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 AN ILLUSTRATED
INTRODUCTION TO

TOPOLOGY
and
HOMOTOPY

40-65*0/4
."/6"-
FOR PART 1
TOPOLOGY

SASHO KALAJDZIEVSKI

IN COLLABORATION WITH

DEREK KREPSKI
DAMJAN KALAJDZIEVSKI

C CRC Press
CR Taylor & Francis Group
Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
A CHAPMAN & HALL BOOK
CRC Press
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© 2018 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-55346-0 (Hardback)

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable
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 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This solution manual accompanies the first part of the book An Illustrated Introduction to
Topology and Homotopy by the same author. Except for a small number of exercises in
the first few sections, we provide solutions of the (228) odd-numbered problems
appearing in the first part of the book (Topology). The primary targets of this manual are
the students of topology. This set is not disjoint from the set of instructors of topology
courses, who may also find this manual useful as a source of examples, exam problems,
etc.

The help of the two collaborators was invaluable to me. However, all typos and errors are
mine. Comments related to the book or to the solution manual will be appreciated; please
email to [email protected]. The web page for the book(s) is
http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~sasho/sk/topology_homotopy.html; corrections are posted
there.

I am thankful to Mladen Despic for his help.

SK
Taylor & Francis
Taylor & Francis Group
http://taylorandfrancis.com
0.1 Sets and Numbers 1

Chapter 1: Sets, Numbers and Cardinals

1.1 Sets and Numbers.

Solutions of some exercises

2. Given a set X, show that the relation ⊂ is an order of the set of all subsets of X. For
which sets X is this order linear?

Solution. If A, B ⊂ X are such that A ⊂ B and A ≠ B , then there is b ∈B such that

b ∉A . Consequently B is not a subset of A, and hence ⊂ is antisymmetric. If A ⊂ B ⊂ C
then obviously A ⊂ C , and so ⊂ is transitive.
If X has at least two elements, say a and b, then neither {a} ⊂ {b} nor {b} ⊂ {a} ,
so the order ⊂ is not linear. On the other hand if X has at most one element, then the only
subsets of X are X and ∅ , and we then readily see that the order ⊂ is linear.

3. Describe a linear order over (a) the set
2 , and (b) the set
2 .

Solution for (a). Define (n, m) < ( p,q) if n < p or ( n = p and m < q ). The parentheses in
the preceding sentence are to guarantee there is unique interpretation of the statement that
defines <. It is left to the reader to prove this relation is antisymmetric and transitive.

4. Show that if ~ is an equivalence relation over a set X, then every two equivalence
classes are either disjoint or equal.

Solution. Suppose [x] and [y] are two equivalence classes, and suppose [x]∩[y] ≠ ∅ .
Then there is a ∈[x]∩[y] . Take any z ∈[x] . Then a ~ x ~ z , and hence a ~ z . On the
other hand, a ∈[y] implies that y ~ a . The transitivity of ~ applied to y ~ a and a ~ z
yields y ~ z . Hence z ∈[y] . We proved that [x] ⊂ [y] . By the symmetry of the argument,
it follows that [y] ⊂ [x] . Hence [x] = [y] .

7. Let X be a non-empty set and let f : X → Y be any mapping. Show that “ u ~ v if and
only if f (u) = f (v) ” defines an equivalence relation over X.

Solution. (i) Reflexivity: u ~ u for every u, since f (u) = f (u) for every u. (ii) Symmetry:
Suppose u ~ v . Then f (u) = f (v) , hence f (v) = f (u) , hence v ~ u . (iii) Transitivity:
0.1 Sets and Numbers 2

Suppose u ~ v and v ~ w . Then f (u) = f (v) and f (v) = f (w) . Hence f (u) = f (w) , and
we conclude that u ~ w .
1.2 Set and Cardinal Numbers 3

1.2 Sets and Cardinal Numbers

Solutions of the odd-numbered exercises

1. Let X be an infinite set. Show that for every finite subset A of X, X \ A = X . Show
that there is a subset B of X such that B = ℵ0 and such that X \ B = X .

Solution of the first claim. Denote A = {a1 , a2 , …, an } . Use the assumption that X is
infinite and induction to construct an infinite countable subset
A1 = {a1 , a2 , …, an , an+1 , …} of X. The mapping f (ak ) = ak +n defines a bijection from A1
onto A1 \ A = {an+1 , an+2 , …} . Then the mapping to g : X → X \ A defined by
⎪⎧ f (x) if x ∈A
g( x ) = ⎨ is a bijection.
⎪⎩ x if x ∈ X \ A

3. Let A = A1 , B = B1 , let S be the set of all mappings A → B , and let S1 be the set
of all mappings A1 → B1 . Show that S1 = S .

Solution. By assumption there exist bijections α : A → A1 and β : B → B1 . Define

φ : S → S1 as follows: for every f ∈S , φ ( f ) : A1 → B1 φ ( f ) = β
f
α −1 . Notice that
φ ( f ) : A1 → B1 .
We now check that φ is a bijection.
One-to-one: Suppose φ ( f1 ) = φ ( f2 ) . Then β
f1
α −1 = β
f2
α −1 , so
β −1
β
f1
α −1
α = β −1
β
f1
α −1
α , and so f1 = f2 .
Onto: Choose any g ∈S1 and let f = β −1
g1
α . Then
φ ( f ) = β
( β −1
g
α )
α 1 = g .

5. Prove Proposition 4:
(a) If J is countable and if each A j , j ∈J , is countable, then so is
A j
.
j ∈J

(b) If for every i ∈{1,2,...,n} the set Xi is countable, then so is the set product
X1 × X2 × ... × Xn .

Hint for part (a): Use an argument based on Illustration 1.4 and Proposition 2.
1.2 Set and Cardinal Numbers 4

Solution of part (b): Use induction on n. The case when n = 1 is trivial. Suppose
Y = X1 × X2 ×
× X k and X k+1 are countable. Hence we can write Y = {y1 , y2 , …, yn , …}
and X k+1 = {x1 , x2 , …, xn , …} . We want to show that Y × X k+1 is countable. The elements
of Y × X k+1 are listed (without repetition) in the following two-dimensional array:
(y1 , x1 ) (y1 , x2 ) (y1 , x3 ) …
(y2 , x1 ) (y2 , x2 ) ( y2 , x3 ) …
(y3 , x1 ) (y3 , x2 ) (y3 , x3 ) …




Now use the argument as in the caption of Illustration 1.4.

7. Prove that if A = B , then P (A) = P (B) .

Solution. Since A = B , there is a bijection f : A → B . Define φ :P (A) → P (B) by

φ (X) = f (X) , for every X ⊂ A . Now check that φ is a bijection.

9. Let A = n and B = m (where n , m are any cardinal numbers). Define m + n to be

A1 ∪ B1 , where A1 and B1 are any two disjoint copies of A and B respectively (see the
extra problem given below). Show that this operation is well defined (i.e., show it does
not depend on the choice of A1 and B1 ). Show that 2 + 3 = 5 .

Solution. Suppose A2 and B2 are disjoint copies of A and B respectively. Then there are
bijections f1 : A → A1 , f2 : A → A2 , g1 : B → B1 and g2 : B → B2 . Define
⎧ −1
⎪ f2
f1 (x ) if x ∈A1
h : A1 ∪ B1 → A2 ∪ B2 by h(x) = ⎨ −1
. It is now very easy to show that
⎪⎩ g2
g1 (x) if x ∈B1
h is a bijection. Hence A1 ∪ B1 = A2 ∪ B2 and thus m + n does not depend on the choice
of the copies A1 and B1 . Now, to show that 2 + 3 = 5 it suffices to take any two disjoint
copies A1 and B1 of A = {1,2} and B = {1,2, 3} respectively, and then simply count the
elements of A1 ∪ B1 .

11. (a) Prove that if n ≥ m , then 2n ≥ 2m .

(b) Prove that if 2n ≥ℵ0 , then 2n ≥ 2ℵ0 .

Solution.
(a). Choose any set A with A = n , and any set B such that B = m . Hence
P(A) = 2n and P(B) = 2 m . Since we have assumed that A ≥ B it follows from
Proposition 2 that there is an onto mapping g : A → B . Define φ :P (A) → P (B) by
1.2 Set and Cardinal Numbers 5

φ ({a j : j ∈J}) = {g(a j ) : j ∈J} , for every subset {a j : j ∈J} of A. Since g is onto, it
follows that φ is also onto. The conclusion now follows from Proposition 2.

(b). Suppose 2n ≥ℵ0 . If n is finite, then so is 2n . This would then contradict our
assumption here. Hence n is infinite, and thus n ≥ℵ0 . It follows from part (a) that
2n ≥ 2ℵ0 .

Extras

1. Given a set A prove that there exists a set B such that A = B and A ∩ B = ∅ .
1.3 Axiom of Choice and Equivalent Statements 6

1.3 Axiom of Choice and Equivalent Statements

Solutions of some exercises

1. Prove that the Axiom of Choice and the Axiom for Products are equivalent.

Solution. Suppose the Axiom of Choice is true. We want to show that if Ai ≠ ∅ for every
i ∈I , then ∏ A ≠ ∅ . By the Axiom of Choice there is a mapping
i∈I
i f : I →
Ai such
i∈I

that f (i) ∈Ai for every i ∈I . Then ( f (i))i∈I is an element of the product ∏ A , and so
i∈I
i

∏ A ≠ ∅ . Conversely, let {A :i ∈I} be a family of pairwise disjoint sets, and suppose

i∈I
i i

∏ A ≠ ∅ . Then there is some ( a )

i∈I
i i i∈I in ∏ A . Define
i∈I
i f : I →
Ai by f (i) = ai . This
i∈I
mapping is such that f (i) ∈Ai for every i ∈I .

4. Prove that if X is linearly ordered by ≤, and if every countable subset of X is well

ordered by ≤, then X is well ordered by ≤. [Hint: start by assuming that X is not well
ordered, and construct a countable linearly ordered set without the least element.]

Solution. Following the hint, suppose the hypotheses of this problem are fulfilled and
suppose that X is not well ordered. This means that there is some A ⊂ X such that A does
not have the least element. Choose any a1 ∈A . If there is an a ∈A that is not comparable
to a1 , then {a, a1 } is not well ordered, contradicting the assumption that every countable
subset of X is well ordered. So, a1 is comparable to any other element of A. By
assumption, a1 could not be the least element of A. Hence there is a2 ∈A such that
a2 < a1 . Repeat this argument. This procedure cannot end after n many steps, since then
an would be the least element of A. We got an infinite sequence a1 > a2 > ... > an > ... of
countably many elements of X that does not have the least element. This contradicts our
assumptions. Hence X must be well ordered.

5. Prove that for every order R of any set A there exists a linear order Q over A such that
∞
R ⊂ Q . [Hint: 1. For every chain R1 ⊂ R2 ⊂
of orders over A,
R i =1
i is a partial order

containing all of Ri − s . 2. If M is a maximal order, then M must be linear. Use Zorn’s

lemma.]
1.3 Axiom of Choice and Equivalent Statements 7

Solution: The statement in the part 1 of the hint is evident. The countability suggested by
the hint is irrelevant: the analogue statement is true for any chain of orders. By Zorn’s
lemma, there is a maximal order M of A, such that R ⊂ M . If M is not linear, then there
are a,b ∈A that are not comparable. We now prove that the existence of such a,b ∈A
implies that M can be extended to a linear order, contradicting the maximality of M.
We fist extend M by setting a < b . If this extension is transitive, then it is also an order,
and we immediately get a contradiction (to the maximality of M). Suppose it is not
transitive. Then there are x, y ∈A such that x < a and b < y (in M), yet x is not less than
y (we take strict inequalities since the case when x = a or y = b is evident). Hence either
y < x in M or x and y are not comparable. If y < x then b < y < x < a in M, and so a and
b are comparable, contradicting our assumption. Hence or x and y are not comparable (in
M). In this case we simply M by setting x < y for every x, y ∈A for which there are a
and b as above. This construction gives a linear order of A that extends M, contradicting
the maximality of M.
2.1 Metric Spaces: Definition and Examples 8

Chapter 2: Metric Spaces: Definition,

Examples and Basics

2.1 Metric Spaces: Definition and Examples

Solutions of some exercises

2. Prove that the Euclidean metric space and the city metric over
2 are equivalent.

Solution. Let U be a non-empty subset of
2 that is open with respect to the Euclidean metric d,
and denote the city metric by dcm . We show that U is open with respect to the city metric. It
suffices to show that for every point x = (x1 , x2 ) ∈U there is a city-metric ball Bcm (x, r) such
that Bcm (x, r) ⊂ U . By assumption, there is a Euclidean ball B(x, s) such that B(x, s) ⊂ U .
Since it is evident that for every two points u,v ∈
2 , d(u,v) ≤ dcm (u,v) , it follows immediately
that Bcm (x, s) ⊂ B(x, s) . Hence Bcm (x, s) ⊂ U , and thus we proved that U is open with respect to
the city metric.

Conversely, suppose U is open with respect to dcm . Hence, for every x = (x1 , x2 ) ∈U there is a
r
city-metric ball Bcm (x, r) such that Bcm (x, r) ⊂ U . Choose s = , and consider the Euclidean
2
ball B(x, s) . We want to prove that B(x, s) ⊂ U , i.e., that for every y = (y1 , y2 ) ∈B(x, s) , y is
r2
also in U. So, assume y = (y1 , y2 ) ∈B(x, s) . This means that ( x1 − y1 ) + ( x2 − y2 ) < s 2 =
2 2
, i.e.,
4
r2
( x − y ) +( x − y2 ) < ( ) +( x − y2 ) , it follows that
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 . Since 2 x1 − y1 x2 − y2 ≤ x1 − y1 2
4
r2 r2 r2 r2
2 x1 − y1 x2 − y2 < . Hence ( x1 − y1 ) + 2 x1 − y1 x2 − y2 + ( x2 − y2 ) < + = , and
2 2

4 4 4 2
2
thereby ( x1 − y1 + x2 − y2 ) < . Take square-root on both sides to get x1 − y1 + x2 − y2 <
2 r r
.
2 2
r
This last inequality implies that dcm (x, y) < . Hence dcm (x, y) < r and consequently
2
y ∈Bcm (x, r) ⊂ U . We proved that y ∈U , so that B(x, s) ⊂ U . With this we established U is
open with respect to the Euclidean metric, and finished the proof that d and dcm are equivalent.
2.1 Metric Spaces: Definition and Examples 9

5. Consider
2 with the topology induced by the post office metric with respect to a fixed point
p.
(a) Show that if p ∉A ⊂
2 then A is open.
(b) Show that if p ∈A ⊂
2 then A is open if and only if there is a Euclidean ball B( p, r)
(that is, a ball with respect to the Euclidean metric) that is contained in A.

Solution.
(a). Since every set is a union of singletons, it suffices to show that every singleton {x},
x ≠ p , is open. That this is true follows from the observation that the open ball around x and of
1
radius d(x, p) contains only x.
2
(b). Suppose A is open in the post office metric. Then there is a post-office metric ball
Bpo ( p,r) that is a subset of A. Since the Euclidean balls and the post office metric balls around p
coincide, it follows that B( p,r) ⊂ A . Conversely, suppose B( p,r) ⊂ A for some r. Since
B( p,r) = Bpo ( p,r) , it follows Bpo ( p,r) ⊂ A . That there are post-office metric balls around the
other points of the set A was established in part (a). Hence A is open in the post office metric
space.

6. [Note the typo in the book: min is replaced by max here. Also, take a look at the extra problem
below.] Suppose d1 and d2 are two metrics over a set X. Show that d3 defined by
d3 (x, y) = max{d1 (x, y),d2 (x, y)} is also a metric over X.

Solution. Going over the three conditions of the definition of a metric:

(i) It is obvious that d3 (x, y) ≥ 0 all the time. Further, d3 (x, x) = max{d1 (x, x),d2 (x, x)) = 0 ;
conversely, if d3 (x, y) = 0 , then max{d1 (x, y),d2 (x, y)) = 0 , hence di (x, y) = 0 for some
i ∈{1,2} , and this in turn implies that x = y .
(ii) d3 (x, y) = max{d1 (x, y),d2 (x, y)) = max{d1 (y, x),d2 (y, x)) = d3 (y, x) .

(iii) d3 (x, y) = max{d1 (x, y), d2 (x, y )) ≤ max{d1 (x, z) + d1 (z, y), d2 (x, z) + d2 (z, y)} ≤
≤ max{d1 (x, z), d2 (x, z)} + max{d1 (z, y), d2 (z, y)} = d3 (x, z) + d3 (z, y).

8. Let F be a closed subset of a metric space (X, d) . For every point x ∈ X , define
d(x, F) = inf{d(x, y) : y ∈F} . Show that x ∈X \ F if and only if d(x, F) > 0 .

Solution. Suppose x is out of F. Then x is in F c , which is an open set. Hence, there is a

ball B(x, r) completely within F c . Hence there is no point in F closer than r units to x,
So, d(x, F) ≥ r > 0 . The converse is obvious.
2.1 Metric Spaces: Definition and Examples 10

10. Show that if F and G are two disjoint closed sets in a metric space X, then there are
two disjoint open sets U and V such that F ⊂ U and G ⊂ V . [Hint: Exercise 8]

Solution. We use the distance between a point and a closed set as defined in Exercise 8.
1 1
For every point x ∈F , choose rx = d(x, G) . We note in passing that any number <
4 2
1
would do in place of . Then F ⊂ U =
B(x, rx ) . Symmetrically, for every y ∈G
4 x∈F
1
choose sy = d(y, F) ; then G ⊂ V =
B(y, sy ) . The open sets U and V are disjoint, for
4 y∈G

if there is z ∈U ∩V , then z ∈B(x, rx ) ∩ B(y, sy ) , for some x ∈F and y ∈G . We find

1 1
d(x, y) ≤ d(x, z) + d(z, y) < rx + sy =
d(x, G) + d(y, F) . By symmetry we may suppose
4 4
1 1 1 1
that d(x, G) ≤ d(y, F) . Then d(x, y) ≤ d(x, G) + d(y, F) ≤ 2 d(y, F) = d(y, F) ,
4 4 4 2
which is obviously impossible. Hence U ∩V = ∅ .

11. Consider the set R of all open rectangles in
2 above the x-axis, bounded by edges
of slopes 1 and -1, with one corner at the x-axis, and such that every point (x, 0) on the x-
axis is a corner of exactly one member Rx of R (see Illustration 2.10). Show that there is
a rational number q and an irrational number z such that Rq ∩ Rz ≠ ∅ .

Illustration 2.10. We show a few

rectangles from the set R .

Solution. Assume there is a set R as above such that Rq ∩ Rz = ∅ for every rational
number q and irrational number z. Start with a rational number q1 and the corresponding
rectangle Rq1 . Choose an irrational number x1 to the left of q1 , such that
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