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Neculai S. Teleman

From Differential
Geometry to
Non-commutative
Geometry and
Topology
From Differential Geometry to Non-commutative
Geometry and Topology
Neculai S. Teleman

From Differential Geometry

to Non-commutative
Geometry and Topology
Neculai S. Teleman
Dipartimento di Scienze Matematiche
Università Politecnica delle Marche
Ancona, Italy

ISBN 978-3-030-28432-9 ISBN 978-3-030-28433-6 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28433-6

Mathematics Subject Classification (2010): 53-XX

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This book is a tribute to the memory of
Professor Enzo Martinelli,
with deep esteem and gratitude.
Neculai S. Teleman
Foreword

Neculai S. Teleman takes the reader on a fascinating expedition exploring the

lands between the smooth and the continuous domains. For a very long time a
continuous function was assumed to be differentiable perhaps with the exception
of a finite or numerable but discrete set of points. The Weierstrass example (1872)
of a continuous but nowhere differentiable function came as a great shock to
mathematicians of the nineteenth century. A similar attitude was prevalent in the
middle of the previous century when a topological manifold was considered to
carry the unique smooth structure inducing the initial topology of the manifold.
Then in 1956 John Milnor showed that on the 7-sphere there are several different
smooth exotic structures. But in 1963 Michael F. Atiyah and Isadore M. Singer
announced their index theorem which asserted that the index of the Laplace operator
(associated with the smooth Riemannian metric) is equal to the topological index
of the smooth manifold. Therefore, the index obtained from the data provided by
the smooth structure is the same as the one provided by the data derived from
the underlying topological structure. These two important and highly non-trivial
results turned attention of many a fine mathematician of the 1960s to the regions
where the smooth meets the continuous. A few years later (1965) S. P. Novikow
published his famous result that the rational Pontrjagin classes of a smooth manifold
are topological invariants. By the end of the decade, it was known that rational
Pontrjagin classes can be defined for any topological manifold (R. Kirby and L.C.
Siebelmann, 1969).
In 1971, I.M. Singer in Future extensions of index theory and elliptic operators
wrote
I was asked to speak on “possible future developments, give conjectures, and speculate
about future advances.” . . . . probably at this very moment a graduate student is busily at
work on a theorem that might change present trends drastically. However, in a limited way,
I will try and fulfill the charge – at least within the context of index theory for elliptic
operators. My main theme is this: by and large this theory assigns an integer to an elliptic
operator on a compact smooth manifold; I expect extensions of the present theory to new
situations; i.e., non-smooth manifolds, non-manifolds of special type, and to a context
where it is natural that integer be replaced by a real number.

vii
viii Foreword

A few years later Neculai S. Teleman arrived at MIT and in 1977 defended his
Ph.D. thesis in which he extended the index theorem to combinatorial manifolds.
Ever since he dedicated all his efforts to developing new tools and results which
permit to extend the validity of the index theorem such as combinatorial Hodge
theory on PL manifolds, (TAMS, 1979, Inv. Math., 1980), “elliptic machinery” and
signature operators on Lipschitz manifolds (Publ. IHES, 1983). The following year
he published a version of the index theorem for general topological manifolds using
new tools, i.e. Kasparov’s realisation of the analytic K-homology group K0 (M)
and Fredholm operators on non-compact manifolds. His quest to generalise various
“smooth” constructions led him to use the existence of the quasiconformal structure
on any topological manifold which finally turned his attention to the techniques and
ideas of non-commutative geometry (1991).
The reader of the book is asked to embark together with the author on this
fascinating journey which leads to the boundaries of our topological knowledge.
Neculai S. Teleman introduces the reader step by step to the basic and then advanced
tools of this fascinating theory: classical differential geometry, e.g. Riemannian
metrics, Laplacian, Hodge theory and the smooth version of the index theorem. Then
to go beyond that the basic elements of non-commutative geometry are presented
as a method of delocalisation of our mathematical perception and natural extension
of the classical geometrical tools. Having covered the known regions of geometry
and topology of manifolds, the knowledgeable and experienced guide shows new
fascinating vistas of non-commutative topology.
It is a very important volume which gathers and presents in an orderly manner
the story of the index theorem. The tools and the results are scattered in numerous
publications. But having them in one place is not the only advantage of this book. We
get much more since the narrative is both objective and passionate at the same time
as the narrator is one of the principal protagonists in this fascinating mathematical
epic.

Kraków, Poland Robert Wolak

April 2019
Preface

This book combines some of the author’s research contributions in index theory
with elements of non-commutative geometry. The book ends with non-commutative
topology.
This work shows that the index formula is a topological statement; on the other
hand, this book gives a re-formulation of the index formula. The re-formulation
should have important consequences.
From the non-commutative geometry side, this book explains how differ-
ent results in index theory, obtained by classical geometry methods (Riemann–
Roch, Hirzebruch [32], Atiyah and Singer [53], Teleman [83, 84]) and by non-
commutative geometry (Connes [82], Connes and Moscovici [96], Connes et
al. [101]), are connected. This has to do with the possibility, offered by different
theories, to exhibit/describe the topological index of elliptic operators. The passage
from classical differential geometry to non-commutative geometry, exemplified by
the index formula done in this book, describes also the way how the author became
interested in, and approached, non-commutative geometry. For this reason, this book
does not intend to give a complete review of all its results or to give a complete list
of its contributors. This book offers the reader a natural path starting with basic
problems of differential geometry and leading to non-commutative geometry and
topology. However, although this book does not intend to present the very significant
developments of non-commutative geometry in all directions, it accompanies the
reader towards present research problems in index theory.
This book has multiple goals:
1. The author did his Ph.D. with Prof. I. M. Singer (1977) working on extending the
index theorem to combinatorial manifolds—a problem that was formulated by I.
M. Singer in his programme article “Prospects of Mathematics” Symposium,
March 16–18, Princeton [58]. One goal of this book is to fill the existing gap
in the mathematical literature in reporting the developments which occurred in
index theory after I. M. Singer presented his 1970-research programme. This
report is certainly not complete.

ix
x Preface

2. It aims to provide a friendly introduction to non-commutative geometry. It studies

index theory from a classical differential geometry perspective up to the point
where classical differential geometry methods become insufficient.
3. Another goal is to present non-commutative geometry as a natural continuation
of classical differential geometry. This is based on the following concepts:
• Non-commutative geometry is abstract index theory.
• Non-commutative geometry is a de-localised theory. In many cases the de-
localisation occurs by replacing C∞ -homomorphisms by operators on L2 .
This change replaces exact relations by L2 -local averages.
• Non-commutative geometry is a multi-distribution theory. The multi-
distribution theory occurs by means of two processes: (1) polarisation of
algebraically higher order expressions; (2) each factor of the polarisation
becomes a mono-distribution theory.
• Hochschild homology—and its variants—replaces the de Rham homology.
4. Beginning with Riemann and up to the present times, index theory has passed
through most chapters of mathematics: algebraic geometry, analytic geometry,
differential geometry, combinatorial geometry, Lipschitz and quasi-conformal
geometry as well as Lp -structures geometry. Another goal of this work is to
show that while the objects of non-commutative geometry of a (classical) space
X live in all powers Xp of X, classical differential geometry objects associated
with X live on the main diagonals of those powers. The possibility of describing
an object classically depends on whether the non-commutative object has a
classical limit, i.e. whether its restriction along the main diagonals are defined;
this depends on whether certain products of distributions can be performed.
The book has the following main mathematical objectives:
(i) it intends to provide a natural link between classical differential geometry and
non-commutative geometry.
(ii) it presents the basic algebraic structure and results which stay at the founda-
tions of non-commutative differential geometry.
(iii) it summarises the basic analytical structures on topological manifolds.
(iv) it shows that the index theorem is a topological statement.
(v) it summarises the results in index theory obtained with non-commutative
geometry methods—local index theorems.
(vi) it proposes prospects in index theory.
(vii) it proposes non-commutative topology.
This book presents the mathematical facts in their chronological order most of
the time. Both the de Rham isomorphism theorem and the Hodge decomposition
theorem show that real cohomology may be extracted analytically from differen-
tiable structures on topological manifolds. These results constitute two of the basic
links between differentiable structures and topological structures. Given, however,
that not all topological manifolds possess differentiable structures, and that the
same topological structure might be compatible with non-equivalent differentiable
Preface xi

structures, there is a fundamental question to ask whether these relations could

be derived purely in topological terms, on all topological manifolds. S. Novikov
proved the fundamental result [41] stating that the rational Pontrjagin classes
of smooth manifolds are topological invariants. Kirby-Siebenmann results [56]
complete Novikov’s theorem by stating that all topological manifolds possess
rational Pontrjagin classes. Going along the same line of ideas, the following
fundamental question arose: whether the Hodge decomposition theorem and index
formula could be stated an all topological manifolds (see e.g., [58]).
This fundamental question was answered using Sullivan’s fundamental result
[75], which states that any topological manifold of dimension = 4 possesess
a Lipschitz or quasi-conformal structure, unique up to Lipschitz/quasi-conformal
isotopy. The first results on Hodge theory on combinatorial manifolds are due
to Teleman [72, 76–78] and to Cheeger [79] on pseudo-manifolds. These results
are successively extended using Sullivan’s result on Lipschitz manifolds [83, 84].
Successive work due to Donaldson and Sullivan [92], Connes et al. [101] extends the
index formula on quasi-conformal manifolds. This book summarises these results.
The first problem the author of this book undertook in his Ph.D. thesis was
extending the Hodge decomposition theorem from smooth manifolds to pseudo-
manifolds, see Teleman [72] and Singer [58]. At that time (1976) this subject was
totally unexplored. In fact, I.M. Singer’s programme [58], published in 1971, poses
the following two questions too:
A “If M is a P L manifold, the L-polynomials are still well defined (Thom [25]),
and one can define from them the rational Pontrjagin classes. The Hirzebruch
signature theorem still holds. Is there an associated elliptic operator (as in the
smooth case) whose index is the signature? On what spaces does it operate? Does
it have a symbol and where does the symbol lie?”
B “. . . Are present analytic techniques strong enough to prove the Hodge theorem
for smooth manifolds by approximations via combinatorial Laplacians associated
with smooth triangulations? If so, this might shed some light on the P L-
problem.”
Looking retrospectively, it is important to remark that extending the Hodge
isomorphism theorem and the index formula to spaces which are not differentiable
manifolds was a daring task; the proof of the Hodge isomorphism theorem (see de
Rham [86]) and the proof of the Atiyah–Singer index formula (see Palais seminar
[42] and Atiyah and Singer [53]) heavily used the differentiable structure.
Combinatorial manifolds are the closest relatives of smooth manifolds. For this
reason, the first problem addressed in trying to extend the index formula to more
general contexts was to investigate whether Hodge theory could be extended from
smooth manifolds to combinatorial manifolds.
Given that the Laplace operator is defined in terms of a chosen Riemannian
metric on the manifold, it was crucial to understand in which respect the special
characteristics of the Riemannian metric should be satisfied if a Hodge type result
is desired. The de Rham [86] proof of the Hodge decomposition theorem showed
that if one wishes to extend the Hodge theory to combinatorial manifolds in such a
xii Preface

way that the main identities of the smooth Hodge theory be preserved, see formula
(1.198), the combinatorial Riemannian metric should satisfy the property that the
local measure around each point x of the manifold (the total local solid measure of
the simplices containing the point x) should be equal to the value of the solid angle
about any point in the Euclidean space of the same dimension.
The following theorem answers this question.
Theorem 1 (Teleman [72, 76]) Let M be a combinatorial manifold of dimension
n. Let g be a combinatorial Riemannian metric on M with the property that for any
point x ∈ M, the total local solid measure of the simplices containing the point
x equals the value of the solid angle about any point in the Euclidean space of
dimension n.
Then the metric defines a smooth differentiable structure on M.
The following fundamental result was known.
Theorem 2 (Milnor [66]) There are obstructions to the existence of smoothings of
combinatorial manifolds, the Milnor [66] obstructions.
These two results lead to the conclusion.
Corollary 1
(i) If one wishes to extend the Hodge theory to general structures, it is necessary
to ignore special requirements on the Riemannian metric.
(ii) Riemannian metrics provide generalised smoothings.
The Laplace operator on smooth manifolds is defined exclusively in terms of a
Riemannian metric on the manifold. On the other hand, the de Rham parametrix for
the Laplacian [86] is expressed purely in terms of the geodesic distance function.
Given that the signature operator plays a basic role in different proofs of the
Atiyah–Singer index theorem (in differential geometry and in the Connes–Sullivan–
Teleman and Hilsum index theorem) in non-commutative geometry it is important
to understand the structure of the signature operator. In the smooth category the
signature operator can be described completely in terms of the distance geodesic
function; this is shown in Sect. 1.12.
This book is organised as follows.
Chapter 1 presents those tools of differential geometry which pass directly into
non-commutative geometry. This is necessary to bring the reader from classical
differential geometry topics to non-commutative geometry by providing a natural
link between the two. This chapter ends with the geometry of the signature operator.
Chapter 2 introduces the first elements of non-commutative geometry. This
chapter reconsiders the tools of differential geometry and finds the minimal
structure necessary to make them work in non-commutative geometry. At this
point we are at the boundary between differential geometry and non-commutative
geometry. It shows that the minimal structure leads naturally to a new definition
of differential forms, homology/cohomology and Chern–Weil theory. This is the
way in which Hochschild homology and cyclic homology appear naturally. The
Preface xiii

basic non-commutative geometry topics are presented here: universal algebra, non-
commutative Chern–Weil theory, and Connes’ long exact sequence.
Chapter 3 establishes the first relations of non-commutative differential
geometry. It presents the basic results concerning Hochschild and cyclic
homology/cohomology. It begins with the computation of the Hochschild homology
of the algebra of smooth functions. The result has to be thought of as the link
between differential geometry and non-commutative geometry. Its proof shows how
combinatorics, topology and geometry interact towards the final result. Hochschild,
cyclic and periodic cyclic homology are introduced and their principal properties
are presented. The results due to Connes and Karoubi on the extension of Chern
character to idempotents, extensions of associative algebras, K-theory and K-
homology are presented. In the same section it is shown that the Chern character
may be extracted from direct connections. Chapter 3 also presents the periodic
cyclic homology bi-complex and homology.
Chapter 4 makes a rapid panorama of the analytic structures on topological
manifolds. These analytical structures classify the various fields of geometry and
are significant in index theory: algebraic geometry, analytic geometry, differential
geometry, combinatorial geometry, Lipschitz, quasi-conformal and Lp geometry.
Research interconnecting these fields, however, is not the norm. Global analysis on
combinatorial, Lipschitz, quasi-conformal and Lp manifolds represent a small part
of research. The majority of research is done in the most regular cases. Differential
geometry benefits from the theory of partial differential equations. In spite of this
reality, understanding the roots of fundamental problems in mathematics is of
maximum importance. Index theory is one of them. It began with the Riemann–
Roch theorem on compact Riemann surfaces. It was later extended by Hirzebruch
on analytic manifolds and then by Atiyah and Singer on differentiable manifolds.
Teleman proved that the index of abstract elliptic operators is a topological
invariant. Presenting the hierarchy of analytic structures on topological manifolds
helps the reader to place correctly the various index theorems. Hence, even though
this chapter is short, we have decided to keep it as a separate chapter to provide a
conceptual framework for the reader.
Chapter 5 presents the index theorems which were obtained with classical
differential geometry methods: the Riemann–Roch index theorem, the Thom index
theorem, Hirzebruch index theorem, Atiyah–Singer index theorem and Teleman
index theorem.
Chapter 6 discusses index theorems which were obtained via non-commutative
geometry methods (local index theorem and applications) due to Connes–
Moscovici, Donaldson–Sullivan, Connes–Sullivan–Teleman and Hilsum.
Chapters 7–9 are devoted to prospects in index theory. In this part a new
formulation of index theory is proposed using the newly introduced local structures
and a few conjectures are formulated. More specifically, index theory is defined on
an arbitrary pair (A , J ) where J is an ideal of the localised ring A . A new
definition of the topological and analytic indices is proposed. The new formulation
is based on the T∗loc (A )-groups which replace the classical algebraic K∗ -theory
groups.
xiv Preface

Chapter 10 introduces non-commutative topology. In this part we define non-

commutative spaces, the homology of the new field and the Chern character of
idempotents. This chapter is short because it is entirely new research that has not
been published before. Nonetheless, we feel this work will provide a useful starting
point for future research.
One of the main themes of this book is locality. The analytic structures (algebraic,
analytical and differentiable) are sufficiently rich to allow writing down a formula
for the topological index theorems. This is not the case of more general structures
(combinatorial, Lipschitz or quasi-conformal structures). The possibility to have a
local formula for the topological index depends on whether the non-commutative
topological index has a classical limit.
The book introduces or recalls the following recent or new structures introduced
by the author: micro-localisation of Hochschild homology [107, 121], direct con-
nection [116, 117], local periodic cyclic homology [125], local index formula [130],
localised algebras [125, 129], T-completion comp. [129], topological periodic
cyclic homology [122], (b̃, d) bi-complex [122], Alexander–Spanier co-homology
of localised rings, topological and analytic index, reformulation of index theory,
local periodic cyclic characteristic classes and non-commutative topology.
The contents of this book are self-contained. That said, in order to keep the size of
this book reasonable, a few chapters are compact. In these cases, readers are invited
to deepen their understanding further by reading the cited references. We hope this
book will serve as a useful resource to introduce these concepts in non-commutative
geometry to a broad audience of readers in the fields of mathematics and physics.

Ancona, Italy Neculai S. Teleman

April 2019
Contents

Part I Spaces, Bundles and Characteristic Classes in Differential

Geometry
1 Spaces, Bundles and Characteristic Classes in Differential
Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Differential Forms .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 de Rham Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Alexander–Spanier Cohomology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Alexander–Spanier Homology.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.5 Vector Bundles and Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Characteristic Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.1 Chern Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.2 Pontrjagin Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.6.3 Chern Character . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.6.4 Chern–Weil Theory .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.6.5 Geometric Construction of the Chern Character . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.6.6 Levi-Civita and Linear Connections of Idempotents . . . . . 18
1.6.7 Levi-Civita Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.6.8 Infinitesimal Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.6.9 Characteristic Classes of Lie Algebra Extensions . . . . . . . . 26
1.7 Direct Connections .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.8 K ∗ -Theory of Banach Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.8.1 K ∗ (C 0 (X)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
1.8.2 K ∗ -Theory of Banach Algebras . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.9 Metric Defined Operators .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.9.1 Laplace Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.9.2 Smooth Hodge Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.10 Analytic Preliminaries on Operators . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.10.1 Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.10.2 Fredholm Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.10.3 Analytical Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

xv
xvi Contents

1.10.4 Dirac Operators .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

1.10.5 Signature Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.11 Statement of the Atiyah–Singer Index Theorem .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.12 K-Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.12.1 Clifford Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.12.2 Kasparov K-Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.12.3 Even and Odd Spectral Triples . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
1.12.4 Schatten Class Operators .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
1.12.5 n-Summable Fredholm Modules.. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.13 Geometry of the Signature Operator on Differentiable
Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.13.1 1-Parameter Family of Hodge Decomposition
Operators .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.13.2 The Cut-Off Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79

Part II Non-commutative Differential Geometry

2 Spaces, Bundles, Homology/Cohomology and Characteristic
Classes in Non-commutative Geometry .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.1 Basic Algebra A in Non-commutative Geometry .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
2.2 Bundles in Non-commutative Geometry .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.3 Non-commutative Chern–Weil Theory .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.3.1 Preparatory Material: Graded Differential Algebra B̃ . . . . 87
2.3.2 Associative Algebra Extensions and Their Geometry . . . . 89
2.3.3 Connes Chern Character of Algebra Extensions . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.3.4 Karoubi Chern Character of Idempotents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
2.3.5 Connes Chern Character of Spectral Triples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.3.6 Pairing n-Summable Fredholm Modules
with K-Theory .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
2.3.7 Pairing of K-Homology with K-Theory—Explicit .. . . . . . 113
2.4 Non-commutative Homology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
2.4.1 The Bar Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
2.4.2 Preliminaries: The Basic Structure . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.4.3 Relations Between N, 1 − T , b and b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.4.4 Hochschild and Cyclic Homology .. . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
2.4.5 Connes’ Exact Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.4.6 Chern–Weil Characteristic Classes of Direct
Connections .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
2.4.7 Non-localised Alexander–Spanier Complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.4.8 Augmentation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
2.4.9 The Operator σ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
2.4.10 Universal Graded Differential Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
2.4.11 Non-commutative de Rham Homology and Cyclic
Homology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Contents xvii

2.4.12 Reduced Cyclic Homology.. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141

2.4.13 de Rham Homology vs. Reduced Cyclic Homology.. . . . . 149
2.5 Relation Between B and d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.6 Non-commutative Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.6.1 Hochschild H H∗ (A ) and Cyclic Hλ∗ (A )
Cohomologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.6.2 Quillen Non-commutative Cohomology, H ∗ (A , V ) . . . . . 154
2.6.3 Non-commutative de Rham Cohomology
with Values in an Algebra, HdR ∗ (A , V ) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
2.6.4 Cyclic Co-cycles vs. Closed Graded Trace .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.6.5 Chern Character with Values in Hλev (MN (A ), A ) . . . . . . 162
2.6.6 Chern Character of Idempotents with Value
in Non-commutative de Rham Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
2.7 Connes Chern Character in K-Homology . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
2.8 Connes Karoubi Chern Character in K-Theory.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
2.9 Pairing K-Theory with Alexander–Spanier Cohomology;
Towards Local Index Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3 Hochschild, Cyclic and Periodic Cyclic Homology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.1 Hochschild Homology of the Algebra of Smooth Functions,
H H∗ (C ∞ (M, R)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.1.1 Preliminaries on the Algebra of Smooth Functions .. . . . . . 170
3.1.2 Localisation of Germs Along the Diagonal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.1.3 Micro-Localisation of Hochschild Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3.1.4 Hochschild Homology of J∗∞ . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.2 Computation of H H∗ (C ∞ (M)) Using One Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.2.1 The Homology of C̃∗ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.3 Division and Hochschild Homology . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.4 Combinatorics Behind Homology Theories . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.4.1 Notation .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
3.4.2 Total Difference Operators .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.5 The Karoubi-Type Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.6 Homological Consequences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
3.7 Pointwise Alexander–Spanier and Hochschild Homology .. . . . . . . . 197
3.8 Derivations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.9 Anti-Symmetrisation Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3.10 Chevalley–Eilenberg Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.11 Morita Equivalence.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.12 Connes–Chern Character of Idempotents . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.13 S (Chq e) = Chq−2 e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.14 Changing the Ground Ring K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
3.15 Separable Algebras .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
3.16 Excision .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
3.16.1 Shuffle Product . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
3.16.2 H Hn (A ⊗ B) = p+q=n H Hp (A ) ⊗ H Hq (B) . . . . . 211
xviii Contents

3.17 Tensor Product of Complexes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211


3.18 The Cyclic Bi-complex {b, b } and Cyclic Homology .. . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.19 Computation of H∗λ (C ∞ (M)) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
3.20 H∗λ (A ) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3.21 Periodic Cyclic Homology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Hev/odd (C ∞ (M)) = HdR
λ,per ev/odd
3.22 (M) . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
3.23 Proof of Theorem 3.27 Explicit.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
3.24 Periodic Cyclic Connes–Chern Character of Idempotents . . . . . . . . . 227
3.25 Direct Connections and Chern Character of Idempotents .. . . . . . . . . 228
per,λ
3.26 Connes–Chern Character Ch : K i (A ) −→ Hi (A ) . . . . . . . . . . . 230
per,λ
3.26.1 Chern Character Ch : K 0 (A ) −→ Hev (A ).. . . . . . . . . . 230
per,λ
3.26.2 Chern Character Ch : K 1 (A ) −→ Hodd (A ).. . . . . . . . . . 230

Part III Index Theorems

4 Analytic Structures on Topological Manifolds . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.1 Topological Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.2 Quasi-Conformal and Lipschitz Manifold Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.3 Combinatorial and P L Manifold Structures . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.4 Differentiable Manifolds .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.5 Analytic Manifolds .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
5 Index Theorems in Differential Geometry .. . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.1 Riemann–Roch Index Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
5.2 Thom Index Formula .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5.3 Thom–Hirzebruch Signature and Index Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
5.4 Hirzebruch Index Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
5.5 Grothendieck Index Theorem .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
5.6 Atiyah–Singer Index Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5.7 The Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.8 Idea of the Proof .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.9 The Atiyah–Singer Index Formula Holds on Twisted
Signature Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
5.9.1 Cobordism Invariance of the Analytical Index .. . . . . . . . . . . 254
5.9.2 Hodge Theory and the Analytic Index of Twisted
Signature Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.9.3 Excision for Twisted Signature Operators .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.9.4 Cobordism Invariance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.9.5 The Analytic and Topological Indexes of Twisted
Signature Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.9.6 Excisive Triples .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Contents xix

5.10 Teleman Index Formula: The Index Formula Is a

Topological Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5.11 Teleman Index Formula on Lipschitz Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5.11.1 Riemannian Structures: L2 -Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
p
5.11.2 Strong and Weak Convergence: The Space W1 .. . . . . . . . . . 269
5.11.3 Rellich Lemma on Lipschitz Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
5.11.4 Lipschitz Hodge Theory: The Signature Operator . . . . . . . . 270
5.11.5 The Index of Twisted Signature Operators Is a
Lipschitz Invariant .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
5.11.6 The Analytic Index of Dξ+ Is a Lipschitz Invariant . . . . . . . 271
5.11.7 The Index Formula Is a Topological Statement . . . . . . . . . . . 272
5.11.8 Teleman Index Formula on Topological Manifolds .. . . . . . 273
6 Index Theorems in Non-commutative Geometry . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.1 Connes Moscovici Local Index Theorem . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
6.2 Donaldson, Sullivan Index Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.3 Connes, Sullivan, Teleman Index Formula .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.3.1 Hilsum Index Formula.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
6.4 Index Theorem on Combinatorial Manifolds . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.4.1 Review of Orthogonal Invariants . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282

Part IV Prospects in Index Theory

7 Algebraic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
7.1 Algebraic K∗ -Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
7.2 Local Algebraic Structures.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
7.2.1 K∗ -Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
7.2.2 Localised Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
7.2.3 Local Alexander–Spanier Cohomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
7.2.4 Local Periodic Cyclic Homology: Long Exact
Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
loc,per,λ
7.2.5 Local Chern Character Tiloc −→ Hi .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
7.2.6 Local Index Theorem .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
7.3 Local Algebraic Ti : Theory .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
7.3.1 Introductory Considerations.. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
7.3.2 Algebraic Ti and Tiloc -Theory . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7.3.3 Localised Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
7.3.4 Local Mayer–Vietoris Diagrams . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
7.3.5 Preparing the Definition of T0loc (A ) and T1loc (A ) . . . . . . . 300
7.3.6 Definition of T0 (Aμ ) and T0loc (A ) . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.3.7 T1 (Aμ ) and T1loc (A ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
7.3.8 T -Completion .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
7.3.9 Definition of T1 (Aμ ) and T1loc (A ) . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
7.3.10 Induced Homomorphisms .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
xx Contents

7.3.11 Constructing Idempotents and Invertible Matrices

Over Λμ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
7.3.12 K1 (A ) vs. T1 (A ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
7.3.13 Connecting Homomorphism

∂ : T1loc (Λ ) −→ T0loc (Λ) ⊗ Z[ 12 ] . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
7.3.14 Six Terms Exact Sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
7.3.15 Relative T -Groups: Ti (Aμ , J ) . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
7.3.16 Connecting Homomorphism: Second Form .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
8 Topological Index and Analytical Index: Reformulation of
Index Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
8.1 Level I: Index Theory at the T∗loc -Theory Level .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
8.2 Level II: Index Theory in Local Periodic Cyclic Homology . . . . . . . 330
8.3 Level III: Index Theory Restricted at the Diagonal .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
8.4 Topological Expectations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
8.5 Tiloc (C), i = 0, 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
8.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
8.5.2 Notation: Preliminaries .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
8.5.3 The Main Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
9 Local Hochschild Homology of the Algebra of Hilbert–Schmidt
Operators on Simplicial Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
9.1 The Main Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
9.2 Preliminaries and Notation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
9.2.1 The Space: Hilbert–Schmidt Kernels and Operators.. . . . . 343
9.3 Hochschild and Local Hochschild Homology
of Hilbert–Schmidt Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
9.4 Algebraic Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
9.4.1 Homotopy Operator s: The Splitting . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
9.4.2 Homotopy Operator S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
9.4.3 Homological Consequences .. . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
9.5 Analytic Considerations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
9.5.1 Continuous Hochschild Chains Over the Algebra
of Hilbert–Schmidt Operators.. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
9.5.2 Continuity of the Hochschild Boundary .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
9.5.3 Continuity of the Homotopy Operators s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
9.5.4 Continuity of the Homotopy Operators S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
9.6 Topological Considerations .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
9.6.1 Alexander–Spanier Cohomology . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
9.6.2 Alexander–Spanier Homology .. . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
9.6.3 Isomorphism Between { C∗I,loc , b }∗
and {C(∗)
AS (X, G), ∂ AS } , G = R, or C . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
∗
9.7 Control of the Supports of Hochschild Chains. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Contents xxi

9.8 Local Hochschild Homology of the Algebra

of Hilbert–Schmidt Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
9.8.1 Preliminaries .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
9.8.2 Distance Control of Supports vs. Simplicial
Control: The Result . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373

Part V Non-commutative Topology

10 Non-commutative Topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
10.1 The Idempotent Π . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
10.2 Topological Hochschild Homology . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
10.2.1 Local Topological Periodic Cyclic Homology of
the Algebra of Smooth Functions .. . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
10.3 Local Topological Periodic Cyclic Homology of the
Algebra of Arbitrary Functions on a Smooth Manifold . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
10.4 Characteristic Classes of Idempotents in Non-commutative
Topology .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
10.5 Rational Pontrjagin Classes of Topological Manifolds .. . . . . . . . . . . . 386
10.5.1 Existence of Direct Connections on Topological
Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
10.5.2 The Rational Pontrjagin Chain . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
10.5.3 The Rational Pontrjagin Class . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

References .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
 Part I
Spaces, Bundles and Characteristic Classes
in Differential Geometry
Chapter 1
Spaces, Bundles and Characteristic
Classes in Differential Geometry

Abstract Part II prepares the reader to see how some of the basic notions of differ-
ential geometry pass into non-commutative geometry. The basic notions presented
in the first chapter are reconsidered in the second chapter from a non-commutative
geometry view point. Differential geometry begins with the algebra A = C ∞ (M)
of smooth functions and builds up by adding multiple structures; classical index
theory uses most of these structures. Non-commutative geometry is abstract index
theory; its axioms comprise many of these structures. While differential geometry
is built by summing up different structures, non-commutative geometry reverses
this process. In differential geometry the commutativity and locality assumptions
are built in by means of the construction of differential forms. There are two
basic differences which summarise the passage from differential geometry to non-
commutative geometry: in differential geometry (1) the basic algebra A = C ∞
is commutative, has true derivations (differential fields), and has a topology—the
Fréchet topology; in non-commutative geometry, the basic algebra A is not required
to be commutative nor to have a topology, nor to have derivations, (2) in differential
geometry, the basic algebra A is used to produce local objects; in non-commutative
geometry the locality assumption is removed. Non-commutative geometry finds
and uses the minimal structure which stays at the foundation of geometry: of
differential forms, product of (some) distributions, bundles, characteristic classes,
cohomology/homology and index theory. The consequences of this discovery are
far reaching.

1.1 Differential Forms

In this section we suppose that M is a paracompact smooth manifold of dimension

n. We denote by C ∞ (M) the unital associative algebra of smooth functions on M.
This is a commutative algebra. We denote by T (M) the tangent bundle to M and by
T ∗ (M) its co-tangent bundle. We denote by Γ (T (M)) the space of smooth sections
of the tangent bundle T (M) and by Ω 1 (M) the space of smooth sections in the co-
tangent bundle T ∗ (M). The following result describes local objects in differential
geometry.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 3

N. S. Teleman, From Differential Geometry to Non-commutative Geometry
and Topology, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28433-6_1
4 1 Spaces, Bundles and Characteristic Classes in Differential Geometry

Proposition 1.1 (Peetre [26]) Let Q be a C ∞ (M)-module and let F : Q −→ Q

be a linear mapping over the algebra of C ∞ (M).
Then F is a differential operator if and only if F decreases supports. We will say
that F is a local operator. In other words, if

F (f . γ ) = f . F (γ ), (1.1)

for any f ∈ C ∞ (M), and any γ ∈ Q, then for any point p ∈ M, one has

(F (γ ))(p) = F (γ (p)) (1.2)

where γ (p) is a jet.

Theorem 1.1
(i) Γ (T (M)) is the space of derivations of the associative algebra C ∞ (T (M)),
i.e. any X ∈ Γ (T (M)) is an R-linear mapping X : C ∞ (M) −→ R which
satisfies the Leibnitz identity

X( f1 . f2 ) = X(f1 ) . f2 + f1 . X(f2 ). (1.3)

(ii) The differential df of the smooth function f is defined by

(( df )( X ))(p) := ( Xf )(p), (1.4)

for any X ∈ Γ (T (M)) and p ∈ M.

(iii) Γ (T (M)) and Ω 1 (M) are C ∞ (M)-modules.
(iv) d 1 = 0.
(v) Taylor’s formula with reminder and Schwartz’ lemma on the commutativity of
second order mixed partial derivatives, applied onto the smooth function f ,
imply

( df )(p) ∈ C ∞ (M)/Ip2 , (1.5)

where Ip ⊂ C ∞ (M) is the ideal consisting of all smooth functions which

vanish at p.
Definition 1.1 A k-differential form ω ∈ Ω k (M) is an k-multilinear C ∞ (M)-
function

ω : ⊗kC ∞ (M) Γ (T (M)) −→ C ∞ (M), (1.6)

which is skew-symmetric

ω(X1 , . . . , Xi , . . . , Xj , . . . ., Xk ) = − ω(X1 , . . . , Xj , . . . , Xi , . . . ., Xk ).
(1.7)
Skew-symmetry is a form of graded commutativity.
1.1 Differential Forms 5

Definition 1.2 For any ω ∈ Ω p (M) and σ ∈ Ω q (M) define the exterior product,
or wedge product ∧

p!q! 
(ω ∧ σ )(X1 , . . . .Xp+q ) := ω(Xσ (1) , . . . ., Xσ (p) ) · τ (Xσ (p+1) , . . . ., Xσ (p+q) ).
(p + q)!
(ω,τ )∈Sp+q
(1.8)

Definition 1.3 The exterior derivative dω ∈ Ω r (M) ∈ Ω r+1(M) is defined by


r=k+1
dω(X1 , . . . , Xi , . . . , Xj , . . . ., Xk+1 ) := (−1)r Xr ω(X1 , . . . , Xˆr , . . . ., Xk+1 )+
r=1

(−1)i+j ω([Xi , Xj ], X1 , . . . , X̂i , . . . ., Xˆj . . . .Xk+1 ).
1≤i<j ≤k+1
(1.9)

The non-commutative geometry does not assume any of the two requirements
(I) the locality and
(II) graded commutativity.
In non-commutative geometry both the space M and the algebra of smooth functions
C ∞ (M) are replaced by an arbitrary associative, unital or non-unital, commutative
or non-commutative, algebra A .
(i) In non-commutative geometry it is not assumed that the algebra A has true
derivations (for example, the algebra of continuous functions does not have
non-trivial derivations),
(ii) Ip , p ∈ M, may not be used for any individual point p,
(iii) the point-wise Taylor formula may not be used,
(iv) the differential forms and their derivatives need a new definition,
(v) the product of differential forms may not follow the classical definition. It is
not postulated that the product of differential forms is graded commutative.
However, in non-commutative geometry the following properties are
preserved
(vi) the collection I of local ideals Ip , p ∈ M, may be recovered from

I := Ker{μ : A ⊗R A −→ A }, (1.10)

where μ denotes the multiplication in A ; this is going to be used into the

construction of non-commutative differential forms,
(vii) the elements of the algebra A constitute a system of generators of the non-
commutative differential forms,
(viii) the non-commutative differentials d produce complexes, i.e. d 2 = 0,
(ix) the graded Leibnitz formula should hold.
6 1 Spaces, Bundles and Characteristic Classes in Differential Geometry

In differential geometry the locality requirement is too restrictive to allow

making products of distributions of any kind; this difficulty persists at all levels
of regularity below the C 1 -regularity level. In non-commutative geometry the
locality requirement is removed; the problem of multiplying distributions has new
possibilities to be accomplished. Although it is not true that the existing non-
commutative geometry succeeds to deal with the problem of multiplying arbitrary
distributions, it is important to state that it is sufficiently powerful to cover the
basic questions raised by the index formula on topological manifolds, if one
takes advantage of the fundamental result due to Sullivan [75], which affirms
that any topological manifold of dimension = 4 admits an unique Lipschitz or
quasi-conformal structure. Sullivan’s theorem together with the non-commutative
geometry techniques produce results below the classical differential geometry of
C 1 -structures level, see e.g. Connes et al. [101].
Given any associative unital algebra A , we anticipate by saying that the idea to
define a complex, whose chains satisfy the conditions (viii) and (ix) only, leads to
the universal complex U ∗ (A ); this will be discussed in Sect. 2.4.10, see [9, 15].
In non-commutative geometry any differential form associated to the algebra A is
the equivalence class of an element of the quotient of a certain sub-algebra of the
universal complex; in the case of topological algebras the projective tensor product
completion will be used, see Sect. 2.4.8.

1.2 de Rham Cohomology

The vector spaces Ω k (M) together with the co-boundary homomorphisms d form
the de Rham complex ΩdR ∗ (M) of the smooth manifold M, Ω 0 (M) := C ∞ (M).

The de Rham complex is an example of elliptic complex, see Atiyah and Bott
[51].
Theorem 1.2 (de Rham [86]) The homology of the de Rham complex is isomor-
phic to the singular cohomology H ∗ (M, R).
Karoubi [89] extended de Rham homology in the non-commutative context;
more details will be given in Sect. 2.4.13.

1.3 Alexander–Spanier Cohomology

Alexander–Spanier cohomology is a non-commutative geometry object.

We assume that the topological space M is metrisable; we choose a metric d
on M and we use this metric to define t-neighbourhoods Utk (0 < t) of the main
1.3 Alexander–Spanier Cohomology 7

diagonal in M k+1

Utk := {(x0 , x1 , .., xk ) | d(x0 , x1 ) + d(x1 , x2 ) + . . . + d(xk−1 , xk ) + d(xk , x0 ) < t },

(1.11)

for xi ∈ M.
The system of neighbourhoods Utk form a projective net U with respect to t: if
t1 < t2 , we consider Utk1 Utk2 given by restriction to the smaller space is placed in
the rth-position. Let G be an arbitrary Abelian group.
Let

t (G) := {f | f : Ut −→ G, with f arbitrary f unction.}

k k
CAS, (1.12)

For any f ∈ CAS,

k
t (G) and 0 ≤ r ≤ k + 1 define δr f ∈ CAS, t (G)
k+1

(δr f )(x0 , x1 , .., xk+1 ) := f (x0 , .., xˆr , . . . , xk+1 ). (1.13)

This function is well defined because, if (x0 , x1 , .., xk+1 ) ∈ Utk+1 , the triangle
inequality implies (x0 , .., xˆr , . . . , xk+1 ) ∈ Utk+1 .
k+1
Define d : CAS,
k
t (G) −→ CAS, t (G)

d f := (−1)r δr f. (1.14)
0≤r≤k+1

The homomorphism d passes to the projective limit and satisfies d 2 = 0. Let

k
CAS (U, G) = ProjLimt CAS,
k
t (G). (1.15)

∗ (M, G) := {C ∗ (U, G), d} is called Alexander–

The cohomology complex CAS AS
Spanier complex.
Theorem 1.3 (Alexander–Spanier, See [45])
For any locally finite simplicial or CW complex M, the homology of the
Alexander–Spanier complex is canonically isomorphic to the singular cohomology
H ∗ (M, G).
Remark 1.1 In the Alexander–Spanier complex any cohomology k-chain on M
is represented by a non-local function defined on M k ; this is a feature of non-
commutative geometry.
Definition 1.4 The Alexander–Spanier co-chain φ has cyclic symmetry provided

φ(x0 , x1 , . . . , xq ) = (−1)q φ(x1 , . . . , xq , x0 ).

8 1 Spaces, Bundles and Characteristic Classes in Differential Geometry

The Alexander–Spanier co-chain φ is skew symmetric provided

φ(xσ (0) , xσ (1) , . . . , xσ (q) ) = Sign(σ ) φ(x0 , x1 , . . . , xq ), f or any permutation σ.

∗,ω
Proposition 1.2 (See e.g. [96]) Let CAS (M, G) denote the sub-complex of the
Alexander–Spanier complex consisting of all co-chains which have cyclic symmetry
or are skew-symmetric. Then
(i) the inclusion of H ∗,ω (M, G) into H ∗,ω (M, G) induces isomorphisms in
homology.
(ii) If M is a smooth manifold and H ∗,ω,smoot h(M, G) denotes the sub-complex
of H ∗,ω (M, G) consisting of all smooth, skew-symmetric Alexander–Spanier
co-chains, then the inclusion of C ∗,ω,smoot h(M, G) into H ∗,ω (M, G) induces
isomorphisms in homology.
(iii) The mapping

∂k
f ( x0 , x1 , . . . , xk ) → f ( x0 , x1 , . . . , xk ))| diag dx1i1 ∧ dx2i2 ∧ . . . ∧ dxkik
∂x1i1 ∂x2i2 . . . ∂xkik
(1.16)

is a chain homomorphism ξ∗ from the Alexander–Spanier complex to de Rham

complex which induces isomorphisms in homology

ξk,∗ : HAS
k
(M, R) −→ HdR
k
(M). (1.17)

The next observation is useful in non-commutative geometry.

Remark 1.2 Suppose Cat is a category of analytic structures on topological mani-
folds M with the property that the corresponding associative algebra A of functions
on M is a topological algebra with the property that Cat(M k+1 ) is the projective
completion of the algebraic tensor product algebra ⊗k+1
C Cat(M). This means that
for any f ∈ Cat(M k+1 ), the function f is given by the sum of a series
∞

f = f0i ⊗C f1i ⊗C · · · ⊗C fki . (1.18)
i=1

This condition is satisfied, in particular, if Cat = Top or Cat = C ∞ .

Then

dr (f0 ⊗C f1 ⊗C , . . . , ⊗C fk ) = f0 ⊗C f1 ⊗C , . . . , ⊗C 1 ⊗C . . . ⊗C fk , (1.19)

where the factor 1 is placed into the rth-position.

1.5 Vector Bundles and Connections 9

1.4 Alexander–Spanier Homology

We assume that M is a locally finite simplicial complex. We define the vector spaces

t (R) := {μ | μ is a measure on Ut }.
AS k
Ck, (1.20)

If t1 < t2 , let ρ be the restriction of continuous functions defined on Utk2 to the

sub-space Utk1 . Let μ ∈ Ck,
AS
t1 (R). Then the restriction ρ induces the measure ρ∗ (μ)
k
over the space Ut2 . The homomorphisms

ρ∗ : Ck,
AS
t1 (R) −→ Ck, t2 (R)
AS
(1.21)

define an inductive system of vector spaces

CkAS (M, R) := IndLimt Ck,

AS
t (R). (1.22)

By definition, the real Alexander–Spanier homology complex is

C∗AS (M, R) := {C∗AS (M, R), ∂}. (1.23)

and its homology is denoted H∗AS (M, R). For more information on Alexander–
Spanier homology see Massey [73].
Theorem 1.4
(i) The Alexander–Spanier homology is functorially isomorphic to the real singu-
lar homology of M.
(ii) The integration induces a pairing

k
HAS (M, R) ⊗R HkAS (M, R) −→ R. (1.24)


(iii) The pairing coincides with the canonical pairing H k (M, R) ⊗R
Hk (M, R) −→ R via the isomorphism between the Alexander–Spanier
cohomology/homology and the singular counter-parts.

1.5 Vector Bundles and Connections

The purpose of this section is to discuss how the vector bundles, linear connections
and curvature of classical differential geometry pass into non-commutative geome-
try.
A vector bundle η = (E, π, B) of rank N over the real or complex numbers
consists of the total space E, projection π : E −→ B and base B such that each
10 1 Spaces, Bundles and Characteristic Classes in Differential Geometry

fibre π −1 (x), for any point x ∈ B, is a vector space isomorphic to Kn , where

K = R, or C. It is required that the bundle η be locally trivial, i.e. there exists an
open covering U = {Ui } of the base space and homeomorphisms hi : π −1 (Ui ) −→
Ui × Kn which sends each fibre π −1 (x) isomorphically onto the fibre {x} × Kn , for
any x ∈ Ui .
If all spaces in the definition of η are topological spaces, respectively,
Lipschitz/quasi-conformal manifolds, or smooth manifolds, and the mappings π,
hi are, respectively, in the same category, the bundle η will be called a continuous
bundle, respectively, Lipschitz/quasi-conformal or smooth bundle. Denote by Cat
any of these categories.
If the base space is paracompact simplicial or CW -complex of finite dimension,
then the bundle η may be embedded into a product bundle N := B × KN , with N
sufficiently large, see Milnor [66].
We may choose in the product bundle N the product Hermitian, or Euclidean,
structure, depending on whether K = C, or R.
Let ACat be the associative unital algebra

ACat := {f | f : B −→ K, where f is a Cat f unction} (1.25)

Let px : {x} × KN −→ π −1 (x) be the orthogonal projection, for any x ∈ B. The

collection of matrices p(x) produces an N × N matrix p with entries in ACat .
Theorem 1.5
(i) For any embedded bundle η into a product bundle of rank N there corresponds
an N × N matrix p with entries belonging to the algebra ACat .
(ii) The matrix p is an idempotent (p2 = p); if p is produced by pointwise
orthogonal projections, then p is self-adjoint (p∗ = p) and is called a
projector.
(iii) Vice versa, for any idempotent matrix p with entries in the algebra ACat there
corresponds a bundle η such that, up to an isomorphism, its corresponding
idempotent is p
(iv) 1 − p is also an idempotent; if p is a projector, then 1 − p is the orthogonal
projection onto the orthogonal complement η⊥ of the bundle η.
(v) The direct sum p ⊕ (1 − p) decomposes the ACat -free module of rank N into
a direct sum

(ACat )N = Γ (N) = Γ (η) ⊕ Γ (η⊥ ) (1.26)

and therefore the space Γ (η) of sections of the bundle η is a finite projective
ACat -module.
(vi) Vice versa, to any finite projective ACat -module M there corresponds a bundle
η such that, up to an isomorphism, its associated ACat -module is the module
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