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INTRODUCTION TO REFERENCE WORK
VOLUME I Basic Information
Services
 INTRODUCTION
TO REFERENCE WORK
Volume I Basic Information
Services
Eighth Edition

William A. Katz
State University of New York at Albany

Boston Burr Ridge, IL Dubuque, IA Madison, WI New York

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McGraw-Hill Higher Education
A Division of The McGraw-Hill Companies

INTRODUCTION TO REFERENCE WORK, VOLUME I

Published by McGraw-Hill, an imprint of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 1221 Avenue
of the Americas, New York, NY, 10020. Copyright © 2002, 1997, 1992, 1987, 1982, 1978,
1974, 1969 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publi-
cation may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data
base or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Compa-
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Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to cus-
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Sponsoring editor: Valerie Raymond
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Katz, William A., 1924–

Introduction to reference work / William A. Katz.—8th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Contents: v. 1. Basic information services—v. 2. Reference services and reference
processes.
ISBN 0-07-244107-0 (v. 1) — ISBN 0-07-244143-7 (v. 2)
1. Reference services (Libraries) 2. Reference books—Bibliography. I. Title.

Z711.K32 2002
025.5’52—dc21
00-069536

INTERNATIONAL EDITION ISBN 0-07-112074-2

Copyright © 2002. Exclusive rights by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. for manufacture
and export.
This book cannot be re-exported from the country to which it is sold by McGraw-Hill. The
International Edition is not available in North America.

www.mhhe.com
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

WILLIAM A. KATZ is a professor at the School of Information Science

and Policy, State University of New York at Albany. He was a librarian at
the King County (Washington) Library for four years and worked in the
editiorial department of the American Library Association. He received
his Ph.D. from the University of Chicago and has been the editor of RQ,
the journal of the Reference and Adult Services Division of the American
Library Association, and the Journal of Education for Librarianship. Profes-
sor Katz is now editor of The Reference Librarian, a quarterly devoted to
issues in modern reference and information services, and The Acquisitions
Librarian, concerned with collection development. He is the editor of
Magazines for Libraries and has compiled a second edition of The Columbia
Granger’s Guide to Poetry Anthologies. He is editor of a series on the history
of the book for Scarecrow Press including his A History of Book Illustration
and Dahl’s History of the Book. Presently, he is writing a cultural history of
reference books.
CONTENTS

Preface xiii

PART I INTRODUCTION

1 Reference Librarians on the Information

Highway 3
Information Sources 4
Electronic Sources 9
Who Uses Reference Services 11
Reference Service Guidelines 14
Questions and Searches 15
Reference Interview and Search 19
Evaluation of Reference Sources 26
Suggested Reading 36

2 The Electronic Library 39

Cast the Net 40
Bibliographic Networks 42
Reference on the Internet 44
Search Engines 51

vii
viii CONTENTS

Searching the Web 58

Future of Reference Services 66
Suggested Reading 68

PART II INFORMATION: CONTROL AND ACCESS

3 Bibliography 75
Systematic Enumerative Bibliography 76
Evaluation of Bibliography 80
Guide to Reference Sources 81
Current Selection Aids 86
Indexes To Reviews 91
Electronic Databases 93
Bibliographies: Nonprint Materials 94
Suggested Reading 97

4 National and Trade Bibliographies 99

National Union Catalog (MARC) 100
National Bibliographies Outside the United States 106
Trade Bibliography 108
Publishing and Libraries 113
Bibliographies: Periodicals and Newspapers 116
Reader’s Advisory Services 125
Suggested Reading 130

5 Indexing and Abstracting Services:

General and Collections 131
Index Scope and Content 132
Searching An Index 135
Full-Text Availability 138
Index Evaluation 140
Evaluation Problems and Cost 144
General Periodical Indexes 145
 CONTENTS ix

Internet Worldwide Web 159

Current Contents 160
Retrospective Searches 162
General Indexes: Print Format 164
Indexes to Materials in Collections 166
Suggested Reading 170

6 Indexing and Abstracting Services:

Subject and Newspaper 171
Humanities 173
Social Sciences 174
Citation Indexes 177
Specific Subject Indexes 180
Current Events: Newspapers, Indexes, Reference Aids 200
Suggested Reading 210

7 Encyclopedias: General and Subject Sets 213

The Electronic vs. Print Encyclopedias 214
Evaluating Encyclopedias 218
Evaluation Points 219
Adult Encyclopedias 228
Popular Adult and High School 235
Children and Young Adult 242
Other Children’s Sets 246
Encyclopedia Supplements: Yearbooks, CD-ROMs,
Online 250
One Volume Encyclopedias 251
Foreign-Published Multi-Volume Encyclopedias:
Print Format 254
Subject Encyclopedias 260
Art and Arts 262
Philosophy 269
Suggested Reading 276
x CONTENTS

8 Ready-Reference Sources: Almanacs, Yearbooks,

Handbooks, Directories 277
Evaluation 281
General Fact Books 283
Almanacs and Yearbooks 286
Representative Yearbooks 291
Handbooks and Manuals 298
Advice and Information 309
Directories 321
Libraries 335
Statistics 335
Suggested Reading 341

9 Biographical Sourc e s 343

Searching Biographical Sources 344
Evaluation 345
Indexes to Biography 351
Universal and Current Biographical Sources 354
Directory: The Who’s Who Form 356
Essay Form of Biographical Sources 362
Retrospective Essay Biography 364
Professional and Subject Biographies 368
Group Subject Biographies 373
Suggested Reading 375

10 Dictionaries 377
Evaluation 379
Unabridged Dictionaries 388
Desk (College) Dictionaries 390
Children’s Dictionaries 396
Thesaurus/Synonyms and Antonyms 398
Historical Dictionaries 403
Foreign Language Dictionaries (Bilingual) 409
 CONTENTS xi

Subject Dictionaries 412

Suggested Reading 415

11 Geographical Sourc e s 417

Geographical Sources 420
Evaluation 424
Geographical Encyclopedias and Dictionaries 427
Atlases and Maps 428
Gazetteers 436
Thematic Atlases and Maps 437
Street Maps 439
Travel Guides 443
Suggested Reading 446

12 Government Documents 447

Organization and Selection 449
Guides 453
Government Organization 456
Catalogs 460
Congress 462
Indexes and the Census 468
Technical—Scientific Reports 470
State and Local Documents 471
Suggested Reading 473

Index 475
PREFACE

As in previous editions, this eighth edition of Introduction to Reference

Work: Volume I, Basic Information Services is virtually rewritten. It is the
author’s conviction that the ongoing revolution in reference sources
and the reference process requires such complete revision.

NEW TO THIS EDITION

Since the previous edition of this text, which offers an overview of

reference services for curious students, the computer revolution has
become an intransigent part of the library. What was radical is now an
acceptable, expected part of daily library reference work. The
revolution sped from agitation to acceptance in less than a decade. This
is not to say the shape and methodology of reference service is now
established. Change and motion is built into the electronic miracle and
it continues to transform itself. Reference can be summarized in the
words of the immortal Monty Python: “Now, for something completely
different.” Not a month goes by that somebody, somewhere discovers a
new method of finding answers to questions. And it normally is tied
closely to a computer.
Today reference libraries turn to indexes, encyclopedias, or direc-
tories for the same type of information as they did decades ago. The
essential difference is threefold.
• First, one may use not only a print source, but also an electronic
database, usually online and easily accessible on the Internet. CD-
ROMs, too, are popular.
xiii
xiv PREFACE

• Second, the library offers access not only to local resources, but also
to all that has been published since the beginning of printing.
There is little information that is not within the reach of a computer
keyboard in almost every library in the United States and Canada.
• Third, the reference librarian uses traditional basic reference works
and now acts as mediator as well, a middle person between masses
of information and the user who is unable to discriminate the good
from the poor, the best from the better. More and more the refer-
ence librarian has become the key professional information expert.
Today he or she is necessary to filter the mass of undifferentiated
information that flows over national and international networks.
Other trends in this revision are based upon probable reference ser-
vices in the next decade. The changes represent a consensus among work-
ing reference librarians:
1. The Internet and its numerous configurations and promises is
the basic carrier for information. In a short time it will replace standard
print and CD-ROM formats.
2. The information highway is filled with ruts, bumps, and numer-
ous hazards which few laypersons can avoid. The trained reference librar-
ian not only bypasses such dangers but takes the user from beginning to
end of a search with a minimum of difficulty.
3. Thanks to government intervention which ensures cheap access
to the Internet, coupled with a growing trend towards literally giving away
hardware in order to persuade people to use the Internet, all libraries will
have Internet services available free to the public.
4. At the same time, standard information sources will remain as
they are today, slightly to wildly expensive. As truly refined information
databases become increasingly available, the library equally is increasingly
important to ensure information’s free access to the public.
5. Public, school, and academic libraries will make more databases
available. The reference librarians will be called upon to solve problems
as they arise for individual users.
6. The new technologies will increase the amount of reference
services.
7. Thanks to constant changes in technology and resources, the
librarian will have to continually renew, sharpen, and master new skills.
8. Subject expertise is increasingly important, particularly as the
number of reference sources become more specific and the users more
sophisticated.
9. Demand for instruction in the use of everything from comput-
ers to networks to pamphlets and, more particularly, online CD-ROM
searching will continue to grow.
 PREFACE xv

This first volume is by way of a training manual. No one can move

into the finer points of reference services (present and future) without
an understanding and mastery of basic reference forms, no matter what
packages they are delivered in. The primary purpose, as in past editions,
is to offer a lucid, accurate description of standard reference sources.

PLAN OF THE BOOK

The organization is much the same as in all editions. There is no reason

to change since the text is dealing with fundamentals which, no matter
what the information highway looks like or where it wanders, are
essential to information understanding.
The first section considers the reference services process. Chapter
1 and Chapter 2 cover the parameters and meaning of the electronic
library. Both chapters are expanded over the previous edition. The ini-
tial chapters serve as an explanation to two vital areas of reference ser-
vices—the community served and the technologies employed in service.
As in the previous edition, Part II, Information: Control and
Access, is concerned with bibliography and indexes. At this point,
though, the basic layout changes. There is first an online format for a
reference work, followed by a CD-ROM version, and last by the usually
initial printed book.
The format pattern (throughout both the first and second volume)
for reference works is shown below:
Online: Title of the reference source/publisher when it began publication/fre-
quency — and usually with a URL, i.e., an Internet address. As all major reference
sources are for a fee, the Internet address is not the actual address of the database
(which requires a password), but the address of the publisher and background infor-
mation on the source. Turn to your library’s Web page to find the actual reference
source online. If there, use the link to the online source. If not available from the
library, turn to another library and/or use the publisher’s URL given here as many
for-fee databases allow a limited free search, which is ideal for students.
CD-ROM: Title and publisher not given as the same as for online. Note,
though, where title of CD-ROM differs from the online version, this title is given
when it began publication/frequency/price where this is known.
Print: Title, which often differs from the online and/or CD-ROM when it
began publication/frequency/price (usually, let it be noted, much earlier than
the electronic formats).
It is important to recognize that prices and bibliographical data
changes. Even titles and publishers are subject to revision. Still, the basic
information given here remains much the same from year to year.
Bibliographical data is based on publishers’ catalogs, Books In Print,
Gale Directory of Database, and examination of the titles. Online and
xvi PREFACE

CD-ROM titles, for the most part, have been used at a computer termi-
nal. Also, the author has turned to excellent reviews for support and assis-
tance—particularly those in the Library Journal, Booklist, Online, Database,
and Choice. The information is applicable as of 2000 and, like price, is sub-
ject to change.
Emphasis is on form, not on specific titles. Each form, from bibli-
ographies to biographies, is discussed. Examples are given of titles—and
particularly those titles likely to be found in most public, academic, or
school libraries.
In describing each reference title the primary focus is on content,
and how that content differs from, say, similar titles. The use of the ref-
erence work is indicated.
No exhaustive effort is made to show how to search X or Y database.
Basic search patterns, especially where they are found in similar data-
bases, are considered, but sophisticated searching is not discussed. Why?
First, most schools and libraries have separate, necessary courses on data-
base searching. Second, software (in which the search is found) is as likely
to change as rapidly as the means of delivery of information. What may
be a valid explanation of a search today may be nothing but history
tomorrow. On the other hand, the basic content, the basic search
approach, is not likely to change. And that is why both are stressed.
Part III, Sources of Information, follows the pattern of previous edi-
tions. Again, entries are as they were outlined for the first section. Here,
though, the focus is on using “one-stop” information sources and how
they fit into the average reference services arrangement.

ONLINE VERSION OF THE TEXT AND UPDATES

This text, and its companion volume, can be purchased in electronic

format. Contact either your McGraw-Hill sales representative or visit
www.mhhe.com/primis/online for more information.
Updates to the text will be available on an accompanying website:
www.mhhe.com/katz.

SUGGESTED READING

In both volumes, suggested readings are found in the footnotes and at

the end of each chapter. When a publication is cited in a footnote, the
reference is rarely duplicated in the “Suggested Reading” section. For
the most part, these readings are limited to publications issued since
1998. In addition to providing readers with current thinking, the more
 PREFACE xvii

recent citations have the added bonus of making it easier for the student
to locate the readings. It is beyond argument, of course, that all readings
need not necessarily be current. Many older articles and books are as
valuable today as they were when first published. Thanks to teachers who
have retained earlier editions of this text it is possible to have a
bibliography of previous readings.
Two points about Internet readings. Material on the Internet dates
the moment it is published, whether in print or online. What is listed here
is considered basic, if only for a few years. Second point: Books in Print from
year to year has from 550 to 650 “Internet Guides.” Most of these are so
ephemeral to be worthless, but an effort has been made to pick a few that
deserve a longer life and are likely to be of most value to beginners.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Thanks are due to the reviewers who critiqued this book: Lesley Farmer,
California State University, Long Beach; Judith V. Lechner, Auburn
University; Ketty Rodriguez, University of Southern Mississippi; Gail M.
Staines, University of Buffalo; Ibrahim M. Stwodah, Longwood College.
Thanks are also due to the editors for this volume, Valerie Raymond
and Amy Shaffer, as well as thanks also to the indexer, Kelly Lutz.

W illiam A. Katz
INTRODUCTION TO REFERENCE WORK
VOLUME I Basic Information
Services
PART I
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER ONE
REFERENCE LIBRARIANS ON THE
INFORMATION HIGHWAY

S ince the first reference librarian rolled out of bed in Sumeria about
5,000 years ago, the day’s activities have been shaped by questions. The
librarian, who flourishes under scores of designations, from the early
“keeper of tablets” to the modern “information scientists,”1 is expected
to come up with precise answers to sometimes sloppy queries.
In the beginning, replies were drawn from memory. There was not
that much to remember. A wise person could say he or she knew all there
was to know. In small communities older people were respected (and
needed) because the memory of the old preserved the history and the
day by day working information required for existence—whether it be
avoiding marauders or knowing where to go in a period of little food.
By the 16th century “as parish registers became more systematized and
printing was more widespread, the old were gradually stripped of their
role as the community’s memory.”2
With the Dark Ages (c. 410–800) and through the Medieval period
and early Renaissance (c. 800–1500) the average library had a dozen or so
volumes and a large library might boast no more than 100 to 500 tomes.
The limited amount of reading matter explains the comforting notion
of an educated reader that all that was to be known was available.

1
Heard now and then in place of the descriptor “reference librarian” is “knowledge manager.”
This has numerous definitions, but “the basic elements include accessing, evaluating,
managing, organizing, filtering and distributing information.” Essentially, of course, it is
the same definition of “reference librarian.” For a less sanguine view of this development
see Ernest Perez, “Knowledge Management….” Database, April/May, 1999, p. 75–77.
2
George Minois, History of Old Age. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1989, p. 248.

3
4 INTRODUCTION

The invention of printing in the mid-15th century, the wide distri-

bution of books by the 16th century, the growth of literacy among the
middle classes in the 17th and 18th century, and the 19th century’s mass
education movement increased both the amount and the demand for
information. As early as the mid–18th century, people were complain-
ing there simply was too much to read, too much to know. Here, for
example, is the writer Laurence Sterne in 1760 discussing an early ver-
sion of the information explosion:
Thus my fellow labourers and associates in this great harvest of our learn-
ing, now ripening before our eyes; thus it is, by slow steps of casual increase,
that our knowledge physical, metaphysical, physiological, polemical, nau-
tical, mathematical, enigmatical, technical, biographical, romantical, chem-
ical, and obstetrical, with fifty other branches of it, (most of ‘em ending,
as these do, in ical) have…gradually been creeping upwards.3

More books are published each year trying to analyze today’s infor-
mation explosion than were found in monastic libraries from the fall of
Rome to the invention of printing. The claim is not as ridiculous as it may
seem. In 1400 years (i.e., c. 100–1500) the amount of information had
only doubled. Today information doubles several times each year.
The growth of learning today no longer can be termed “gradual.”
Increasingly it is apparent that finding specific bits of data among the
mass of undifferentiated information is the great challenge. And who
meets that challenge? Well, for one, reference librarians.

INFORMATION SOURCES

Less than a decade ago information sources were synonymous with the
printed book. Today the definition is turned on its electronic head.
There are one to three billion online websites which may (or may not)
contain useful information. Despite the development, librarians and wise
laypeople rely on specific information sources rather than undifferen-
tiated websites.
Basic reference sources are available online or as CD-ROMs, or
DVDs. It is unusual to use only printed reference works unless one is seek-
ing information before the early 1980s. Few electronic sources are ret-
rospective. Slightly after the turn of the century all major information

3
Laurence Sterne, Tristram Shandy. New York, NY: Modern Library, 1928, Book 1, Chapter
21, p. 56. Literature has numerous examples about the mass of information and difficulties
of retrieving what is wanted, e.g., see for example the by now classic story The Library of Babel
by Jorge Luis Borges. Here people have access to a library which contains answers to
everything, including future events. Joy turns to despair as users realize the library is so
big they are unable to find the answers they are looking for.
 REFERENCE LIBRARIANS ON THE INFORMATION HIGHWAY 5

sources, and particularly those used daily by reference librarians, will

be in digital form. Many, in fact, will not be available in print.
Be that as it may, the content, if not methods of retrieval, remains
the same no matter what format the publisher chooses. It is essential that
the professional librarian be able to turn to X or Y source for the proper
answer to X or Y question. How many titles should the new librarian be
familiar with when taking over a reference position?
The guides, directories, and bibliographies of reference sources—
such as Guide to Reference Books or Gale Directory of Databases—list and anno-
tate from close to 10,000 databases to 15,000 printed reference books.
Selected guidelines for a given subject or size of library may range in
number from a few hundred to about 2000. “Best Reference Books of…,”
a regular annual selection in Library Journal, normally selects 30 to 40
titles as the “best” of the year.
Surveys, formal and informal, constantly check to see what reference
sources are used in a typical library. Today, that is expanded to include
in what formats—print or digital. Answers represent as much habit as con-
sidered selection, as much personal favorites as the sum total of the library
staff’s choices. Much depends, too, on what question is asked, how it is
phrased, and how it is interpreted by the individual librarian. Within a sin-
gle day the same query might be fielded in several different fashions by
as many librarians. As long as the answer(s) is correct, it matters not, at
least if about the same amount of time and effort was spent on the query.
With all those variables, skepticism is in order for any except of the
in-house survey of “best” and “better” reference sources. Generalizations
are the result of even the most careful study. The generalizations often add
up to much of the same. For example, inevitably when asked what is the
single most-used source for reference questions the catalog comes first
followed by such standards as a periodical index, the World Almanac, Sta-
tistical Abstract of the United States and a dozen other much used sources.4
4
For example: Nancy Henry et al., “Scaling the Pyramids: Building a Collection of Basic
Foundations,” Reference & User Services Quarterly, Spring 2000, pp. 229–232. “What are the five
print reference books that you can’t work without?” A consensus includes: World Almanac,
World Book, Encyclopedia of Association, Random House Unabridged Dictionary, 2nd ed.,Britannica,
Statistical Abstracts, and the local, regional and major city phone books (p. 235). Online
databases considered as basic: Gale Group’s InfoTrac indexes; Phone disc or similar products;
American Business Disk; Electric Library; Amazon.com and the related Books in Print Plus.
In other places, other libraries, the list is much the same. See Carol Tenopir, “Reference Use
Statistics,” Library Journal, May 1, 1998, pp. 32, 34. In a survey of 44 university libraries, the
author found “a library’s online catalog answer the largest percentage of reference
questions…followed closely by print reference books.” OCLC, a bibliographic network,
found that among the books most widely held by its over 32,000 library members there
were a few reference titles. In order of most found in libraries they are: Turabian’s A Manual
For Writers; Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations; The New York Public Library Desk Reference; The Chicago
Manual of Style; The Random House Dictionary; and about six more including the librarian’s
own Guide to Reference Books. OCLC Newsletter, July/August, 1999, pp. 19–21.
6 INTRODUCTION

The most popular “reference book” in America is the Bible. It is

found in 93 percent of homes, primarily because 96 percent of Ameri-
cans believe in God. One-third of Americans claim to read the Bible once
a week, but as with other works of reference (in and out of libraries)
retention of information is not a strong point. The response of regular
Bible readers to a quiz shows the percentage who:

Can’t name the authors of the four Gospels: 54%.

Don’t know what a Gospel is: 63%.
Can’t name five of the Ten Commandments: 58%.
Think Joan of Arc was Noah’s wife: 10%.5

How many reference titles in print, CD-ROM, online, and in yet-

to-be-revealed formats should the student master? There is no single
answer. There are numerous variables. Also, each library has its own
“core” collection, its own “canon.” In this text about 400 to 500 titles
are considered basic. At the other extreme in his Distinguished Classics
of Reference Publishing (Phoenix, AZ: Oryx Press, 1992) which moves from
quotations to encyclopedias, James Rettig and friends agree that there
are at least 31 “major reference works” which anyone worthy of the name
of reference librarian should know. As a rule of thumb, the beginner
should be familiar with the much-used titles, from bibliography and
indexes to encyclopedias and almanacs, found in every library. This
amounts to mastering between 100 to 300 reference works. Beyond that
is the universe of 15,000-plus titles.
All major print reference works are now online (and/or on CD-
ROM). While the format differs the use and content of the reference
book is the same online or off. Also there are now scores to thousands
of websites which are unique to the Internet which from time to time may
be useful in reference. Fortunately, knowledge of the basic titles is
enough—at least for beginners.
Struggling to keep up with the latest information sources may not
only be stressful, it can be a danger to your health. A published study
found that “stress can shrink the part of the brain that stores memo-
ries.” And another, a year later, found that “surfing can be particularly
dangerous because it tends to be a leisure activity and people are less
aware of their posture and hands.” People of all ages often find them-
selves with computer aches and pains.6

5
Russell Shorto, “Belief by the Numbers,” The New York Times Magazine, December 7, 1997,
p. 60–61.
6
The New York Times, March 28, 1998, p. WK4; August 5, 1999, p. G3.
 REFERENCE LIBRARIANS ON THE INFORMATION HIGHWAY 7

The Control–Access–Directional Type of Source

The first broad class or form of reference sources is the bibliography. This
form is variously defined, but in its most general sense it is a systemati-
cally produced descriptive list of records.

Control. The bibliography serves as a control device, a kind of check-

list. It inventories what is produced from day to day and year to year in
such a way as to enable both the compiler and the user to feel they have
a control, through organization, of the steady flow of knowledge. The bib-
liography is prepared through research (finding the specific source),
identification, description, and classification.

Access. Once the items are controlled, the individual items are orga-
nized for easy access to facilitate intellectual work. All the access types
of reference works can be broadly defined as bibliographies, but they may
be subdivided as follows:
1. Bibliographies of reference sources and the literature of a field,
of either a general or a subject nature, for example, Guide to
Reference Books or The Information Sources of Political Science.
2. The library catalog or the catalogs of numerous libraries
arranged for easy access at a computer. Technically, these are not
bibliographies but are often used in the same manner.
3. General bibliographies, which include various subject forms of
bibliography, for example, The National Union Catalog.
4. Indexes and abstracts, which are usually treated separately from
bibliographies but are considered bibliographical aids—system-
atic listings which help identify and trace materials. Indexes to
the contents of magazines and newspapers are the most fre-
quently used types in the reference situation. Examples: The
Readers’ Guide to Periodical Literature and The New York Times Index.

Direction. Bibliographies themselves normally do not give definitive

answers, but serve to direct users to the sources of answers. For their effec-
tive use, the items listed must be either in the library or available from
another library system.
These days most access and control sources of reference works are
available in digital form. Few remain only in print.

Source Type
Works of source type usually suffice in themselves to give the answers.
Unlike the access type of reference work, they are synoptic.
8 INTRODUCTION

Encyclopedias. The single most-used sources are encyclopedias; they

may be defined as works containing informational articles on subjects
in every field of knowledge, usually arranged in alphabetical order. They
are used to answer specific questions about X topic or Y person or gen-
eral queries which may begin with “I want something about Z.” Examples:
Encyclopaedia Britannica; World Book Encyclopedia. Today, all are available in
print, online, and on CD-ROMs.

Fact Sources. Yearbooks, almanacs, handbooks, manuals, and direc-

tories are included in this category. All have different qualities, but they
share one common element: They are used to look up factual material
for quick reference. Together, they cover many facets of human knowl-
edge. Examples: World Almanac; Statesman’s Year Book.

Dictionaries. Sources that deal primarily with all aspects of words,

from proper definitions to spelling, are classified as dictionaries. Exam-
ples: Webster’s Third New International Dictionary; Dictionary of American Slang.

Biographical Sources. The self-evident sources of information on peo-

ple distinguished in some particular field of interest are known as bio-
graphical sources. Examples: Who’s Who; Current Biography.

Geographical Sources. The best-known forms are the atlases, which

not only show given countries but may illustrate themes such as histori-
cal development, social development, and scientific centers. Geograph-
ical sources also include gazetteers, dictionaries of place names, and
guidebooks. Example: The Times Atlas of the World.

Government Documents
Government documents are official publications ordered and normally
published by federal, state, and local governments. Since they may
include directional and source works, their separation into a particular
unit is more for convenience and organization than for different refer-
ence use. Examples: Monthly Catalog of United States Government Publica-
tions (access type); United States Government Manual (source type).
The neat categorization of reference types by access and by source
is not always distinct in an actual situation. A bibliography may be the
only source required if the question is merely one of verification or of
trying to complete a bibliographical citation. Conversely, the bibliog-
raphy at the end of an encyclopedia article or a statement in that arti-
cle may direct the patron to another source. In general, the two main
categories—access and source—serve to differentiate among the prin-
cipal types of reference works.
 REFERENCE LIBRARIANS ON THE INFORMATION HIGHWAY 9

ELECTRONIC SOURCES

The “information highway,” “information superhighway,” “information infra-

structure,” and “communications network” are a few descriptors indicative of
change and confusion. Whatever it may be called, the necessary approach
requires a vast amount of technology. And that’s what drives many refer-
ence librarians to the tea room. The constant change and shift in technology
and of carriers of information is not only confusing but expensive. The time
taken to master the forms and keep the library sources current is frighten-
ing. By not keeping up, today’s modern librarian can be tomorrow’s antique.
As a brief reminder: a CD-ROM (“compact disc-read-only memory”)
appears to be a CD from which one plays music. It holds up to 250,000
pages of text. Also, if “multimedia” programmed, it can hold pictures,
sound, music, and so on.”7 DVD: Originally DVD stood for “digital video
disk.” The acronym remains, but the name was abandoned when pro-
ducers realized the discs would be used for other purposes. The primary
commercial use remains for television because the discs offer higher
resolution pictures and better sound than a VCR tape.8
Online refers to information gathering from a server or mainframe
computer’s “database.”9 This, too, may have multimedia features, and
these will become more sophisticated. There are two major divisions
online, for–fee and free. Commercial online vendors and publishers (i.e.,
data dealers) expect payment for what is online. Their products, from
indexes to encyclopedias, require that the library pay for information
retrieval, by the hour, and subscribe or otherwise reach some type of mon-
etary agreement with the publisher. (The jargon “gated content” means
the information is paid for by the user to the commercial firm, or the
“gate.”) The second division is typified by the Internet World Wide Web
which, for the most part, offers free information and entertainment.10
7
Many believe, including the author of this text, that CD-ROMs will disappear. They will give
way to online—at least for reference work. In terms of entertainment, the CD-ROMs may
be about for many years to come. See: Peter Jacso, “Know When to Hold ‘em…” Computers
in Libraries, March, 1999, pp. 38–42. He, too, supports the notion that the CD is doomed
for reference services.
8
DVD developments have a major interest for librarians. In time DVD-ROM (or similar
technology with perhaps another name) will replace CD-ROMs as carriers because of its
superior storage capabilities, seven or more times greater than CDs. Images and sound, too,
are superior. Paul Nicholls, “DVD is Coming” Computers in Libraries, May, 1999, p. 57.
9
A “database” is an electronic form of data, i.e., in this text, the contents of what a few
years ago would be found in a reference book. Normally the database is stored in a
computer file or on a CD-ROM. It can be text or numerical, or both and usually includes
multimedia features from sound to visuals.
10
The for-fee, or free designation may disappear. All information may be free when and if
new methods of gaining online profit become available, i.e., advertising or similar
techniques which brings America free information on the radio and TV. Many, including
this author think the general for-fee databases may give this up to reach a wider audience.
10 INTRODUCTION

Why Electronic?
Until a few years ago if you wanted to read a page from the Oxford Eng-
lish Dictionary, which traces the history of words, you had to pull the heavy
volume from the shelf, hunt up the information, and possibly copy it
down or photocopy the page. If you were in a library without this refer-
ence work, it was necessary to have the page sent, or go to a library that
had the set. There were other problems. The volume you needed might
be missing, the page you needed might be torn out, and so on. Enter
the electronic OED (Oxford English Dictionary) in a digitized form. Now
one may search for the same word at a computer terminal. Furthermore,
it is possible to do such things as search for your word in the millions
of quotations in the complete set. There are numerous other points of
data one may extract electronically in seconds. Using the print version
the same quest might take hours, even months. Similar shortcuts are now
possible with countless reference works.
Electronic databases, online or CD-ROM, are practical. The advan-
tage to looking up an encyclopedia article in digital form is that it simul-
taneously offers text, illustrations, possibly sound effects, and a video of
whatever the subject from bird life to Chaucer. Scholars can now exam-
ine archives, manuscripts, and rare book texts.
Why do publishers and reference publishers specifically prefer elec-
tronic to print? There are several basic reasons. First, it is much less
expensive than print. Also, there are no major packaging and mailing
costs. Second, the data online can be updated by the minute, which
increases the use (and text sales) of the reference work. Third, some, but
not all, encourage interactivity which allows the users to send questions
or feedback. Four, there is promise of multimedia features from video
to sound.
There is no question about the future of digitized information. In
2000 approximately 80 percent of American libraries, regardless of type
or size, have some type of electronic reference work, usually an encyclo-
pedia and/or an index. The larger and richer the library, the more evi-
dence there is of electronic forms of information. Even with Internet
access, small- to medium-sized libraries still rely primarily on printed
reference works. Why? Because they can’t afford the more expensive
for-fee reference works online. All reference sections rely on some
printed materials. Most retrospective reference questions are answered
from such works. The electronic databases rarely cover data published
before the mid-1980s.
In another decade or so print reference works will disappear
entirely, particularly when retrospective indexes are put online. Note,
though, this does not mean all print, but primarily reference works which
are much easier to use online.
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