967) A Theory of Leadership Effectiveness, McGraw-Hill, New York
Follett, M P (1924) Creative Experience, Longmans Green, New York
Goleman, D (2000) Leadership that gets results, Harvard Business Review, March–April, pp 78–90
Graen, G (1976) Role-making processes within complex organizations, in Handbook of Industrial and
Organizational Psychology, ed M D Dunnette, pp 1201–45, Rand McNally, Chicago, IL
Grint, K (2000) The Arts of Leadership, Oxford University Press, Oxford
Halpin, A W and Winer, B J (1957) A Factorial Study of the Leader Behaviour Descriptions, Ohio State
University Press, Ohio
Hersey, P and Blanchard, K H (1998) Management of Organizational Behaviour, Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, NJ
Higgs, M (2006) Change and its Leadership, Rowland, Fisher, Lennox Consulting [Online] www.rflc.
co.uk
House, R J (1971) A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness, Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, pp
321–38
House, R et al (2004) Culture, Leadership and Organization: The GLOBE study of 62 societies, Sage,
Thousand Oaks, CA
Ivancevich, J M, Konopaske, R and Matteson, M T (2008) Organizational Behavior and Management, 8th
edn, McGraw-Hill/Irwin, New York
Kotter, J P (1991) Power, dependence and effective management, in Managing People and Organizations,
ed J Gabarro, pp 33–49, Harvard Business School Publications, Boston, MA
Management Standards Centre (2004) Management Standards [Online] www.management-standards.org
Meindl, J R, Ehrlich, S B and Dukerich, J M (1985) The romance of leadership, Administrative Science
Quarterly, 30, 78–102
14 The Practice of Management

Mintzberg, H (1973) The Nature of Managerial Work, Harper & Row, New York
Mintzberg, H (2004) Enough leadership, Harvard Business Review, November, p 22
Northouse, P G (2006) Leadership: Theory and practice, 4th edn, Sage, Thousand Oaks, CA
Reddin, W J (1970) Managerial Effectiveness, McGraw-Hill, London
Stewart, R (1967) Managers and Their Jobs, Macmillan, London
Stogdill, R (1974) Handbook of Leadership: A survey of theory and research, Free Press, New York
Zaleznik, A (2004) Manager and leaders: are they different? Harvard Business Review, January, pp
74–81
 15

2
The Role of the Manager

‘The manager is the dynamic, life-giving element in every business.’

Drucker, P (1955) The Practice of Management, Heinemann, London

This chapter answers five questions about managers:

1. What is a manager?
2. What do managers do?
3. How do they do it?
4. What is an effective manager?
5. What do line/middle managers contribute?

What is a manager?
Managers are there to get results by ensuring that their function, unit or department
operates effectively. They manage people and their other resources – finance, facilities,
knowledge, information, time and themselves. They are accountable for attaining goals,
having been given authority over those working in their unit or department.
Accountability means that they are responsible (held to account) for what they do and
what they achieve. Authority means having the right or power to get people to do things.
Authority is exercised through leadership and personal influence arising from position,
personality and knowledge.
16 The Practice of Management

The manager’s role

Managers are like everyone else in an organization in that they carry out roles. A role is the part
people play in fulfilling their responsibilities. A role is not the same as a job, as set out in a job
description, which is a list of duties and, perhaps, a statement of the overall purpose of the job.
The role someone plays describes how they carry out their job.
The concept of a role distinguishes between the role demands and situational pressures that
confront individuals in organizational positions, and their conception and performance of a
role. The demands of a role can be classified in terms of explicitness, clarity and coherence.
They can refer to expectations – what must be done, what should be done and what can be
done. Role expectations consist of what individuals perceive to be their positions and the
demands attached to them. People interpret what they are expected to do in the light of their
perceptions of the context in which they work. When confronted with new demands or pres-
sures from outside the organization or from people within the organization they may have to
reinterpret their roles and be prepared to respond flexibly.
Roles, especially managerial roles, can therefore be fluid, and managers have to adapt rapidly
– they cannot remain within the rigid confines of a prescribed set of duties. Role performance
refers to managers’ actual behaviour – either in response to perceived expectations or in pursu-
ing individual aims and projects. Managers may have to work in conditions of role ambiguity,
when they are not sure of what they are expected to do, or role conflict, when what they feel
that they should do is not in accord with what others believe they should do.

Activities and tasks

In carrying out their roles managers are engaged in activities and tasks. Activities comprise
what managers do – their behaviour. Tasks are what managers are expected or seek to achieve.
In defining managerial work a distinction has been made by Hales (1986) between their behav-
iours and actions and the desired outcomes of those behaviours. This can be described as an
input-process-output model in which inputs are the knowledge and skills managers bring to
their role, process is their behaviour in using their knowledge and skills to make decisions and
take action, and output is the result or outcome of the behaviour.
Silverman and Jones (1976) have suggested that managers actively define their own work and
create its constituent activities. Communication is the medium through which managerial
work is constituted. As Hales (1986) points out: ‘The work of managers is the management of
their work’.

The role of the manager in a variety of different contexts

The roles of managers vary according to the context in which they work. They will be depend-
ent on their function, level, organization (type, structure, culture, size, system of work and
 The Role of the Manager 17

technology) and their working environment generally (the extent to which it is turbulent, pre-
dictable, settled, pressurized, steady). Individual managers will adapt to these circumstances in
different ways and will operate more or less successfully in accordance with their perceptions
of the behaviour expected of them, their experience of what has or has not worked in the past,
and their own personal characteristics.

The added value contribution of managers

Managers exist to add value. The term ‘added value’ was originally used in accountancy where
it is defined as the value added to the cost of raw materials and bought-out parts by the pro-
cesses of production and distribution. The term is often used colloquially to indicate the devel-
opment and use of any resource in such a way as to ensure that it yields a substantial and
sustainable higher return on whatever has been invested in it. Even more colloquially, to add
value means making any contribution that delivers additional benefits to the organization in
the shape of increased effectiveness, competitive advantage, better customer service and higher
levels of quality. Managers make an added value contribution when they ensure that they and
the resources they control generate levels of income, productivity and operational effective-
ness that provide a satisfactory return on the money, time and effort invested in those resources.
A value-added approach to management means the creation of more out of less.
Added value is produced by managers and the people they manage. It is managers at various
levels who create visions, define values and missions, set goals, develop strategic plans, and
implement those plans in accordance with the underpinning values. Added value will be
enhanced by anything that is done to obtain and develop the right sort of people, to motivate
and manage them effectively, to gain their commitment to the organization’s values, and to
build and maintain stable relationships with them based on mutual trust.

What do managers do?

The traditional model of what managers do is that it is a logical and systematic process of plan-
ning, organizing, motivating and controlling. However, this is misleading. Managers often
carry out their work on a day-to-day basis in conditions of variety, turbulence and unpredict-
ability. Managers may have to be specialists in ambiguity, with the ability to cope with conflict-
ing and unclear requirements.

Classical concepts of what managers do

The classical writers on management set out to define the nature of managerial work in terms
of universal basic elements. These were believed to provide a framework for the analysis and
conduct of the managerial task. The classical framework was developed in 1916 by a pioneer
Other documents randomly have
different content
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebooknice.com