Volume 10, Issue 8, August – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug374

India’s Battery Recycling Infrastructure Gap:

A Critical Review for a Circular Economy
Mayank Mehta1
1
Delhi Private School, Dubai
Guided by- Roopa Shankar

Publication Date: 2025/08/18

Abstract: India's burgeoning electric vehicle (EV), solar power, and energy storage sectors are accelerating demand for lithium-
ion batteries (LIBs), with cumulative critical mineral requirements projected to exceed 250 kilotons between 2024 and 2030.
However, formal recycling remains limited—under 5%—while nearly 90% of end-of-life batteries are processed informally
through hazardous methods. This review examines India’s current battery waste management ecosystem, identifying
enforcement lapses in Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), infrastructural voids, and the marginalization of informal
actors.

It benchmarks India’s challenges against regulatory and industrial models in China, the European Union, and the United
States, assessing reverse logistics, policy mandates, and system scalability. Drawing from secondary research and firsthand
insights from a battery manufacturing internship, the study outlines the economic opportunity of a $3.5 billion recycling market
and the cost advantage of recovered materials—up to 40% savings. It further explores environmental risks and proposes
strategic interventions including formal–informal integration, digital tracking mechanisms, and return-based incentives.
Advancing LIB recycling is not only critical for sustainability but central to India's resource independence and circular economy
aspirations.
.
Keywords: Lithium-Ion, Battery Recycling, India, NMC, LFP, Circular Economy, EPR, E-Waste.

How to Cite: Mayank Mehta (2025) India’s Battery Recycling Infrastructure Gap: A Critical Review for a Circular Economy.
International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology, 10(8), 469-476.
https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug374

I. INTRODUCTION However, this rapid growth is generating massive end-of-

life (EoL) battery waste, while India's recycling systems remain
India is rapidly progressing in its clean energy transition, largely undeveloped. Only 1% to 5% of end-of-life lithium-ion
marked by growth in electric vehicles (EVs), solar power, and batteries in India are formally recycled, with the majority
Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS). The numbers are handled by the informal sector, posing environmental and
absolutely staggering when you look at the scale of safety risks [1]. India's heavy reliance on imports for critical
transformation happening. The government targets 500 GW of battery materials like lithium and cobalt adds economic
non-fossil power by 2030 and net-zero emissions by 2070. EV vulnerability, with over $5 billion in import exposure projected
adoption—aiming for 30% penetration in private cars and up to through 2030.
80% in two and three-wheelers—is driving lithium-ion battery
(LIB) demand. During my internship at Waaree Energies, I saw Effective battery recycling is not just an environmental
firsthand how LIBs are used in EVs and BESS, where Battery need—it's a strategic necessity for India's energy goals,
Management Systems (BMS), Energy Management Systems resource security, and global leadership in sustainability. This
(EMS), thermal management systems, and grid manage storage review analyses India's recycling infrastructure, challenges,
and distribution of renewable energy. Working there gave me a global case studies, and offers practical recommendations,
unique perspective on just how crucial these systems are enriched by insights from my internship experience.
becoming for India's energy future.

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II. APPROACH The informal sector dominates because it solves

immediate problems for consumers -- when your phone battery
This paper combines in-depth secondary research with dies, they'll pay you cash and handle all the logistics. The
experiential learning gained through a hands-on internship at informal sector dominates due to its cost-effectiveness and
Waaree Energies, a leading battery manufacturer in India. To reach but is also fuelled by low consumer awareness and high
understand the current state of lithium-ion battery (LIB) GST on formal recycling. While it fills a crucial gap, it also
recycling, I reviewed government reports, industry white hinders safe recycling and material recovery. A sustainable fix
papers, academic publications, and regulatory documents from isn't to eliminate it, but to formalize and integrate this network
India and other countries. This helped frame a broad to improve safety while maintaining its reach.
understanding of the technical, economic, and policy
dimensions of battery recycling. A. Emerging Alternatives to Lithium-Ion Batteries

Alongside this, I undertook an internship where I closely  Next-Generation Battery Technologies

observed the manufacturing and testing of batteries—
particularly NMC and LFP chemistries. I gained exposure to  Calcium-Ion Batteries
battery management systems (BMS), quality testing These batteries use calcium's unique ability to transfer
procedures, and safety protocols related to handling and twice the charge per ion compared to lithium. They could
assembly. I also witnessed how companies manage end-of-life potentially reach energy densities of 2,500 Wh/kg—far higher
battery components and the practical challenges they face in than today's lithium-ion systems [27]. The main challenge is
terms of logistics, traceability, and material recovery. finding the right electrolytes to work with calcium's larger ionic
size [28].
By blending academic research with firsthand industry
insights, this review offers a grounded perspective on the gaps  Potassium-Ion Batteries
and opportunities in India’s recycling ecosystem, especially in With potassium being much more abundant and cheaper
the context of the country’s clean energy goals. than lithium, these batteries show real promise for large-scale
energy storage. They can potentially deliver higher voltage and
III. LITERATURE REVIEW energy density than current systems [28]. Researchers are now
working on making the electrodes and safety systems more
India's lithium-ion battery market is poised for explosive reliable [27].
growth, directly translating to a significant increase in end-of-
life battery waste. While the initial query suggested a projection  Organic Flow Batteries
of 800 GWh by 2030, other comprehensive reports provide Instead of using metals, these batteries use organic
varying but still substantial figures. For instance, a joint report molecules dissolved in water-based solutions. While their
by the India Cellular and Electronics Association (ICEA) and energy density is lower (20-40 Wh/kg), they can cycle almost
Accenture projects total LIB demand to reach 115 GWh by indefinitely without losing capacity [28]. Their modular design
2030, with electric vehicle-linked usage expected to grow at a means you can scale up power and energy independently
compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 48% [2]. Other perfect for grid storage [27].
estimates range from 60-65 GWh by ICRA [3] to 132 GWh [4]
or 128 GWh by NITI Aayog [5] by the same year. The Central  Advanced Lithium-Sulphur Batteries
Electricity Authority (CEA) further projects a requirement of New designs have solved the old problem of rapid
approximately 28 GW/108 GWh of Battery Energy Storage degradation. Modern versions can reach 500-600 Wh/kg—
System (BESS) capacity by 2030 [6]. This variability in nearly double conventional lithium-ion systems [27]. Recent
projections, while not undermining the overall trend of massive polymer coating breakthroughs have pushed cycle life beyond
growth, highlights the inherent uncertainty in forecasting a 1,000 cycles [28].
rapidly evolving market. It suggests that any policy or
infrastructure development must be flexible and scalable to  Zinc-Air Batteries
accommodate different growth scenarios, ensuring adaptability These use oxygen from the air as part of the reaction,
to consistently high future waste volumes. achieving remarkable theoretical energy densities of 1,350
Wh/kg. Since they use ambient air, they're much lighter and
In India, the prevailing methods of battery disposal reveal cheaper [27]. The main challenges are preventing water
a stark divide between informal and formal recycling practices, evaporation and blocking carbon dioxide, which researchers are
with serious environmental implications. India's battery tackling with better membranes [28].
disposal system is mostly informal and unregulated. Only 1-5%
of end-of-life LIBs are formally recycled, while up to 90% are While these options are promising, most are still pre-
handled by informal collectors using unsafe methods like acid commercial and would need parallel development in
leaching [1], [8], [9]. This causes toxic pollution, harming both infrastructure, regulation, and recycling systems to become
the environment and public health. viable replacements.

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B. Recycling Processes Used infrastructure and reverse logistics mechanism for safe and
Recycling of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) primarily relies formal collection [10]. This issue is particularly acute in rural
on three approaches: pyrometallurgy, hydrometallurgy, and and semi-urban regions, where designated collection centres or
direct recycling. Pyrometallurgy, or smelting, involves high- drop-off points are scarce, severely limiting consumer
temperature treatment to recover metals such as cobalt, nickel, participation and making collection targets unrealistic [11].
and copper, but it is energy-intensive and often results in
lithium and aluminium losses and requires extensive safety  Informal/Unregulated Recyclers
infrastructure due to high-temperature operations [29]. As previously highlighted, the informal sector handles a
Hydrometallurgy, which uses acid leaching and solvent vast majority of battery waste, accounting for nearly 90% of
extraction, is more selective and efficient, enabling recovery India's battery waste. The problem isn't that these informal
rates above 90% for key materials. However, when carried out workers are lazy or careless -- they're incredibly resourceful and
informally with rudimentary acid leaching—as is common in entrepreneurial. While efficient in collection due to its
India—it poses serious environmental and health risks due to widespread reach and cost-effectiveness, its practices are
toxic effluents that contaminate soil and groundwater while largely unscientific and unsafe. These include rudimentary
endangering worker health [30]. Direct recycling is an methods like acid leaching that release toxic pollutants,
emerging method that preserves cathode structures for reuse, contaminate soil and groundwater, and compromise worker
offering 40-60% energy savings by avoiding re-synthesis of safety [4]. The exclusion of these informal workers from the
cathode materials compared to conventional processes [31]. formal system leads to missed opportunities for material
While still in early development, direct recycling could prove recovery and exacerbates environmental degradation [11]. This
crucial in India's context, where economic viability and safe situation creates a paradox: the informal sector fills a critical
recovery are both pressing challenges. Integrating advanced collection gap but creates severe downstream problems.
hydrometallurgical methods with innovations in direct
recycling would significantly enhance India's ability to bridge  Policy Enforcement Gaps
its recycling infrastructure gap [29], [30]. India's 2022 Battery Waste Management Rules
introduced Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), but
C. Challenges in Recycling Infrastructure enforcement remains weak. The policy does not distinguish
India's ambition to lead in clean energy is significantly between large and small producers, making compliance uneven.
hampered by substantial gaps in its battery recycling Monitoring is minimal, with reliance on self-reporting and a
infrastructure, affecting collection, processing, and policy non-functional audit system. Informal recyclers, despite
enforcement. playing a dominant role in collection, remain excluded, leading
to unsafe practices. Consumer awareness is low, and there are
 Low Collection Rates no incentives for returning used batteries. Recyclers also lack
Despite the introduction of the Battery Waste technical guidance, and the absence of a recycled content
Management Rules (BWMR) in 2022, collection rates for end- mandate reduces the economic appeal of formal recycling.
of-life batteries remain critically low. During my internship, I During my internship at Waaree Energies, I observed how
saw firsthand how complex proper battery handling is -- and effective EPR systems require robust supply chain tracking
most collection points don't have this capability. For instance, mechanisms—such as a "Battery Aadhar"—which are currently
approximately 39% of consumer electronics batteries are not missing in India [12].
collected. A major hurdle is the lack of a well-defined

Table 1: Key Policy Gaps in India's Battery Waste Management Rules (BWMR 2022) [11]
Policy Gap Description/Consequence

No Differentiation Among Producer Treats all producers, similarly, burdening small businesses and creating loopholes
Categories for large corporations.

Limited Monitoring and Weak Enforcement Relies on self-declared figures with rare inspections; minimal follow-up on non-
compliance; EPR audit module inoperable.

Infrastructure Gaps in Reverse Logistics Inadequate collection centres, especially in rural areas, limiting consumer
participation and making collection targets unrealistic.

No Formal Inclusion of Informal Recyclers Excludes a significant workforce, perpetuating unsafe practices and wasting
potential for efficient material recovery.

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Low Consumer Awareness and Zero Most consumers are unaware of proper disposal methods; no rewards for
Incentives returning batteries, leading to improper disposal.

Inadequate Guidance on Recycling Lack of clear benchmarks for handling various battery types can lead to
Technology substandard or hazardous recycling techniques.16

Absence of Recycled Content Mandates No requirement for using recycled materials in new batteries, weakening demand
for secondary raw materials and making formal recycling less viable. 16

D. Small players in Indian Recycling Landscape mass' for mineral extraction [17]. This points to a disconnect
An important component of India's battery recycling between innovation at the individual company level and
ecosystem is the growing presence of small and mid-sized systemic infrastructure support.
players, whose contributions, technologies, and scalability
challenges provide insight into the broader industry's current E. International Regulatory Approaches
limitations and opportunities. Despite these systemic
challenges, I'm genuinely optimistic about some impressive  Comparative Study – Other Countries
Indian companies that are making real progress. A few formal Examining international approaches to battery recycling
Indian recyclers are emerging and developing advanced offers valuable lessons for India, highlighting diverse strategies
capabilities. Companies like Attero Recycling, BatX Energies, and their effectiveness.
and Lohum are pioneering efforts in this nascent industry [4].
 China's Take-Back Rules
Attero Recycling, one of India's leading e-waste and China has demonstrated a long-standing commitment to
lithium-ion battery recyclers, is both R2-certified and affiliated EV battery recycling, implementing policies and standards for
with the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB). It employs over a decade [18]. The nation has introduced an action plan to
globally patented technology with a reported recycling promote EV battery recycling and established over 10 national
efficiency of over 98%, capable of recovering critical raw standards by the end of 2024 [18]. Significant progress includes
materials like lithium, cobalt, and nickel [13]. In FY2025, the the presence of approximately 150 qualified recycling
company processed more than 15,000 tons of lithium-ion companies and over 10,000 recycling service outlets, indicating
batteries and has ambitious plans to scale this to 50,000 tons. a widespread collection and processing network [18].
To support this growth, Attero is investing INR 100 crore to
expand its rare earth element (REE) recycling infrastructure to Recent proposals include stricter recovery rate
a capacity of 30,000 tons [14]. requirements, such as 90% for lithium and 98% for nickel,
cobalt, manganese, copper, aluminum, and rare earth metals
BatX Energies spearheads an innovative, eco-conscious [19]. Environmental standards are also being tightened, with
approach to LIB recycling, promoting sustainability and caps on energy consumption for lithium carbonate production,
resource efficiency. Their proprietary "Net Zero Waste, Zero high fluorine emission recovery rates, and stringent wastewater
Emissions" process extracts high-quality materials like lithium, recycling requirements [19]. China employs a "whitelist"
cobalt, nickel, and manganese from used LIBs, including system for approved recyclers, aiming to consolidate the
manufacturing rejects, with a focus on supporting India's EV industry and constrict the unregulated market [19]. Despite
sector and reducing import dependence. They aim for a 90% these robust efforts, challenges persist, including insufficient
recovery rate by 2027 [15]. regulation and illicit processing by unqualified companies,
which can still lead to environmental pollution and safety
PolyProtic is also involved in developing processing and hazards [18].
specific chemicals for rechargeable batteries and reclaiming
metals from e-waste and batteries, indicating a focus on  EU's EPR Frameworks
technological solutions for recycling [16]. The European Union has probably the most sophisticated
approach to battery recycling anywhere in the world. It has
While these players exist and demonstrate India's established a comprehensive and binding legal framework
technological capability for advanced LIB recycling, they through Regulation (EU) 2023/1542, which entered into force
currently operate at limited capacity. The primary challenge is in August 2023, governing the entire lifecycle of batteries
not a complete lack of know-how, but rather the inability to across all member states [20]. This framework mandates
scale these operations due to high capital costs, limited policy Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR), requiring
support, and insufficient collection mechanisms [4]. India's manufacturers, importers, and sellers to manage the
current formal recycling capacity is estimated at around 60,000 environmental impact of their products, including collection,
tonnes annually, with only 50% of this converted into 'black recycling, and safe disposal [20].

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Key EPR obligations, enforceable from August 2025,  Recycled Content & Traceability: Mandates like those in the
include producer registration, financial responsibility for waste EU ensure market demand and accountability across the
battery collection, treatment, and recycling, and stringent supply chain.
labeling requirements. These labels must feature a cross-out  Support for Formal Recyclers: China's whitelist model and
wheeled bin symbol, an indication of battery chemistry, and a U.S. investment-driven strategies show how incentives and
QR code for digital product information, enhancing clarity can scale the formal sector.
transparency for consumers and recyclers [20]. The regulation  Efficient Collection Systems: China’s extensive reverse
also mandates carbon footprint disclosure for EV, industrial, logistics network highlights the need for widespread and
and Light Means of Transport (LMT) batteries from 2025, and accessible collection points.
sets minimum recycled content targets from 2031 (e.g., 16%  R&D Focus: Companies like Redwood Materials prove how
cobalt, 6% lithium and nickel) [20]. A significant innovation is innovation, backed by policy or funding, can boost recovery
the mandatory digital battery passport from 2027 for EV, rates and reduce dependence on virgin materials.
industrial, and LMT batteries, providing performance,
composition, and sourcing information accessible via QR code V. ECONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL
[20]. Furthermore, portable batteries must be designed for easy IMPLICATIONS.
replacement by end-users from 2027, and restrictions on the
export of hazardous battery waste to non-OECD countries will The lack of a robust battery recycling infrastructure in India
apply from March 2025 [20]. carries significant economic and environmental consequences
but also presents a substantial opportunity for national growth
 US Private Sector Models (e.g., Redwood Materials) and sustainability.
The United States showcases a strong private sector-
driven approach to battery recycling, with companies like India's reliance on imports for critical LIB materials is a major
Redwood Materials leading the way in establishing a closed- economic vulnerability. Cumulative demand for materials like
loop supply chain for electric vehicles and clean energy lithium, cobalt, nickel, and manganese is projected to exceed
products [21]. Redwood Materials focuses on recycling 250 kilotons between 2024 and 2030, translating to an import
lithium-ion batteries and producing battery materials, such as exposure of over $5 billion [22]. In 2022 alone, India imported
anode copper foil and cathode active materials, for new battery 617 million units of LIBs for USD 1.8 billion [9]. This heavy
manufacturing [21]. dependence on foreign sources for essential battery components
underscores a significant outflow of capital and exposes the
The company boasts high material recovery rates, often nation to global supply chain volatilities and price fluctuations.
exceeding 95% for critical metals like nickel, cobalt, lithium,
and copper, utilizing innovative hydrometallurgical refinement In stark contrast, establishing a robust domestic recycling
processes. What's impressive is how they've created industry presents a substantial economic opportunity. Reports
partnerships with major industry players—Redwood Materials suggest that lithium-ion battery recycling could spark an
has forged partnerships with Panasonic, Ford Motor Company, industry worth $3.5 billion by 2030 with the right policy steps
and Amazon, and has launched used battery collection [23]. This economic potential is not merely a cost of
programs, demonstrating a collaborative approach to reverse environmental compliance but a significant economic catalyst
logistics [21]. Significant private investments and expansion capable of generating a multi-billion-dollar industry, creating
plans are underway, including the development of production jobs—estimated between 27,000 to 41,000 by 2030 [1]—and
facilities with ambitious capacity targets of 100 GWh by 2025 reducing strategic import dependencies [1]. Furthermore,
and 500 GWh by 2030 [21]. Notably, Redwood also focuses on studies indicate that the overall cost of producing cathode active
repurposing used battery packs into modular energy storage material from recycled battery materials can be 48% lower than
systems, maximizing value before the final recycling stage [21]. from virgin materials [24], highlighting the economic viability
and efficiency gains of recycling. This makes recycling an
IV. KEY LESSONS FOR INDIA attractive proposition for strengthening resource security and
economic resilience.
Comparative analysis shows a clear global shift toward
stricter, more integrated battery recycling policies—from It is important to consider environmental damage from
China’s early take-back rules to the EU’s legally binding improper disposal. Improper disposal of LIBs—through
lifecycle approach. Success in these regions stems not just from landfilling or informal methods—poses serious environmental
regulation, but from promoting private-sector innovation and health risks. LIBs contain hazardous metals like lithium,
alongside it, where policy drives demand and innovation meets cobalt, and nickel that can combust or leach into soil and water,
it. contaminating ecosystems. NMC batteries, in particular, risk
 Comprehensive Frameworks: The EU and China offer thermal runaway if mishandled, potentially causing fires and
strong examples of end-to-end regulatory systems. toxic emissions. Informal recycling methods, such as acid
leaching, release harmful pollutants, endangering both workers

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and communities. These practices also lead to economic losses close the loop toward a circular economy. Recycling reduces
from wasted resources and rising public health and remediation reliance on mining and cuts carbon emissions by up to 60%
costs [5]. versus raw extraction. By 2040, it could lower primarily supply
needs for key minerals by 10%, demonstrating how
Recycling is India's only viable domestic source of critical environmental protection and economic efficiency go hand in
minerals like lithium. When refined to battery-grade purity, hand [24].
recovered materials support new battery production and help

Table 2: Economic and Environmental Benefits of LIB Recycling in India

Benefit Category Key Metrics/Data

Economic Value Potential to become a $3.5 billion industry by 2030.[23]

Import Reduction Reduces over $5 billion import exposure for critical minerals (2024-2030).[22]

Job Creation Potential to create 27,000-41,000 jobs by 2030.[1]

Cost Savings Cathode active material production cost can be 48% lower than from virgin materials.[24]

Carbon Emission Reduction Up to 60% lower carbon emissions compared to virgin material production.[24]

Pollution Prevention Prevents soil and groundwater contamination from hazardous battery components.[5]

Resource Recovery Efficiency Advanced recyclers achieve over 98% material recovery rates.[13]

A. Global Innovations and Emissions Impact  Transportation Revolution

Here's a striking comparison—mining and refining
 Real World Environment Benefits battery metals involves shipping materials an average of 35,000
A major Stanford University study using data from North miles (that's like going around the world 1.5 times) [26].
America's largest battery recycling facility gives us precise Recycling? Just 140 miles on average from collection to
numbers on recycling's environmental benefits—and they're processing [26]. For India, this means massive transportation
impressive [26]. emission cuts through domestic recycling.

 Dramatic Emissions Reductions  Why Location Matters

Battery recycling cuts greenhouse gas emissions by 58- The environmental benefits depend heavily on where
81% compared to mining new materials. For manufacturing recycling happens. Facilities powered by coal see smaller
scrap, the benefits are even better—recycling produces only climate benefits, while those using clean energy maximize
19% of the emissions that mining does [26]. That translates to environmental gains [26]. India's growing renewable energy
avoiding 2.7-4.6 kg of CO₂ for every kilogram of battery sector positions it well to achieve optimal recycling benefits.
material recycled [25].
 Industry Growth
 Water and Energy Savings Global recycling capacity is exploding—from 1.6 million
Recycling uses 72-88% less water and 77-89% less tons annually today to over 3 million tons expected soon [25].
energy than mining virgin materials [26]. Manufacturing scrap This growth is driven by stricter environmental rules and the
recycling is even more efficient, needing just 12% of the water first wave of EV batteries reaching retirement age [25].
and 11% of the energy required for new mining [26]. For India,
facing both water shortages and energy challenges, these
savings are crucial.

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VI. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR INDIA VII. CONCLUSION

 Building Effective Collection India’s growing demand for lithium-ion batteries—driven

India needs collection systems more convenient and by EVs and renewable energy—makes a circular battery
economically attractive than informal alternatives. Collection economy essential. Without strong recycling infrastructure, the
facilities need temperature-controlled storage, fire suppression, country risks environmental damage and continued reliance on
and trained staff understanding different battery chemistry imported critical minerals.
safety requirements.
This challenge is also an opportunity. With the right
Economic incentives are essential. Deposit-refund policies mandating recycled content, digital traceability,
systems and trade-in programs offering new battery discounts support for formal recyclers, and integration of informal
for old ones can leverage commercial relationships. Multiple workers, India can lead in sustainable battery management.
channels needed: manufacturer take-back, retailer collection, Collaboration between government, industry, academia, and
municipal centres, and specialized services. citizens is key.

 Investment Incentives Insights from my internship at Waaree Energies

Tax credits for recycling facilities, accelerated reinforced the importance of practical, scalable solutions rooted
depreciation for equipment, and subsidized financing can in real-world challenges. A circular battery economy is not just
overcome high capital barriers. Research partnerships between desirable—it is vital for India’s clean energy future.
companies and institutions like CSIR-NML can accelerate
technology transfer. REFERENCES

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