yt Heng maton relia 40 : POLITICAL THEORY MEANING & APPROACHES Nill K. CSee B It is very difficult to assign a precise definition to the term political theory. ‘The term “polit is very old and is found in everyone's vocabulary. Through time and usage it has become very vague and general. In common parlance, things ‘political’ are generally associated with the problem of governance. Institutions and processes of government have, therefore, been traditionally the objects of litical science. “Political” is the adjective of “polities” which is derived from the Greek word ‘Polis’ meaning the state. Thus, the word “Political” is commonly understood to mean anything that is related to the state. Political science would then be defined as the science of the state encompassing the government and organization, and theory and practice of the state. . Like the term ‘politica the term ‘theory’ is also very vague and ambiguous. The term “theor, derived from the Greek word "a theoria” meaning “a well focused mental (out) look taken at something in a settle of contemplation with the intent to grasp it.” It is generally considered as a separate branch of political science which attempts to arrive at generalizations and draws inferences, or conclusions from the data gathered hy various specialists relating to political phenomena. The term political theory has been defined in both “a broad” and “a narrow” sense. Thus, Sabine defines it, “as anything about polities or relevant to polities”. This is his broad definition of the term. He also gives a narrow definition as “the disciplined investigation of political problems’. Similarly, Amnold Brechet provides both a broad and «narrow meaning of Political Theory. According to him in the broad sense, the concept political theory means “a thinkers’ entire teaching on a subject,” while in the narrow sense it means only “an expression of a thought”. Hence, to him it means a set of propositions. William T. Bluhem gives a comprehensive definition of political theory. He holds political theory as “an explanation of what politics is all nbout, a general understanding of the political world, a frame of reference to understand and explain a political phenomenon, to be able to give a value judgment, and also to be able to predict.” Explained thus, political theory is a tool for evaluating what happened. whether it was good or bad, what_may happen in the future in and thus enable a serious student of polities to decide his political choices, ‘h of political science which attempts to arrive at generalizations specialists, not only in political Specifically. some of the Political theory is that bra inferences, or conclusions to be drawn from thé data gathered by other science, but throughout the whole range of hiuman knowledge and experienc definitions given by political thinkers and theorists are as follows: David Held - Political theories are complex network of concepts and generalizations about political life involving ideas, assumptions and statements about the nature, purpose and key features of government, state and society, and about the political capabilities of human beings. W.C. Coker - When political government and its forms and activities are studied not simply as facts to be described and compared and judged in reference to their immediate and temporary effects, but as facts to be understood and appraised in relation to the constant needs, desires and opinions of men, then we have political theory. 1» of a disinterested search for the principles of good state and sted search for knowledge of political and social reality.” Andrew Hacker - It is ‘a combi good society on the one hand, and a disint Norman Barry - He defines political theory in functio says: “Phe function of political theory has come to be restricted to the analysis and clarification of the vocabulary of polities and the critical examination, verification and justification of the concepts employed in political argument’ ‘The discussion on what a theory is or what political theory is would help as identify the characteristic implications or the major aspects of political theory. Some of these can be stated as under:+ The ara in which political thoory works extends to the realms of polities only ~ potitieg yg. citizon, ‘his politicnl behaviour, his political ideas, the government that. he socks 10 v¥tabigy the tasks expected from auch & government. © ‘The methods, whieh political theory adopts, include description, explanation and investigation .y the political phenomenon, + Though political theory in all about what is ‘political’, yet it attempts to understand “pobtiral’ iy relation to social’, ceonomie’, ‘paychologieal’, ‘ecological’, ‘moral’, and the like, + The objective which political theory seeks to nchievo ia to build a godt state in a xood society, and in the process, create processes, procedures, institutions and structures historically tested and rationally attaimed. 2 Asa body of thought, political theory attempts to explain, evaluate and predict. political phenomena, and in the process builds not only scientifically testable modols, but. suggests values as rules of human conduct. + Political theory is both prescriptive and explanatory.- A very elaborate definition of political theory has been given in Political Science Dictionary, describing itas “a body of thought that secks to evaluate, explain and predict political phenomena. As a sub-field of Political Science, it is concerned with political ideas, values and concepts, and the explanation of prediction of political behaviour, In its broad sense, it has two main Approaches: one is political philosophy or normative approach, with its value, analytic, historical and speculative concerns. The other is empirical approach, with its efforts to explain, predict, guide, research and organize knowledge through the formulation of abstract models, and scientifically testable propositions.” A brief explanation of these fapproacheslis as follows:- ‘The Traditional/Classical or the Normative Approach Prior to the Seeond World War Political theory was traditional and related to moral philosophy in its various forms. It was very popular before the advent of the present century. This approach apart from history made use of ethics philosophy and law. ‘Traditiona) political theory tried to examine thye past wents and drew some tentative conclusions about, the contemporary political activity. Its first principles came from religion, philosophy and history and cthics. It was subjectively and selectively based on limited amount of data. It did not use the findings and methods of athor social seionces. It did not have any general theory of its own and made little efforts towards the formulation of a general theory. Traditional political theory was state centric.and was concerned with ‘ends’ like iustice. welfare, freedom equality ete. Most of the Political thinkers were political philosophers. ‘Their main object was realization of certain values. Their conclusions were based on unstable foundations of there personal views and speculations The traditional approach to political science was logal-historical or the normative-philosophiea! approach, It lays emphasis on values as against facts, Some contemporary thinkers desevibed as Trans: empirical Theorists by Robert Dahl have also taken the position that the study of polities should be valuational. Eric Vogelin, the best-known Trans-empiricist and Leo Strauss believe that study of polities should have a purpose behind it; it should enable us to act rightly, to choose the est, to make decisions how best to live with our fellowmen. Any comprehensive theory about polities, they arg must inevitably contain evaluations not merely of the empirical validity of the factual statements inud ~ “theory but also of the moral quality of the political events, processes or systems described in the he Ps his asc: 4 jeory. Political appraisal is a consiant interweaving of facts and evaluation, It is of no use to set the “fctual knowledge to one side and values to the other. All values are not equal, some values are necessarily high and others are intrinsically low. ‘The Trans-empiricists also hold that the scientific method can deal satisfactorily with both facts and values, John Dewey and Flex Kaufmann are of the view that any scientific judgment is, in ultimate analysis, always moral judgment. They further hold that the concept of seience should be broadened to include value-judgments. Vogelin has asked for a ‘restoration’ and ‘re-theorization’ of political science through a revival of the attempts made by the Greek philosophers and the medieval Christian scholars. ‘The classical paradigm, according to Sheldon Wolin, relating to political theory, consisted of the following: Classical political theory aimed at acquiring reliable knowledge about matters concerning the people, a philosophical pursuit to establish a rational basis for belief; a politically inspired pursuit to establish a rational basis for action. «It sought to identify the political with the public, the common: the Greck polis, the Roman ~ — respublica, and the medieval age usage of commionweal — ll denoted a sharing of what was ‘common among the people as partners ‘© Its basic ynit of analysis was always the political whole, the body-politie denoting activity, relationship, and belief: activity relating to rulijig, warfare, education, réligious tween sorial classes between the rulers and the ruled, the inter-related structure practices; relationships involving those het between the superiors and the inferiors; belief, such as justier 1 political theory laid emphasis on order, balance wuality, natural law and the like, «Relating itself to the political whole, the cl equilibrium, stability and harmony. ‘Phat is why, it, in the process, dwel anarchy, instability and revolution. Classical political theory laid stress on comparative studies for supplying a more comprehensive ternatives, That was the reason that on terms such as conflicts; explanation of political phenomena and a wider range of classical political theory developed a chissification of political forms-(e.g., monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, and their variants) and a set of concepts sitch as law, citizenship, justice and 1s between them, participation so as to explain differences and similar © Classical political theory had been, largely, ethical in perspective. Its response was rooted in a ‘moral outlook: Plato advocated the ideal state; Aristotle, « state that can achieve the best possible: St. Augustine, the city of god. Classical political theory undertook to appraise the various et of cumstances, and constitutional forms, to determine the form most suitable for a particular to decide, if any, absolutely the best form possible Classical political theory, by projecting the best form of polity as the idea), revealed the boldness ssed such an attempt as merely utopian and radicalism of classical theorising, though some di and visionary,‘The Modern/Empirical-Scientifie/Behay Modern political theory encompasses in iteelf a host of diverse trends euch as the inssitutiona. een aaenecantihe, positivistie, empirical, behavioural, post-behavioural and the Marxist, These trends dominated the greater part of the twentieth century. Modern political theory, dubbed the whole see al tradition as dull, ‘Their advocates, from Merriam and Key to Dahl, Lasswell and Bastony cecaht to lag’ stress on the ‘present’ rather than on the ‘past’ the ‘iving’ rather than the ‘dull the see ate’ gather than the ‘remote’; the ‘objective’ rather than the ‘subjective’; the ‘analytic’ rather than the ‘philosophic’ the ‘explanatory’ rather than the ‘descriptive’ the ‘process-oriented’ rather than the ‘purpose-oriented’; the ‘scientific’ rather than the ‘theoretical’ : ‘The new scientific attitude toward the government has led to greater use of the empirical method. observing human institution and processes in order to discover fundamental political principles. The tendency towards greater use of the empirical-scientifie methods of observation, survey and quantitative measurement has been related to the growth of the science of Statistics as also of Psychology and Anthropology. The current fashion is to make a sharp distinction between fact and value, It is maintained that if polities is to be a science, it must not presuppose any value. Modern political theory with its western liberal-democratic shade attempted to buil 5 objective, empirical observational, measurable, operational and value-free. Its features can be summed up as under: : + Facts and data constitute the bases of study. These are accumulated, explained and then used for testing hypothesi + Human behavior can be studied, and regularities of human bebavior can be expressed in generalizations. + Subjectivity gives way to objectivity; philosophical interpretation to analytical explanation; purpose to procedure: descriptive to observational; normative to scientific. + Facis and values are separated; values are so arranged that the facts become relevant. + Methodology has to be self-conscious, explicit and quantitative. + Inter-disciplinary synthesis is to be achieved. + “What it is” is regarded as more important than cither “what it was” or “what it ought to be or could be : + Values are to support facts, substance to form, and theory to research, and status quo to social change. ‘The behaviouralist approach to political theory is an attempt to make the study of polities scientific and predictable. It occupies a very important place in modern political science, particularly in the methodological side, Though behaviouralism as a distinct approach emerged after the Second World War, its root lay in Graham Wallace's famous work entitled Human Nature in Politics (1908), as well as in Arthur Bentley's Process of Government.in addition to these two it was also inspired by the writings of Charles Merriam and Heinz Eulau. According to Robert Dahl Behaviouralism is a ‘protest moverFerration is central to the ebuiy of pelts fax the behavioualiai. Ik focuses ap actos and tale fem a matter of political ecience. One of the key tasks of the behaviouralist is to employ. fechniques that allow for interrelation of observation. Once chiarvations are made they can be aed to develop generalizations about political behavior. It believes that knowledge can be texted verified and shared among different investigators regardless of their personalities and preferences A common points shared by behaviouralists was strong dissatisfaction with traditional political seienee j and take the propositions generated in these discussions to be untestable, They consider normative inquiry to be the province of philosophy and not political science. The behaviouralists believe that the goal in political scientific work is knowledge about facts. The systematic acc uumulation of facts is only possible when the study is guided by techniques or progedures that allow a community of scholars to cooperate to achieve an increase in the predictive power of generalizations. For Dahl ~ behaviowralis implies a ‘belief that political analysis must be mainly empirical and aims at stating all the phenomena of government, in terms of observed and observable behaviour of individual beings According to David Easton, behaviouralism has eight major tenets ~ @) — Regularities — behaviouralists think that there are certain uniformities in- political rovide for behaviour. which ean be expressed in theory-like statements so as (0 p explanation and prediction of political phenomena. Even assuming wide diveusity in human behaviour, there are some findings which are valid from the empirical point of view. (i) Verifications ~ the behaviouralists think that only the empirical method can lead to explanation and verification of human behaviour governing political phenomena. It requires that the validity of such theory-like statements: must-be testable in principle by reference to relevant behaviour. (ii) Techniques unlike traditionalists, behaviouralists adoption of eorreet techniques for political phenomena. Easton thinks that political science can be really scientific if proper techniques are chosen.! (iv) Quantification — it is a very modem tool used by statistical experts, They try to integrate and differentiate data ¢oncerning:political phenomena. Term quantification means measurement. So while traditionalists thought that political phenomena can't be measured, behaviouralists think that like other pure sciences, political seienee can use” methods of quantification and sampling of data regarding political events: (Values — clear distinction botween ethical evaluation and empirical explanation, ach great intportance to concerned with values and facts respectively. Insisted on objective scientific enquiry, ve or value neutral, However, pesvinco. study of political science has to be value-f behaviouralists restored place of values in analysis of political science. Thus Easton, who later on became a neo-behaviouralist, agrees that the political system has to make authoritative allocation of values. Which stould be examined self-consciously, refined and validated for " I also refers to means of acquiting or interpreting di purpose of observing, recording and analysing behaviour s(i) Systematisation ~ means theory building and theory implementing, Behavioura, charge that traditionalists didn't make any proper scientific analysis of political da, which would lead in building proper system. So they couldn't be successful for aystematisation of political data, Behaviouralists believed that systemization was done only by them, (ii) Pure Seience ~ by this term, behaviouralists mean that only scientific method, i.e, empirical method be used for data collection, verification and systematisation. Thus principles of political science as pure science could be applied to different the fields of politics, Easton belicves that politieal science as pure science also has great potential to serve as applied poliey science. This means that understanding and explanation of political behaviour is essential to utilise political knowledge in solution of urgent practical problems of society (it) Integration — signifies integration of political science with other social sciences in order to evolve a comprehensive view of human affairs, to strengthen its validity and generality of its own results . Criticisms . ‘© Accused of inventing Jargonis.and malting Political studies too sophisticated and technical to understand ‘ + The Behaviouralists in their zeal for scienticism fail to choose between the important and the unimportant at times focusing on trivial issues, + The whole project becomes dubious ns it is not possible to apply methods of natural sciences to the study of Human behavior, Controlled experiments are of limited or no use in political analysis as Humans are not passive objects, * The researcher can never claim to be value free. wusslthe language of new. Political Science compels it to abandon the = According to Leo S criteria of relevance that are inherent in political understanding. Post/Neo- Behaviouralism Behaviouralism has been accused of creating a crisis within the discipline by creating two camps of the traditionalists and the empiricists within the discipline. It led to the thinking that it is futile to study, such a vast and diverse subject with one approach. It was realized that even though Behaviouralism has its worth yet it has certain limitations. It was this realization that led David Easton to declare that there is a “I underway born out of deep dissatisfaction with the attempt tnamnvert poles! suri inten deciphine modeled on the methodn ofnatural eriencee, ‘The two basic motivations of Post Behaviouralism are a) Relevance b) Action Relevance stands for the orientations to the brute realities of Politics as mere sophistications of techniques is not enough. Political analysis must be tuned to social realities and social change or else it is bound to be static and conservative. The action part is an exhortation for bearing the responsibility 6jovial change through social action, The tenet of Pest Behaviouralism as Easton observes is ‘Credo ‘The behaviouralists turned post behaviouraliste, now admit that they had apent too much time on uivial, and quite often-irrelevant research. The term post behavioral was used to designate the mood and programmatic intent of the new disasters. Among the major post. behavioral tendencies, one could mention the new emphasis on ‘values’, on issues of justice, freedom, and equality, Two main demands of post behaviouralism are relevance and action. The post behaviouralist accepts the achievements of the behavioral era but. seeks to push political science farther and towards new horizons, Post behaviouralism, David Enston pbinted out, was future oriented, seeking to propel political science in new directions and to add rather than deny its past heritage Easton has given some major traits of post behaviouraliam and has described them as the ‘Credo of Relevance’ or ‘A distillation of the maximal image’, they are: «The post - behaviouralists raised the counter=slogan that it-was better to be vague than non ~ selevantly precise, There is no emphasis on'y on techniques. In Political Science research, substance must come before technique: Wis good to have sophisticated tools of investigation but more imp point was purpose to which these tools were being applied. + They say it is more important to apply knowledge for the betterment of society. Thus, values must play_a vital role in. social inquiry. Modem Pulitical Theory must insist on modemity and social change, not social presentation or maintaining the status quo, as the behaviouralists seemed to be doing. not like that of technic * Easton says that our job as student of polities but job of intellectual to protect human values of civilization, Political Theorists must always be aware of the brute realities of polities: The heart of behavioral enquiry being abstraction, it was no longer possible for political scientists to close their eyes to the realities of the situation, Post-behaviouralists asked if it wasn't the responsibility of political scientists to reach out to the real needs of humankind, of what use was society? # Neo-behaviouralists don’t strictly adhere to scienticism and value-free approaches of behaviouralism, They emphasize that if knowledge was to be used ‘for proper goals, values had to be restored to ‘central position. ‘Thus they admit that values have indeed an important place in political theorizing, ‘+ Neo-behaviouralists admit that Political Scientists have to play the role of intellectuals and perform mujor tasks in society. Ace to them, Political Scientists are social scientists facing reality. It intellectuals understood social problems and felt themselves involved in them, they couldn't keep themselves away from action, Therefore they ask for action in plice of contemplations & plead that a sense of commitment and action must permeate end colour entire research in political Theory. ice.——@weoogo according to the Neo Behaviouralists Political Theorists must be aware of the role of politics, ‘meeting emergency needs or act as a sc for crisis management + Finally, Easton says that ‘To know is to bear the responsibility f and to act is: a reshaping society.” It is a realization that intellectuals have positive role to play in society and this was to try Wd determine proper goals for society and make society move in the direction of these goals, Conclusions drawn from all professions must have a very important role to play. Politicization of professions is a very important gonsequence. 4 matter of fact, the behaviouralists’ image of science has so far been associated with a technical Proficiency in research for reliable knowledge, and the pursuit of basic understanding with its necessary divorce from practical concems, and the exclusion of value sophistication as some thing beyond the competence of science, Whereas, post - behaviouralists do not deny the importance of technical proficiency, According to them, is 1 social problems-and is to be purposive. Itis the duty of political scientists to find out solutions to contemporary problems Post-behaviouralisin should not be confused with traditionalism, though both are highly critical of bchaviouralism the difference between the two approaches lies in fact that whereas behaviouralism denied the validity of traditionalism, Neo Behaviousalists reiterate faith in classical tradition of Political Theory but also accept some achievements of behaviouralism and in doing so they seek to push political inquiry further towards new horizons. According to David Easton Post Behaviouralism was. futurc-oriented, seeking to Propel Political science in new directions and add rather than. deny its past heritaye. /¢ was a genuine revolution, nol a reaction: a becoming, not preservation; a reform, not a counter-reformation. M-was both a ‘movement and an intellectual tendency, Therefore one may conclude that post-behaviouralism acts as a ‘bridge between the traditional school and the behavioral school:- a / __ BQ. Teh GA Le FHE DRY Theory : Systematic knowledge Political Theory Systematic Knowledge of political Phenomena Le concerned with 2 types of Statements cy Empirical ca) Logical cs Evaluative, SCIENCE & ¢ 2 POLITICAL = Empirical °F Cincapable science) | cpicot P on Logicat Statements. capable Of verititaton) “Evaluative = Political Science) + Political Philosophy ane 2 branches rOKeN together per on (Political Science form the given functions— resies on errpirical Methoels) we? pescriph concerned ce CHES metruchon with value = fucgement ) [peste philosophy 1s (ay RED 5 posrTiVISM Clogicat Positivism) Pootivism , NCO powical theony to the con tine np nsvocases of ec HANIQUR ALES wish to a og. petite sence nee the advent of POS! BEHAVIOUR ALISM C164) a Hower ewe e pewivat Of politicat philosophy in AOS ~B0s, ana conteduel Sneed emphasis on values lo the there nat heen © wee ‘ political sekance Neer Value -gudgerment wabro of eueerial guide ty Social poe sents a4CLINE OF POLIT THEORY A505 - David Eacton Cu ICAL ED ¢ e ) ban \A50s, exponents o oa . o rth a ¢ ero political scence bagar question the continued relevore of the ‘traditional politicas treory — traditional Pol theany Wet bated OF mere acientitae foundations eb the = DANI: EASTON speautation. In order to lay study ob politics, it was necersary to rescue it from the study eb dattica and the nistoy ob poltticol ideas. tradinenat Pol Theony product ot tw Mott Of Past ages. ko him, poicat scientists have failed +o acquire 2 Aced esearch tool 40 produce suitable human behaviowy- aystemakic shidy ots socolagizts and psychologists ployed omnists, g but potticat pwr 7 eon) ~ an active Tle a in decision -rmatern, eto were ignored ecient bMENT ON THE DECLINE oF POL: THEORY — EASTON'S ARO Uke SABINE have been dealing with idem ~ Theorists ideas , ignoring contemporary issues. giems — abandonment of values to make morct ROAM he led to its dedine. ” saentific Nos na eciente ond Untong- Tere wat an ae methods to elevore political ecient Fic te the level of science, This, methods were giver quer purpose: suence praca (en pee factual — Obsession with facts & in formation apeoretical mal- nutrition: had ted to a situario® or ssn ms presidential addtst 10 the Rmerican Poliicat Easton leanched nis Science Psociahon C'969) , ‘posT= BEHAVIOURAL REVOLUTION :“Diff blw Po 4 $ blw Pol theory / Pol Science /Pol Philosophy ~ +main features Of MPT ve. Empirical PT . y Political Theory + Normatve » Main Features of Classical PT olities & the Stale hing related fo Pt State * Politicat’— angH cat —1 Polihcs — Polis = Poli ITheong! > a welt anything about politic or _» broad sense — relevant to Politics Pol. Theory SABINE narrow se ipli E anke — alizciplined investigation of pol: probleme. + Pol theory = generalisations, inferences OF conclusions to eveanen be arawn from data gathered. greeks (pol: philosophy) to _ pot much distinction not means. _, storied from ancient pre- Ww2 (pole theory) concerned cwoith'! ends! +» State centric _ CHARACTE RISTICE CHARA base for achon @ establish rationat Ceg- ereck pols) political = public ia unit ap analgecs > political ohole (a) bevelLoped gavificalon 6 pol. forme 0% govt: (monarchy, aratoracy ; democracy > eroped woncep' law, aH 2enshiP» () bated OP ethics splako - idea Stake wpristote — best possible () idenh fied Ue) len be Uke justice ete state ie speculakon pavid Easton Arguements —» pestoriccsey — morar relativis™ = Confusion b/w ecience & theorg _ cpt based or mere meaning cuttock taken at something.= Post WW2 : . -ahemptied to build a ‘science og politics CHARACTERISTICS | W facts @ dato constitute base- W Fook & Values are separated ts focus on ‘What ‘it is’ than ‘whak ought to be! Robert Pahl~ Behaviouratiam {A protect moverment within Pol écience.” 2 Ver\ Gications Vs Regutacifies theory should > Techniques unifocmittes to be testable Proper 4echniques pol behaniour will Take pol Science Scienttic reintegration Behavioural)” a quanti Geation amegration ob Wwe can use pol: etience with auanKtakive methods ovher Sociol cclences 5 Values Lval - Sys temaki sation AeA Es Sec theory building & theory implementation + Pure Science wie a only scenk fic methods BEHAMIOURALISM > RVT QVS PT, Opt as History —3@ PT as Philosophy 4@PTAs science | igniticance of Pol Theory 1 Study of values, norms & goals | a study of theori& a produce? a coherent Sysiem of pol awa sodot reatity” 5 designases agencies of acHon, reform, revolution & COnservoanon peind ples aims ak comprehending the world @ identity Satient character © Polity.