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 UNESCO DOHA OFFICE

NCWCD

Ruprecht-Karls Universität Heidelberg

Protecting the
Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems
from Pollution

Abdulaziz H. Abuzinada
Hans-Jörg Barth
Friedhelm Krupp
Benno Böer
Thabit Zahran Al Abdessalaam
Editors

Birkhäuser
Basel · Boston · Berlin
Abdulaziz H. Abuzinada Hans-Jörg Barth
Khaled Bin Sultan Living Oceans Foundation Department of Geography
P.O. Box 69428 Ruprecht-Karls-Universität
Riyadh 11547 Heidelberg
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Im Neuenheimer Feld 348
69120 Heidelberg
Friedhelm Krupp Germany
Senckenberg Research Institute and
National History Museum Benno Böer
Senckenberganlage 25 UNESCO
60325 Frankfurt a.M. Doha
Germany 66 Lusail Street – West Bay
P.O. Box 3945
Thabit Zahran Al Abdessalaam Doha, Qatar
Marine Environment Research Centre
Environmental Agency – Abu Dhabi (EAD)
P.O. Box 45553
Abu Dhabi
United Arab Emirates

Library of Congress Control Number: 2007939809

Bibliographic information published by Die Deutsche Bibliothek

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detailed bibliographic data is available in the Internet at <http://dnb.ddb.de>.

ISBN 978-3-7643-7946-9 Birkhäuser Verlag AG, Basel – Boston – Berlin

The publisher and editor can give no guarantee for the information on drug dosage and adminis-
tration contained in this publication. The respective user must check its accuracy by consulting
other sources of reference in each individual case.
7KHXVHRIUHJLVWHUHGQDPHVWUDGHPDUNVHWFLQWKLVSXEOLFDWLRQHYHQLIQRWLGHQWL½HGDVVXFK
does not imply that they are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations or free for
general use.
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the materi-
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any kind of use, permission of the copyright owner must be obtained.

© 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag AG, P.O. Box 133, CH-4010 Basel, Switzerland
Part of Springer Science+Business Media
Printed on acid-free paper produced from chlorine-free pulp. TCF ’
Printed in Germany
Cover illustrations: From left to right: crab holes of Nasima dotilliformis (photo: Thomas Höpner),
Pocillopora-reef at Karan Island, Saudi Arabia (photo: Friedhelm Krupp), oiled saltmarsh in the
Jubail area (photo: Thomas Höpner), coral-reef near Karan Island, Saudi Arabia (photo: Hans-
Jörg Barth)

ISBN 978-3-7643-7946-9 e-ISBN 978-3-7643-7947-6

987654321 www.birkhauser.ch
Contents

List of contributors…………………………………………………… VII

Editorial………………………………………………………………. IX

Preface by H.R.H. Prince Turki Bin Naser Bin Abdulaziz ...………… XI

Foreword by Walter Erdelen, UNESCO ……………………………... XIII

Foreword by Yousef Omair bin Yousef, CEO, ADNOC………………… XV

H.-J. Barth and N.Y. Khan

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf ...………………………………… 1

G. Brown, B. Böer, S. Sakkir

The coastal vegetation of the western and southern Gulf -
characterisation and conservation aspects ..……………………….…. 23

F. Krupp and A.H. Abuzinada

Impact of oil pollution and increased sea surface temperatures on
marine ecosystems and biota in the Gulf …………………………….. 45

N.Y. Khan
Integrated management of pollution stress in the Gulf ………………. 57

H.N. El-Habr and M. Hutchinson

Efforts of regional and international organisations in reducing
levels of pollution in the Gulf ………………………………………… 93

A.M.M. Al-Janahi
Oil pollution preparedness in the ROPME Sea Area ………………… 107

R.A. Loughland and B. Saji

Remote Sensing: A tool for managing marine pollution
in the Gulf …………………………………….………………….…… 131
VI Contents

K. Zainal, H. Al-Sayed and I. Al-Madany

Coastal pollution in Bahrain and its management …………………….. 147

R. Facey
Pollution from sea based sources ……………………………….…….. 163

S. Lattemann and T. Höpner

Impacts of seawater desalination plants on the marine
environment of the Gulf .……………………………………………… 191

F. Al-Yamani
Importance of the freshwater influx from the Shatt-Al-Arab
River on the Arabian Gulf marine environment .……………………... 207

S.M. Al-Ghais and W.H. Pearson

The compensation schedule approach for the assessment of oil spill
damages to marine resources of the RSA .……………………………. 223

D.A. Jones, M. Hayes, F. Krupp, G. Sabatini, I. Watt and L. Weishar

The impact of the Gulf War (1990 – 91) oil release upon the
intertidal Gulf coast line of Saudi Arabia and subsequent recovery …. 237

H.-J. Barth
Rapid assessment indicators of oil spill recovery in salt marsh
ecosystems ………………………………………………….…............ 255

T. Höpner and K.A. Al-Shaikh

Shoreline bioremediation after the 1991 Gulf War oil spill …………. 265

L. Weishar, I. Watt, D.A. Jones and D. Aubrey

Evaluation of arid salt marsh restoration techniques …………………. 273

Abbreviations …………………………………………………………. 281

Index ………………………………………………………………….. 283

List of contributors

Abuzinada, Abdulaziz H., Board Member - Special Advisor, Khaled Bin Sultan
Living Oceans Foundation, P.O. Box 69428, Riyadh 11547, Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia; e-mail: [email protected]
Al Abdessalaam, Thabit Zahran, Director, Marine Environment Research Centre,
Environmental Agency-Abu Dhabi (EAD), P.O. Box 45553, United Arab
Emirates.
Al-Ghais, Saif M., Biology Department, Faculty of Science, UAE University,
AlAin, P.O. Box 17551, United Arab Emirates;
e-mail: [email protected]
Al-Janahi, Abdul Munem Mohamed, Marine Emergency Mutual Aid Centre
(MEMAC), P.O. Box 10112, Kingdom of Bahrain;
e-mail: [email protected]
Al-Madany, Ismail, Public Commission for the Protection of Marine Resources,
Environment and Wildlife, P.O. Box 32657, Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain;
e-mail: [email protected]
Al-Sayed, Hashim, Biology Department, University of Bahrain, P.O. Box 32038,
Kingdom of Bahrain; e-mail: [email protected]
Al-Shaikh, Khalid Ali, Jubail Marine Wildlife Sanctuary, National Commission
for Wildlife Conservation and Development (NCWCD), P.O. Box 61681,
Riyadh 11575, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Al-Yamani, Faiza, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, P.O. Box 1638,
Salmiyah-22017, Kuwait; e-mail: [email protected]
Aubrey, David, Woods Hole Group, 81 Technology Park Drive, East Falmouth,
MA 02536, USA
Barth, Hans-Jörg, Department of Geography, Ruprecht-Karls-Universität
Heidelberg, Im Neuenheimer Feld 348, D-69120, Germany;
e-mail: [email protected]
Böer, Benno, UNESCO, Doha, 66 Lusail Street - West Bay, P.O. Box 3945,
Doha, Qatar; e-mail: [email protected]
Brown, Gary, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, AAD, P.O. Box 24885,
Safat 13109, Kuwait; e-mail: [email protected]
El-Habr, Habib N., Director and Regional Representative UNEP Regional Office
for West Asia, P.O. Box 10880, Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain;
e-mail: [email protected]
Facey, Roy, Port Development Adviser, Yemen Gulf of Aden Ports Corporation,
Aden, Republic of Yemen, e-mail: [email protected]
VIII List of contributors

Hayes, Miles, Panion Ltd, 1119 Park Street, Columbia, Sc. 29202;
e.mail: [email protected]
Höpner, Thomas, Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine Environment
(ICBM), Carl von Ossietzky Universitaet Oldenburg, Carl-von-Ossietzky-
Str. 9-11, P.O. Box 2503, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany;
e-mail: [email protected]
Hutchinson, Melanie, Associate Programme Officer, UNEP Regional Office for
West Asia, P.O. Box 10880, Manama, Bahrain;
e-mail: [email protected]
Jones, David Alan, P.O. Box No: 443, Ctra. Cabo La Nao (Pla) 124-6, 03730
Javea, Alicante, Spain; e.mail: [email protected]
Khan, Nuzrat Yar, Sustainable Development Study Centre, Government College
University, Lahore, Pakistan, e-mail: [email protected]
Krupp, Friedhelm, Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum,
Frankfurt a.M., Germany; e-mail: [email protected]
Lattemann, Sabine, Institute for Chemistry and Biology of the Marine
Environment (ICBM), Carl von Ossietzky Universitaet Oldenburg, Carl-von-
Ossietzky-Str. 9-11, P.O. Box 2503, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany; e-mail:
[email protected]
Loughland, Ronald, A., Centre of Environmental Research, Emirates Heritage
Club, P.O. Box 108444, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates; e-mail:
[email protected]
Pearson, Walter, Environment Agency Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 45553, Abu Dhabi,
(formerly ERWDA), United Arab Emirates
Sabatini, Gino, GS Consultants, 7054 D´Ibervillle,Montreal,Canada H2E 2Y4;
e-mail: [email protected]
Saji, Baby, Wataniya Environmental Services Co., Dar Al-Awadi Complex,
Sharq, P.O. Box 27781 safat, 13135 Kuwait; e-mail:
[email protected]
Sakkir, Sabitha, Environment Agency Abu Dhabi, P.O. Box 45553, Abu Dhabi,
United Arab Emirates
Watt, Iain, IOMEC, Nelson Road, Grand Gaube, Mauritius;
e-mail: [email protected]
Weishar, Lee, Woods Hole Group, 81 Technology Park Drive, East Falmouth,
MA 02536, USA; [email protected]
Zainal, Khadija, University of Bahrain, Biology Department, P.O. Box 32038,
Kingdom of Bahrain; e-mail: [email protected]
Editorial

In recent decades, and especially during the last few years, coastal development in
the Gulf countries accelerated tremendously due to significant increase in oil
related income and economic diversification strategies. Rapid expansion of
industrial complexes, exceptional increase in private real estate investment,
tourism and service industries, high birth rates and influx of foreign labour,
accompanied by prospering economies, resulted in an enormous human
population growth in the Gulf’s coastal areas. This development does much to
further the well-being of the people and it also leaves severe impacts on the
terrestrial, coastal and marine environment. These have changed - and not always
for the better. Large areas of the coastal zone including important marine habitats
are currently threatened by increasing stress on the Gulf ecosystem, and pollution
plays a major role.
However, it is exactly this ecosystem that people depend upon directly and
indirectly. It serves as resources for fishing, recreation, urban development and
probably most importantly, as a major source of freshwater via desalination
plants.
Although public awareness of environmental issues has grown significantly
during the last few years, the scientific information base currently available is
inadequate. Informed decision making on resource use, regional planning and
adequate environmental impact assessment procedures need scientific
documentation and analysis of the different types of pollution and their effects on
the coastal and marine environment. It is essential to generate knowledge and
technologies on how to prevent and minimize adverse impacts based on the
different types of pollution.
The first comprehensive monograph, which addressed the ecosystem health
and sustainability of the Gulf (Khan et al. 2002), was sponsored by the Kuwait
Institute for Scientific Research (KISR) and published by the Aquatic Ecosystem
Health and Management Society (AEHMS) in 2002. Following this landmark
publication, several international workshops were held in 2005 in Abu Dhabi and
Dubai to look into issues of coastal zone management. In a next step the United
Arab Emirates University together with AEHMS organized the first international
conference on “The State of the Gulf Ecosystem: Future and Threats”, which was
held in Al Ain in March 2006 and focused on the problems confronting the Gulf
ecosystem and environmental management. The growing attention of the scientific
community towards the coastal and marine resources of the Gulf is reflected by
the participation of leading environmental experts from 29 countries. A selection
of the papers presented at this conference has recently been published in “Aquatic
Ecosystem Health & Management“.
X Editorial

Apart from these efforts, a shared vision of a healthy and sustainably managed
Gulf ecosystem is still lacking in most of the coastal states. Since both pollution
and biota transcend political boundaries, an integrated management of pollution
stress on a Gulf-wide basis is an imperative for the Gulf nations. This is a very
difficult task which lies ahead of us and with this in mind, UNESCO decided to
produce this science-based book on pollution management in the Gulf. The Abu
Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC) generously sponsored this project which
was carried out in cooperation with the National Commission for Wildlife
Conservation and Development (NCWCD), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. The
contributions of 28 authors aim at locating the gaps and obstacles, which are
currently preventing an effective, transboundary management of the marine and
coastal resources and present recommendations of how to improve the situation.
This multidisciplinary book on pollution and its mitigation in the Gulf could
not have been completed, without the enthusiastic participation of the experts
authoring the various chapters. We therefore offer our sincere thanks to all the
ladies and gentlemen, listed as authors of this book. We wish to express our
gratitude to the referees who, with their expertise helped to improve the
manuscripts. We also thank the Birkhäuser Verlag for their support, flexibility and
professional way of handling the publishing process. Special thanks are due to Dr.
Hans Detlef Klüber and Karin Neidhart. Finally it gives us great pleasure to
express our thanks to ADNOC for their partnership, essential for the publication
of this book.
We trust that this volume will prove useful to scientists, students,
environmental managers and decision makers in understanding the urgent need of
“Protecting the Gulf’s marine ecosystems from pollution”.

The Editors
Preface

The countries of the Arabian Peninsula have undergone a remarkable process of

development and social transformation. This has led to increased rates of
transport, industrial development, and consumption of water, food, and goods,
which in turn, led to significantly increased rates of environmental pollution.
Regional conflicts have also taken their toll and contributed to environmental
pollution. For example, the 1991 Gulf War Oil Spill, the biggest known marine
pollution event in human history, has occurred in the waters of the Gulf.
Moreover, the Gulf is the busiest area in the world in view of maritime oil
shipment, and one of the undesired consequences are frequently occurring oil
spills, and their impacts on the marine and coastal ecosystems, as well as on the
fishing and tourism industry.
Wind often blows land-based rubbish towards the sea, and it normally
accumulates in the inter-tidal zone; driftwood on the ocean’s surface, as well as all
floating trash also eventually accumulates in the coastal zone. This has led for
some beaches in the Gulf to be heavily polluted with garbage. Such a
development is not only unsightly, but also prevents certain marine organisms,
such as turtles, for example, from landing on the beach. It also contributes for
waterfowl and other creatures to get entangled in plastic snares and ropes, and
exposes them to a slow and painful death: starvation. The situation under the
water surface is not much better: environmentally concerned divers routinely
clean the sea-bottom from rubbish and ghost-nets, often with dead marine
organisms entangled in them, such as dugong, dolphin, whale, turtle and fish.
Since decades the environmental groups are organising beach clean up campaigns,
as well as dive-clean-up campaigns.
Then there is chemical pollution affecting salt marshes and mangroves, coral
reef and seagrass-beds as well as other ecosystems. The waters adjacent to the
numerous desalinisation plants are exposed to thermal pollution and an increase in
seawater salinity levels, even if locally confined. Additionally there is obvious air
pollution, and a number of different other types of pollution. Even nuclear
pollution of marine sediments has been reported.
The people of Arabia depend on and care for the coastal and marine
ecosystems, as an integral part of their heritage, and it is also an important source
of fish, and seafood. Seawater as an absolutely essential raw material for human
living, since it provides most of the region’s drinking and industrial water via
desalinization plants. It cannot be underlined enough just how important the
marine ecosystems are in view of freshwater security, food security, transport and
XII Preface

recreation, and that we have got to manage them at the highest possible
professional level, and keep them intact.
Due to the wisdom of several of the region’s political leaders, environmental
research, education, legislation, and conservation bodies were established in the
region, in order to combat adverse environmental impacts, and to try and
guarantee the conservation and sustainable development of the country's natural
heritage. However, the current rate of pollution seems to be a challenge. A
concerted cross-border action is required, together with the necessary legislation,
and an implementation strategy. It is UNESCO who has initiated a process of
bringing together the riparian countries in the Gulf in order to jointly address and
discuss cross-border environmental coastal and marine issues. The process is
being supported by UNEP and ROPME, and it is slow but steady ongoing, and it
will include dealing with pollution.
This volume is a comprehensive introduction towards the understanding of
coastal and marine pollution in the Gulf. It will inspire the reader, whether on the
researcher level, the layman level, the level of the decision maker and politician,
or the level of the industrial developer, towards the initiation and the enhancement
of ecosystem management practices in view of pollution. We are certain that this
scholarly work is a meaningful contribution documenting the numerous pollution-
related problems, and that it offers guidance on how to minimize adverse impacts
and how to keep our environments clean. We also hope that environmental
managers will be inspired and keep working even harder to combating coastal and
marine pollution in the best interest of the people living in the Gulf.
We thank the UNESCO Doha Office in Qatar for their initiative, we thank the
Abu Dhabi National Oil Company ADNOC in the United Arab Emirates for their
commitment and support, and we also thank the Saudi Arabian National
Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development for their leading role in
producing this publication. Furthermore we convey our sincere respects and
thanks to the editor’s and the experts for their enthusiastic and professional work
that led to the production of this highly valuable contribution, which we warmly
welcome.

HRH Prince Turki Bin Naser Bin Abdulaziz, President, PME

Chairman, Council of the Arab Ministers of Environment
Foreword

Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution has been produced in
cooperation between the National Commission of Wildlife Conservation and
Development of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and UNESCO, with support from
the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company.
Sustainable living in the Gulf is dependent upon resources provided by the
sea. Marine and coastal ecosystems are essential for the continuous supply of
freshwater, seafood and for other ecosystem services.
However, some of the world’s largest landfill and dredging projects are found
in the coastal areas of the Gulf, and the open sea contains the world’s main crude
oil shipping routes. Marine pollution, therefore, is one of the undesired factors
that accompanies this development. A variety of human impacts are contributing
to marine pollution, such as oil, sediments, waste, thermal, chemical, noise, and
other forms of pollution. Oil spills are of major concern, and more recently, as
mentioned, coastal dredging and landfill.
In the long term, systems that provide primary productivity, such as seagrass
beds, macro-algal reefs, phytoplankton communities, mangrove forests, salt
marshes, cyanobacterial mats, and coral reef communities are crucial for the
functioning of the marine ecosystems in the Gulf. Even more important, the
seawater is of direct concern for freshwater security, because most of the drinking
water for people comes from the sea, in an area with the highest density of
desalinization plants in the world.
Scientific research into the natural ecosystems will be very important in order
to have the necessary knowledge base to enable us to carry out coastal and marine
engineering projects with limited adverse environmental impacts. It will also be
particularly useful in decision-making for addressing any form of marine
pollution, with a special view to food and water security.
Even though the regional organizations ROPME and MEMAC,
intergovernmental organizations such as UNESCO, UNEP, and IMO, national
environmental agencies, ministries, authorities, universities, a number of NGOs,
as well as health, safety, and environment departments of private sector
companies, are dealing with the subject of combating marine pollution, the
science-based management of ecosystems and the maintenance of intact
ecosystems and clean water are very difficult tasks that lie ahead.
It is with this in mind that UNESCO decided to pursue the request of the
National Commissions for Education, Science, and Culture of the Kingdom of
Bahrain, the State of Kuwait, the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, the
XIV Foreword

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates, to produce a science-
based book on pollution management.
I express my sincere thanks to the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company for their
generous sponsorship, and to the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation
and Development in Saudi Arabia for their cooperation. I congratulate the authors
and editors of this new scientific volume for their important contribution to
combating marine pollution, which I am sure will be warmly welcomed.

Walter Erdelen
Assistant Director-General, Natural Sciences Sector, UNESCO
Foreword

It is my honor to present to you the new science-based publication “Protecting the

Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution”, coordinated by the National
Commission of Wildlife Conservation and Development NCWCD, Riyadh, in
conjunction with UNESCO, supported by the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company
ADNOC. The project was initiated by UNESCO Doha, based on suggestions from
the UNESCO National Commissions in the Gulf.
The coastal areas in the Gulf are rapidly developing, with some major coastal
engineering projects emerging. The development has positive, and also negative
aspects, and marine pollution is one of them. Sustainable human development
depends on the efficiency and ability to provide reliable information, based on
environmental data and human activities. Therefore it is advisable to keep abreast
of progress in environmental sciences, environmental education, and social
transformation. It is essential to scientifically document and analyse the different
types of pollution and their effects on the environment, and to generate knowledge
and technologies on how to prevent and minimize adverse impacts based on
pollution.
The marine and coastal zones are an integral part of the natural and cultural
heritage of the maritime countries in the Gulf. Extensive inter tidal and marine
ecosystems exist here, with a broad variety of habitats and biological diversity. In
the past, today, and in the future, the people here depend on the marine and
coastal resources. In a functionary sense the ecosystems via desalinization plants,
provide drinking water for the local inhabitants, and as well serve as areas for
recreation, fishing, urban development, and transport. These resources are
essential for the continuous supply of freshwater, fish, crustaceans, for marine
primary productivity, and for ecosystem functioning. Therefore, the marine and
coastal resources have to be dealt with the greatest care and sensitivity.
Together we have to try and continuously guarantee maximum benefit for the
human population, based on intact and healthy environment. The benefits include
the protection of the human population from environmentally caused diseases, as
well as the development of environment-based jobs and income.
ADNOC is fully aware of the importance of the ecosystems biotic and abiotic
components, and it is with this in mind that ADNOC decided to support this book
publication “Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution”. The reader
will learn from the articles in this publication, about the existing threats of
pollution that exist in the region, and methods of pollution management.
Improving the knowledge of environmental managers, researchers, administrators,
XVI Foreword

and decision makers, will contribute towards improvement of environmental

management in the Gulf.
We congratulate the authors for their excellent work, and we hope it will
inspire the environmental agencies and stakeholders in the region to continuously
work together towards professional environmental management.
Finally we thank the NCWCD and the UNESCO Regional Office in the Arab
States of the Gulf for initiating this activity, and for their professional partnership,
and we thank the Environment Agency - Abu Dhabi, the University of Heidelberg
and the Senckenberg Research Institute for logistic support, and last not least the
authors for their excellent contributions.

Yousef Omair bin Yousef

Secretary General of the Supreme Petroleum Council
Chief Executive Officer of Abu Dhabi National Oil Company (ADNOC).
Protecting the Gulf’s Marine Ecosystems from Pollution
Edited by A.H. Abuzinada, H.-J. Barth, F. Krupp, B. Böer and T.Z. Al Abdessalaam
© 2008 Birkhäuser Verlag/Switzerland

Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf

Hans-Jörg Barth1 and Nuzrat Yar Khan2

1
Department of Geography, Heidelberg University, Germany
2
Sustainable Development Study Centre, Government College University,
Lahore, Pakistan

The Gulf is a semi-enclosed sea (total area 240,000 km2) situated in the
subtropical high-pressure-zone and thus characterized by low precipitation and
high aridity, resulting in evaporation rates above 2000 mm yr-1 (Barth 1998). It is
a shallow sedimentary basin, about 1000 km long and between 200 and 330 km
wide. The average depth is presently 35 m with a generally eastward dipping
seafloor. The deepest areas are in front of the Iranian coast, reaching from 60 m to
about 100 m at the entrance to the Strait of Hormuz. Thus, the whole Gulf lies
within the photic zone. The shoreline at the Arabian side displays a gradual slope
with a wide intertidal zone, compared to the steep and narrow shoreline at the
Iranian side where the Zagros mountains rise more than 2000 m. As a
consequence of the gradual topography and of the favourable environment to
carbonate producing biota, the Gulf is a strongly sedimentary province with a
dominating soft substrate benthos. Sediments of biogenic carbonates - mostly
foraminifera - exist over much of the Gulf floor (Sheppard et al. 1992). Highest
carbonate concentrations are to be found in the shallow waters of the western and
southern Gulf (Fig. 1). Within a depositional setting along the southern Gulf coast
the offshore bank is progressively extending (Kendall et al. 2002). Terrestrial
sediments are limited to the northwest where the waterway of the Shatt al Arab
discharges into the Gulf, and the eastern Iranian shoreline where terrestrial fluvial
sediments from the Zagros mountains occasionally are accumulated in the
nearshore region. Offshore, underlying salt domes have forced upwards numerous
islands and banks of hard substrate which are now colonized by corals.
2 Hans-Jörg Barth and Nuzrat Yar Khan

Figure 1. Carbonate content of surface sediments in the Gulf (modified after Sheppard et
al. 1992).

Geology of the Gulf region

The geologic situation of the Gulf region is basically the result of continuous
sediment accumulation since Paleozoic times. The present structure was
established during major tectonic processes in the Tertiary period. The Arabian
Peninsula originally was attached to the African (Nubian) Shield. At the
beginning of the Cambrian to the north and the east of the Arabian Peninsula a
great sedimentary basin (Tethys) had developed. Throughout the Paleozoic,
Mesozoic, and early Cenozoic times sediments accumulated in this slowly sinking
trough. In the wide epicontinental seas between the Tethys and the Arabian
Peninsula, a relatively thin succession of almost flat lying Paleozoic, Mesozoic,
and early Cenozoic strata was deposited (Chapman 1978). These strata spread
widely over the eastern Arabian Peninsula. In the late Cretaceous, orogenic
movements constituted the first stage of the Alpine orogeny. The second stage
began in the late Tertiary, when the deformed rocks of the geosyncline started to
rise, leading to the formation of the Taurus, the Zagros mountains, and the Oman
mountains. The Arabian Peninsula itself was little affected by this uplift except for
being tilted towards the eastern Gulf region. There subsidence continued. In the
middle Tertiary (25 Ma ago), when these events were at progress, the Arabian
plate started to split away from the African Shield along the large rift system
Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf 3

which extends from the Gulf of Aqaba and the Dead sea rift in the north to the
Afar triangle in Ethiopia. There it diverges through the Gulf of Aden into the
Arabian Sea and down the African mainland as the large African Rift Valley
System in the south. The separated Arabian plate started moving northeastward
with a slight counter-clockwise turn, sliding beneath the great Asian plate in Iran.
The tensional forces along the rift lead to the formation of a graben structure (Red
Sea depression) with a pronounced relief between the plateau and the floor of the
rift. Magma rising up the faults covered large parts of the eastern Arabian Shield.
This development continues until the present. The current Red Sea rift is
estimated to be between 2 and 3 cm each year (Stanley 1994).
Thus the Arabian Peninsula can be divided into two structural provinces. The
Arabian Shield in the west is part of the Precambrian crustal plate, generally
exposed except the parts which are covered by tertiary volcanic rock. The second
structural province is the Arabian Shelf in the east which consists of the
sedimentary sequences covering the plate.

The Arabian Shelf

The Arabian Shelf lies to the east of the shield where it forms two thirds of the
peninsula. Its foundation consists of the same Precambrian plate that makes up the
shield. On top of this basement a series of continental and shallow water marine
sediments accumulated, ranging from Cambrian to Pliocene age. These layers dip
gently away from the shield into a number of deep basins (Chapman 1978). Thus
the thickness of the sediment strata increases gradually from the west to the east
where in the coastal lowlands 11,000 m are reached (Alsharhan and Nairn 1997).
Beside the main Zagros Reverse Fault even 18,000 m of sediment has
accumulated (Edgell 1996). Erosion exposed most of the sediments, forming a
series of parallel strike escarpments facing westward, each capped with resistant
limestone. These cuestas are exposed in a great curved belt along the eastern
margin of the shield, reflecting the gently arched surface of the buried basement.
Large parts of the basins in the southeast (Rub’al Khali), east (Gulf), and
northeast (Nefud) are covered by quaternary sandy sediments. The Persian Gulf
Basin is the largest basin with active salt tectonism in the world. The more than
900 km long Gulf is the present-day geosynclinal expression of the 2600 km long
Persian Gulf Basin. The Persian Gulf Basin consists of a number of NW-SE
trending, geotectonic units such as the Arabian Plattform and the zone of marginal
troughs, including the Zagros Fold Belt, limited on the northeast by the Main
Zagros Reverse Fault (Edgell 1996). The Basin is crossed by several N-S
structures, expressed by the major Qatar-Kazerun lineament (Qatar Arch). These
rejuvenated uplifts have existed for 650 Ma. The Halokinesis in the Gulf
originates where major intersecting basement faults (e.g. the Qatar-Kazerun
lineament) cut the buoyant salt beds of the different formations (Edgell 1996).
Diapiric oil fields as a result of salt tectonism account for 60% of the recoverable
oil reserves of the Persian Gulf Basin (Edgell 1996).
4 Hans-Jörg Barth and Nuzrat Yar Khan

3.2 cm/year

ARABIAN
GULF
2 cm/year

RED
SEA

Quarternary
Rub’ al Khali
Tertiary volcanic rocks

Miocene and Pliocene

Oligocene

Palaeocene /Eocene

Cretaceous
2 cm/year
Jurassic

Triassic

Palaeozoic

Precambrian
Precambrium

Figure 2. Geology of the Arabian Peninsula and tectonic movements (after Chapman 1978
and Johnson 1998).

The southern part of the Mesopotamian depression includes the Gulf and a narrow
coastal strip of the Arabian Peninsula. This coastal strip is the Gulf coastal region.
The elevation of the coastal region rises gradually inland at a rate of about one
metre per kilometre. The coastline is irregular, low, and sandy and the water has
many shoals, so that tidal changes cause the waterfront to shift back and forth up
to several kilometres. Sabkhat (salt flats) are common all along the coast from
Kuwait to the southern end of the Gulf (Barth 2002). On the Iranian side steep
shores formed by the anticlinal fold structure from the foothills of the Zagros
mountains are dominant, together with narrow bands of alluvial coastal lowlands.

Sea level changes

Considerably lower sea levels and even complete evaporation of the Gulf
occurred in the Pleistocene. The period between 110 ka BP and 30 ka BP was
characterised by considerable sea level fluctuations within the range of 30 and 60
m below present sea level (Sheppard et al. 1992). These sea levels correspond to
Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf 5

the depths of major wadis, especially at the Read Sea coast. After 30 ka BP the
sea level fell rapidly to a minimum at about 17 ka BP. The values provided by
various authors range between 120 and 150 m below present sea level. This
implies that the Gulf was completely dry during that period. At about 15 ka BP
global surface temperatures increased, which lead to the Holocene transgression.
The rise in sea level commenced about 14 ka BP and proceeded rapidly to near
present levels at about 6.0 ka BP. This transgression was especially pronounced
during periods at 12 ka, 11 ka, 9.5 ka, 8.5 ka, and 7.0 ka BP (Teller et al. 2000,
Glennie 1998) (Fig. 3). The average horizontal transgression between 13 ka and
6.0 ka must have been 140 m yr-1, but during periods of intense sea level rise this
distance increased to more than 1000 m (Teller et al. 2000). The transgression
reached its maximum at about 6.0 ka BP. At that time the sea level was between
2.5 (Felber et al. 1978) and 3.5 m (Lambeck 1996) above the actual level.

Figure 3. Palaeogeographic map showing the Gulf during the post-glacial transgression
(source: Barth 2001, Uchupi et al. 1999, Glennie 1998, Felber et al. 1978).

About the succeeding development there are different opinions. Felber et al.
(1978) and Evans et al. (1969) state that the maximum sea level situation persisted
for about 2,000 years before regression started gradually. Kassler (1973) and Al-
Asfour (1978) assert a considerable regression to two meters below the present
sea level at 5,000 yr BP and a following transgression back to the 6,000 yr BP-
level at 4,000 yr BP. The later development was characterised by alternation of
trans- and regression (Fig. 3). Evans et al. (1969), Felber (1978), and Hötzl et al.
6 Hans-Jörg Barth and Nuzrat Yar Khan

(1984) as well as more recent studies (Alsharhan et al. 1995) promote the idea of a
more gradual regression starting at 4,000 yr BP and reaching today’s level at
about 1,000 yr BP (Fig. 4).

8 6 4 2 0 years B.P.
5 in 1000

present
0 sea level

-5
sea level in m

-10

-15

Kassler, 1973
-20
Al-Asfour, 1978
Felber et al., 1978
-25

-30

Figure 4. Sea level changes of the Gulf during the last 8000 years (based on 14C-dates of
calcareous shells)(Barth 2001).

But even later than 1,000 yr BP the coastal geography at the western and southern
Gulf coast experienced significant changes. Seaward progradation of carbonate
intertidal flats in the UAE amounts up to seven kilometres during the last 4,000
years (Kinsman 1964). Coastal marine sediments, found in a distance of more
than two kilometres from the present intertidal zone north of Jubail (Saudi
Arabia), provided 14C dates (of cyanobacteria) of 700 yr BP. This implies an
average progradation of more than 3 m/year (Barth 2001). 14C dates of
cyanobacteria by Evans et al. (1969) in the Abu Dhabi sabkha indicate an average
progradation rate of one metre per year for the last 1,000 years. Evans (2002)
points out that the recent cyanobacterial mats lie slightly higher than the remains
of older mats further inland. This may be due to local tectonics or some change in
coastal morphology and the rate of supply of sediment, but there is also the
possibility that it reflects a slight sea level rise (Evans 2002). Studies carried out
by Al-Mansi (1992) may indicate a minimal rise of sea level in the Gulf of 2-3.8
cm between Ras Tanura and Saffaniya in the time period from 1980 to 1991.
Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf 7

General climate pattern

The climate of the Gulf region is a typical desert and semi-desert climate,
characterized by high summer temperatures and aridity throughout the year, due
to its geographical situation within the subtropical high pressure belt. Descending
air is adiabatically warmed as it looses altitude and consequently dries. This leads
to an almost complete dispersal of cloud and an absence of rain, except when this
pattern is disturbed by incursions from outside. These occur in the winter months
between October and April. Thus, in the northern parts of the Gulf, rain is almost
exclusively confined to this period. In the summer season the “Trade Winds”,
which are generally north-easterlies, become north to northwest winds as a result
of locally dominant pressure patterns over the Gulf and the Asian land mass to the
east. The surface circulation in the summer months is influenced by two pressure
zones. First, the eastern north-African high pressure centre, which - because of its
clockwise turn - leads to northern currents over the Gulf region. Second, the
thermal continental low pressure cell over the Asian land mass that reaches from
the Indian subcontinent into the Gulf. It provides - because of its anti-clockwise
turn - a northerly current on its western flank (Fig. 5 a). The southernmost area of
the Gulf as well as the Gulf of Oman may then receive precipitation from
monsoonal currents originating in the Asian low pressure cell which attracts
tropical air masses.
Due to the southward shift of the global pressure belts in the winter months,
atlantic cyclones breaking free from the sub-polar low pressure belt move
eastward across the Mediterranean Sea and pass across the northern part of the
Arabian Peninsula. These depressions are gradually dissipated as they move east
or southeast across Arabia, and the probability of rain thus decreases to the
southeast. South-eastern winds are the result of currents on the south-western
flank of the continental Asian high pressure cell (Fig. 5 b).
Precipitation in the northern Gulf region in not exclusively due to the
influence of Mediterranean depressions. Recent studies by Barth and Steinkohl
(2004) demonstrate that the formation of new low pressure centres in Iraq, west to
the Zagros mountains is equally important. Thermal convection, as well as the
influence of currents from Sudan and Ethiopia, are other significant precipitation
sources.
8 Hans-Jörg Barth and Nuzrat Yar Khan

A
Europe

India
Africa

Arabia

Indian Ocean

B
Europe

Africa India
Arabia

Africa India
Arabia
Indian Ocean

Figure 5. Pressure zones influencing the Arabian Peninsula in July (A) and January (B)
after Breed et al. (1979). The low pressure trough above the Gulf in summer leads to strong
northern and northwestern currents of the Shamal.
Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf 9

Hydrographical influences
The marine environment of the Gulf along the Saudi Arabian shores is a unique
ecosystem among the world’s oceans. Primary determining factors are its
restricted water exchange with the Arabian Sea, its high evaporation and low fresh
water input, and its isolation (Hunter 1983).

Salinity and circulation

Due to the high evaporation rates (more than 2,000 mm yr-1) there is a net loss of
water in the Gulf. This creates a density dependent estuarine reverse flow
(Reynolds 2002, Meshal and Hassan 1986). Fresh sea water (from the Indian
Ocean) enters the Gulf through the Strait of Hormuz at a salinity of 36.5-37 ppt
and circulates in a general counter-clockwise direction with northward currents
along the Iranian shores and southward currents along the Saudi Arabian shores.
With increasing distance from the Strait of Hormuz there is a general decrease in
nutrients and increase in salinity because of excess of evaporation over fresh sea
water input (Fig. 6).

Figure 6. Salinity of the Gulf surface water (in ppt) and general surface water circulation
pattern.

The velocity of this current along the Iranian coast is the highest but gradually
decreases towards the northern part of the Gulf and becomes rather sluggish along
10 Hans-Jörg Barth and Nuzrat Yar Khan

the western and southern coasts. Because of its relative consistency, this density
driven current probably plays an important role in sediment dispersion, sediment
deposition, and pollutant removal out of the Gulf through the Strait of Hormuz.
The northern part of the Gulf represents a low energy zone and the circulation in
this part of the Gulf is largely wind driven in the south-easterly direction on both
the Iranian and Arabian sides (Elshorbagy et al. 2006, Swift and Bower 2003,
Johns et al. 2003, Reynolds 2002, 1993).
In the northern Gulf the diluting influence of the Shatt al Arab at the northwest
corner of the Gulf is evident throughout the year, but especially in winter when
flow is greater (Sheppard et al. 1992). The dense saline water of the western Gulf
(now 40 ppt) sinks towards the trough along the Iranian coast and is returned
southward in greater depths. It exits the Gulf via the Strait of Hormuz as a deep
water current, providing the driving force for the renewal of the Gulf water. In
winter, temperature gradients increase the density flow, since water retained in the
south cools more than the inflowing water. The total exchange rate of the Gulf
water is estimated from 3-5 years (Sheppard et al. 1992).
Going southward along the coast of Saudi Arabia, the salinity increases
dramatically south from Al-Khobar where restricted water exchange in the Gulf of
Salwah, due to the Peninsula of Qatar, promotes highly saline conditions (Fig. 6).
Salinities range between 38-42 ppt in the region north of Al-Khobar and 52-59
ppt in the open waters of the Gulf of Salwah (KFUPM/RI 1988). Because salinity
is a controlling factor for occurrence and abundance of organisms, the waters
south of Al-Khobar display a less diverse plant and animal life (Coles and
McCain 1989). Studies carried out by the KFUPM/RI (1988) showed, that salinity
is the physical variable most highly correlated with changes in plankton
abundance. Reef corals and many other major taxonomic groups are not found
south of Tarut Bay, and the number of species and individuals of benthic infaunal
organisms and zooplankton decrease significantly with increasing salinity (Cole
and McCain 1989).

Tidal pattern
In the Gulf, the tidal pattern is complex and does not correlate with the tides of the
Indian Ocean, although they are driven to some extent by the tidal forces
propagating through the Strait of Hormuz. There are two amphidromic points
where tidal range is zero (and around which tidal waves rotate). One is off the
northern Saudi Arabian coast and the second off the UAE coast. The tidal regime
in the central part is complex and basically semi diurnal (tidal cycle over 12 hours
so that, on successive days, high and low tides occur approximately one hour
later). However, in some areas of the Gulf there is only one daily, or diurnal, tide
(Fig. 7).
Over most of the Gulf away from shore, tidal range is <0.6 m, but it rises to 1-
2 m near land (Sheppard et al. 1992). Off Kuwait at the northern tip of the Gulf,
spring tidal range reaches two metres in the south and four metres in the north
(Jones 1986). Because of the barrier effect from a shallow reef complex between
Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf 11

Qatar and Bahrain, the water in the Gulf of Salwah is more restricted than the
width of its entrance suggests. Tidal ranges, which are about 1.2 m at the northern
shores of Bahrain, are reduced to 0.5 m in the south of the Gulf of Salwah and its
phase lags considerably (Sheppard et al. 1992).

Figure 7. Tides in the Gulf. Note the two amphidromic points around which the tidal wave
rotates and where tidal amplitude is zero (data: Jones 1986).

Temperature
The high temperature amplitudes are another controlling factor regarding the
distribution of fauna and flora in the Gulf. Particularly at nearshore areas, where
annual fluctuations of temperature exceed 20°C (16-36°C; compared to 17-34°C
in open Gulf waters) (KFUPM/RI 1988), marine communities must withstand
environmental conditions typical for tropical as well as for temperate regions.
Thus, the species diversity is low. However, in shallow inshore areas with
restricted circulation like Dawhat ad-Dafi (Saudi Arabia), summer water
temperatures can exceed 36°C and winter values may fall below 15°C (Jones et al.
1994). There is a general gradient from the northern towards the southern Gulf
(Fig. 8). The gradient is highest in winter when the difference between the open
Gulf waters of Kuwait and the UAE is 8°C (Fig. 8, January situation). Towards
summer this gradient decreases to less than 2°C. In October, when the lower
12 Hans-Jörg Barth and Nuzrat Yar Khan

temperatures in the north are reflected in the sea surface temperature, the gradient
increases again.

Figure 8. Sea surface temperatures of the Gulf in January (source: FNMOC OTIS).

Chemistry
The chemical environment in the Gulf is characterized by relatively low
concentrations of nutrients (compared to other oceans), utilized in primary
production by marine algae and higher plants. Because there is evidence of
nutrient limitation, the true pelagic productivity in the Gulf is reduced. Thus, the
Gulf can be considered to be one of the most productive bodies of water in the
world regarding benthic production (Sheppard et al. 1992). In general, the
concentrations of nutrients correlate negatively with the salinity. Phosphate, one
of the most important nutrients, decreases rapidly south of Al-Khobar and with
proximity to the shoreline (Cole and McCain 1989, Fig. 9 a). This suggests rapid
utilisation of phosphate and that it may be limiting to primary production. Silicate
though -important as a structural component of phytoplanctonic diatoms and
silicio-flagellates- generally shows high concentrations in the Gulf and
significantly increasing values at the southern Saudi Arabian shores (Fig. 9 b).
According to Cole and McCain (1989), ammonia, turbidity, and suspended solids
follow a similar pattern like silicate with values increasing with proximity to the
shoreline and into the Gulf of Salwah. Nitrate and nitrite concentrations show no
clear spatial distribution.
Biogeophysical setting of the Gulf 13

A B

Figure 9. A: Concentrations of anorganic phosphate in μg/l at a selected location (source:

KFUPM/RI 1988). B: Concentrations of silicate in μg/l (source: KFUPM/RI 1988).

Recent reviews (Elshorbagy et al. 2006, Swift and Bower 2003, Johns et al. 2003,
Reynolds 2002, 1993, Lardner et al. 1993) have identified a number of critical
gaps in knowledge of the physical oceanography of the Gulf. In particular, these
reviews have emphasized the need to more accurately determine: 1) the water
exchange rate at the Strait of Hormuz by direct measurements, 2) circulation in
the northern Gulf for different winds and seasons, 3) over- the-water stress and
energy fluxes, 4) accurate evaporation rates through direct measurements, and 5) a
better understanding of the circulations in the Gulf of Oman, their seasonal and
spatial variations, and the exchange of water with the strait of Hormuz and the
Arabian Sea. These data are necessary for the prediction and validation of
sediment and pollutant budgets, pollutant dispersion, and residence times in the
ROPME sea area (Reynolds 2002).

Habitats
Because of the relative shallowness and water clarity of the coastal areas, the
coastal sediments in the Gulf support highly productive habitats, such as extensive
intertidal mudflats, seagrass and algal beds, mangroves, and coral reefs (Jones et
al. 2002, Sheppard et al. 1992). The productivity in the Gulf is, therefore, largely
sediment-based. According to one estimate the productivity of the benthic system
is 1,820 g C m-2 yr-1 as opposed to the 200 g C m-2 yr-1 for the water column
(McGlade and Price 1993). These productive habitats are limited to waters less
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