HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

What is Behavior?

 The actions and responses of a person or animal in reaction to a certain stimuli or

circumstance.

What is a Human Being?

 Are socially intelligent creatures having the ability to understand, decide, and reason.

What is Human Behavior?

 Anything an individual does that involves self-initiated action and/or reaction to a

given situation.
 The variety of human actions that can be impacted by persuasion, the law, culture,
attitudes, emotions, values, ethics, and even compulsion.
 It also refers to the way humans act and interact.

Why we need to study Human Behavior?

1. To characterize behavior, whether it is abnormal and deviant or normal and

acceptable.
2. To determine factors that can predict behavior.
3. To comprehend and elucidate by determining the causes that result in certain
outcomes, putting them together as common facts, or gathering data and defining
principles.
4. To manage and modify behavior in response to the prediction.

Viewpoints in the Study of Human Behavior:

1. Neurological: focuses on how human behavior relates to internal bodily processes,

particularly those involving the brain and nervous system.

2. Behavioral: is focused on measurable and identifiable external activities.

3. Cognitive: focuses on how the brain interprets and manipulates information in different
ways.

4. Psychoanalytical: focuses on unconscious motivations originating from childhood sexual

and aggressive desires that were repressed.

5. Humanistic: emphasizes the individual's experience, freedom, and motivation.

1. Drives - an aroused condition that arises from certain biological needs. This aroused
condition motivates the person to address the needs.
2. Needs- are what push or move a person to take action.
3. Motivation- refers to the "whys" and causes of behavior as dictated by a need.
5. Socio-Cultural- assumes that culture, society, and family influence behavior.

Factors that Affect Human Behavior:

1. Heredity- it is determined by genes. Genes are sections of chromosomes, which are cell
structures that parents use to pass on characteristics to their children.

2. Environment- certain patterns of behavior can be caused by the environment because it

is made up of the factors and circumstances that surround and affect a person. For instance,
depending on the situation, strange surroundings may cause either curiosity or anxiety.
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3. Learning- the process by which practice or experience leads to a change in behavior.

New surroundings that offer plenty of examples of new conduct, education or practice
opportunities, and the ability to reward or punish new behavior are all ways that people
learn new behaviors. Additionally, humans are continually being exposed with new
challenges to solve or new ways to accomplish tasks, learning never stops.

Classification of Human Behavior (HICS)

1. Habitual - are automatic, repetitive actions or behaviors that every individual does
regularly.
2. Instinctive - they are innate behavior that is not learned and simply comes out, out
of man’s instinct, which can be seen among instinct-instinct survival behaviors.
3. Symbolic - are those that are typically displayed through body language or symbols
and are typically executed through unsaid words.
4. Complex - are those behaviors that combines two or more of the classified ones.

ATTRIBUTES OF BEHAVIOR

1. Duration – how long in terms of function of time

2. Extensity – size, distance and location
3. Intensity – magnitude, whether mild, strong and disintegrated
4. Quantity – whether normal, abnormal, misleading or unacceptable

HOW PEOPLE INTERACT?

1. Parent – ego state – These are behavior and thinking patterns we have been taught
from our past interactions with our parents and other authority figures such as being
protective, idealistic, evaluated, righteous, refers to laws, rules and standard.
2. Adult-ego state - considered the most stable because it is more upon reason,
factual, flexible, views others as co-equal, and reasonable.
3. Child-ego state – a person's regression to their childlike behaviors such as being
dependent, selfish, demanding, impatient and emotional.

HOW PEOPLE TRANSACT?

1. Complimentary – when both the stimulus and the reaction pattern from one ego
state to another are parallel, it is considered complimentary.
2. Non-complementary – when stimulus and reaction pattern from one ego state to
another are not parallel.

CHARACTERISTICS OF BEHAVIOR

1. Overt behavior – behaviors or actions that are visible to the observer.

2. Covert behavior – those that are not visible from the view of the observer.
3. Simple behavior – actions that use only fewer neurons.
4. Complex behavior – combination of simple behavior
5. Rational behavior – actions with reasons
6. Irrational behavior – actions without reason
7. Voluntary behavior – actions carried out with full volition of will
8. Involuntary behavior – actions carried out by the body even when we are awake or
asleep.
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Causes of Human Behavior

1. Sensation - the process of the sensory organs when given a stimulus transforming
physical energy into neurological impulses the brain interprets as the five senses of
visual (sight), smell (olfactory), taste (gustatory), touch (cutaneous), and hearing
(auditory).
2. Perception - refers to the individual’s ability to interpret and understand a given
stimulus which largely help to determine the actual behavioral response in a given
situation.
3. Awareness – refers to the understanding of a situation or stimuli at the present time
based on information or experience.

Two Basic Types of Human Behavior:

1. Inherited (innate) Behavior - any behavioral response or reaction that humans

display as a result of their genetic makeup or the process of natural selection. Examples
are behaviors such as breathing, eating, avoiding waste, mating, and self-defense which
are essential for our survival.

Considerations for Inherited Behavior:

1. Physical Traits- offspring acquire various physical features from their parents
and ancestors such as color and form of eyes, color of the hair, color or shade of skin,
size and shape of nose, quality of teeth, shape of lips, size of ears, height, body
structure, shape of face. Even a variety of physical abnormalities can be inherited
from our parents.
2. Mental Traits- many experts believe that intellect, particular abilities, skills,
talent and even some mental defects can be inherited from our parents and
ancestors.

2. Learned (operant behavior)- is behavior that occurs only after experience or practice.
It entails cognitive adaptation that improves the human being's ability to cope with
changes in the environment and manipulate the environment in ways that increase the
chances of survival, such as verbal communication, logical problem-solving techniques,
job skills, and so on.

Considerations for Learned Behavior:

1. Environment- an individual is exposed to a significantly shifting external

environment. One aspect of it is the social environment, which comprises people
who influence them in one way or another. Additionally, language, customs, and
many other aspects of culture are also important influences.
2. Training- training is a way of shaping learned behaviors, it is closely related to
environment and includes all social, educational, cultural, moral and religious
agencies with which the child comes in contact and where they can acquire most of
the training.
3. Efforts of the Will- will is our ability to take conscious, voluntary, and deliberate
action. It develops inherited qualities and utilizes intellectual potential of an
individual. Because its impact extends to all of man's ability and capacities, it plays a
prevailing role in producing differences among people. The will realizes or disregard
the opportunities presented by environment and training.

ASPECTS OF BEHAVIORS
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1. Intellectual Aspect – refers to one's manner of thinking, reasoning, problem

solving, information processing, and dealing with the environment.
2. Emotional Aspect – include a person's feelings, moods, resentment, and strong
motivations within themselves.
3. Social Aspect – refers on how individuals interact or build relation to others.
4. Moral Aspect – it includes moral compass/conscience, concept on what is good or
bad.
5. Psychosexual Aspect – focuses on expressing love and being a man or a woman.
6. Political Aspect – ideology towards society/government.
7. Value/ Attitude – it is concern about what are important to a person, their likes and
dislikes, as well as their interest in anything.

What is Development?

 It refers to the gradual and systematic changes that people undergo over time, which
result in improved knowledge, skills, talents, and habits.

Stages in Human Life Span (Developmental Psychology)

1. Prenatal Period- Conception to birth. 270 to 280 days or 9 calendar months

2. Infancy- birth to the end of second week
3. Babyhood- end of second week until the end of a child’s second year
4. Early Childhood- 2 to 6 years
5. Late Childhood- 6 to 10 or 12 years
6. Puberty/Preadolescence- 12 or 13 to 14 years
7. Adolescence- 13or 14 to 18 years
8. Early Adulthood- 18 to 40 years
9. Middle Age- 40 to 60 years
10. Old age/ Senescence- from 60 years to death

Psychoanalytic Theories:

Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual theory: according to him, children develop their adult
personalities through a sequence of psychosexual stages. Five psychosexual phases of
development comprised Freud's stages of human development, which explained how
personality evolved during childhood.

Stages of Psychosexual Development:

1. Stage 1: Oral Stage (birth to 12 months old) – during this stage, the infant's
primary source of interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and sucking
reflex is especially important. The infant gets pleasure from oral stimulation through
rewarding actions like sucking and tasting, and the mouth is essential for feeding.
2. Stage 2: Anal Stage (12 months to 3 years old) – according to Freud, the
primary aim of the libido during this stage was to regulate bowel and bladder
movements. Toilet training, where the child must learn to regulate their body's
needs, is the main source of tension at this point. As a result, gaining this control
results in a feeling of freedom and success.
3. Stage 3: Phallic stage (3 to 6 years old) – According to Freud, the libido's main
focus during the phallic stage is on the genitalia. Children also start to learn about
the distinctions between men and women at this age. Additionally, this is the stage
where a child develops the Oedipus and Electra complex.
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4. Stage 4 Latency Stage (5 years old up to puberty) – The sexual urge is

suppressed or dormant during this stage, which is known as the period of
exploration. Though it gets sublimated into other areas like social relations and
intellectual pursuits, this urge is still there. This phase is critical for the growth of self-
confidence, social skills, and communication abilities.
5. Stage 5: Genital Stage (Puberty to Adulthood) – The return of libido occurs with
the beginning of puberty. The person has intense sexual interest in the other sex
throughout the last phase of psychosexual development. This phase lasts for the rest
of a person's life.

Three Components of Personality (Psychoanalytical Approach)

 According to Sigmund Freud, human personality is complex and has more than a
single component. In his famous psychoanalytic theory, Freud states that personality
is composed of three elements known as the id, the ego, and the superego. These
elements work together to create complex human behaviors

1. ID – Also known as the pleasure principle which strives for immediate gratification of
all desires, wants, and needs. This part of personality, which comprises instinctive
and primitive desires, is completely unconscious.

Libido - pleasure principle; instinctual craving especially sexually.

2. EGO - The component of the personality that deals with reality is the ego. The ego
functions according to the reality principle, which aims to fulfill the id's cravings in
ways that are reasonable and acceptable in society. Before choosing to follow or
reject impulses, the reality principle considers the advantages and disadvantages of
a course of action.
3. SUPER EGO - Also known as the conscience principle. It holds the internalized moral
standards and ideals that we acquire from our parents and society which is our sense
of right and wrong. Additionally, it has two parts which are the conscience (moral
compass) and the ego ideal (rules and standards for behavior).

Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory: Erikson expanded on Freud’s ideas and emphasized
the importance of social and cultural influences on development. While his theory was
impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's work, Erikson's theory centered on
psychosocial development rather than psychosexual development. He was interested in how
social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of human
beings.

1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy/from birth to 18 months) - The first stage occurs in
infancy. It is considered as the most fundamental stage in infant’s life because
he/she is utterly dependent and developing trust is based on the dependability and
quality of the child's caregivers.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddlerhood/from 18 months to three
years) - toddlerhood stage is focused on children developing a greater sense of
personal control. Children at this developmental stage are just beginning to become
somewhat independent. They are beginning to carry out simple tasks independently
and make basic choices regarding their preferences.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool/from three to five) - the third stage of
psychosocial development's main point is that kids must start exercising authority
and control over their environment. Achievement in this phase results in a feeling of
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direction. Children who attempt to use excessive power are reprimanded, which
makes them feel guilty.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (School Age from six to 11/) - throughout the school
years, children concentrate on becoming competent in a variety of task. Children
start to feel confident of their skills and achievements through social interactions.
While failure breeds feelings of inferiority, success fosters a sense of competence.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (Adolescence /from 12 to 18/) - this stage plays an
essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to shape
their behavior and development for the rest of their life. Teens need to develop a
sense of self and personal identity. Those adolescents who remain unsure of their
beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult/from 18 to 40) - young adults must develop
close, intimate relationships with others. Whereas failure breeds isolation and
loneliness, success develops interpersonal relationships.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle Adulthood/from 40 to 65) – at this stage,
adults have to build or nourish things that will last beyond their lifetimes, frequently
through producing children or bringing about constructive change that helps society.
Successful people in this stage will believe that their involvement in their community
and at home is making a difference in the world. Those who are unable to master this
ability will feel unproductive and disconnected from the outside world.
8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late Adulthood/ from 65 to death) - at this stage of
development, people reflect on their lives and evaluate if they are content with the
life that they lived or whether they regret the things they did or did not do. At this
point, failure fosters regret, resentment, and hopelessness, while success produces
feelings of wisdom.

Jean Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

1. Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 years old) - infants and toddlers, throughout this
early period of cognitive development, learn through sensory experiences and object
manipulation. Basic reflexes, perceptions, and motor responses comprise a child's
whole experience throughout the earliest stages of this stage.
2. Preoperational stage (Ages 2 to 7 years old) - At this stage, a child might learn
to represent objects with words and pictures and start thinking symbolically. The
emergence of language is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of
development
3. Concrete operational stage (Ages 7 to 11 years old) - A child at this stage
starts to think logically about concrete events. Mathematical thinking starts at this
point.
4. Formal operational stage (Ages 12 and up) - At this age, adolescents and young
adults start to think more logically about the world around them and are able to
recognize several possible solutions to issues. They already have a capacity to think
about abstract concepts.

B.F. Skinner's Theory of Learning: Operant Conditioning

 According to B.F. Skinner's theory of learning, our behaviors are developed or

conditioned through reinforcements (rewards/punishment). He referred to this
process as operant conditioning. The term 'operant' refers to any behavior that acts
on the environment and leads to consequences
 Famous for his Skinner’s Box.
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Skinner Box/Lever Box - the Skinner box is an operant condition apparatus that was
created and used by B.F skinner in his study. It was a chamber that contained a bar or key
(lever) that an animal could press in order to receive food, water, or some other form of
reinforcement. Pigeons and rats were often utilized as subjects in studies using this device.

NOTE: Lever Box is the more preferred name by B.F skinner for his operant conditioning
apparatus.

Reinforcement - according to B.F. Skinner's theory of learning, behavior development

depends heavily on reinforcement. Any occurrence that makes a particular behavior
stronger is called reinforcement, and it can be either positive or negative.

Schedules of Reinforcement

One of the most important discoveries of Skinner in his operant conditioning is that
continuous giving of reward is not enough to strengthen a particular behavior. As a result,
he further created schedules of reinforcement in his operant conditioning research. These
schedules determine when specific behaviors are reinforced (either based on the number of
responses or time) and impact how strong a learned behavior becomes.

1. Fixed-ratio schedules: responses are reinforced after a specific number of

responses.
2. Variable-ratio schedules: responses are reinforced after an unspecified or
unpredictable number of responses.
3. Fixed-interval schedules: responses are reinforced after a specific amount of time.
4. Variable-interval schedules: responses are reinforced after an unspecified or
unpredictable amount of time.

Punishment - According to B.F. Skinner, punishment can also be a part of the learning
process. Applying a negative consequence in an attempt to lessen or weaken a particular
behavior is known as punishment.

Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory

 In Bandura's theory, he asserts that people may observe behavior directly through
interactions with others or indirectly through media observation. While actions that
are punished are avoided, those that are rewarded are more likely to be copied.
 Bandura's theory believed that direct reinforcement could not account for all types of
learning.
 Although the behavioral theories of learning stated that all learning was the outcome
of associations created through reward, punishment, and conditioning, Bandura's
social learning theory suggested that learning might also happen just by observing
other people's behavior.

Aaron Beck’s Cognitive Behavioral Theory

 This theory demonstrates the interdependence of people's emotions, thoughts,

behaviors, and bodily sensations and the idea that actions and thoughts have an
impact on feelings. It also states that human thinking determines human behavior
and feeling. Also, changes in one of these will cause changes in the others.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy

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 Is a highly effective treatment that assists individuals in discovering and learning

about the ways in which their ideas and feelings influence their behavior. People may
begin learning new behavioral approaches, coping mechanisms, and behavior
modification techniques after recognizing such patterns.
 Cognitive Behavioral therapy encompasses more than just recognizing such patterns.
It employs a variety of techniques to assist individuals in changing these behaviors.
Here are just a few examples of techniques used in cognitive behavioral therapy.
1. Identifying Negative Thoughts
2. Practicing New Skills
3. Goal-Setting
4. Problem-Solving
5. Self-Monitoring

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

NEEDS, DRIVES AND MOTIVATIONS

• Drives - a state of arousal brought on by certain biological needs. The person is

motivated to address the need due to this aroused situation.

• Needs - these are the things that push someone to take action. A need is something that
a person can't be okay without.

• Motivation - on the other hand, motives refer to the causes and "why's" of behavior as
dictated by a need.

 Maslow, a humanist, believed that people had an innate need to be self-actualized, or to

be the best versions of themselves. To attain this ultimate goal, however, a number of
more fundamental needs must be met. This encompasses the need for food, safety, love,
and self-esteem.

Personality Dimensions that Affect Human Behavior:

1.Extraversion- characterized by sociability, talkativeness, aggressiveness, and

excitability. People with high levels of extroversion seek social stimulation and
opportunities to interact with others. Extraversion is a particularly important dimension
in crime and delinquency. Extraverts not only have a strong desire for excitement, but
they also do not adapt easily. Introverts, on the other hand, condition easily and have a
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lower need for thrills and excitement because they can quickly connect behavior and
consequence. They are also considerably less likely to engage in anti-social activity.

2. Neuroticism- defined as a negative personality trait that includes unpleasant

feelings, poor self-regulation, inability to control urges, difficulty dealing with stress, a
strong reaction to perceived dangers, and a tendency to complain. People with
neuroticism may become easily aroused when stimulated or have a decreased capacity
to calm oneself down when frustrated or anxious.

3. Psychoticism- it is characterized by cold cruelty, recklessness, disregard for common

sense, social insensitivity, disregard for danger, troublesome behavior, dislike of others,
and an attraction toward the unusual. A person with psychoticism will exhibit some
qualities commonly found among psychotics, and that they may be more susceptible,
given certain environments, to becoming psychotic.

FRUSTRATION, CONFLICT and ANXIETY

Frustration - refers to the unpleasant feelings that results from the blocking of motive
satisfaction. It is a sort of stress that causes tension. It is an emotion that arises when
something interferes with our hopes, aspirations, goals, and expectations. Frustration
happens when a person is unable to satisfy his wants.

COMMON SOURCES OF FRUSTRATION

1. Physical Obstacles – refers to physical barriers or events that prohibit a person from
carrying out his plans or achieving his goals.

2. Social Circumstances – are constraints or restrictions imposed by our society such

social norms, standards, laws, and rules and regulations.

3. Personal shortcoming – individual weaknesses that hinder a person's potential or

ability to function effectively such as being handicapped by diseases, deafness,
paralysis, etc.

4. Conflicts between motives

Reactions to Frustrations - People respond differently to frustrations, they are using a

variety of coping mechanism in dealing with it. Coping mechanism refers to how an
individual reacts to disappointments. When faced with frustration, people typically react
in one of two ways: famously known as the fight or flight reaction.

THE FIGHT OR FLIGHT REACTION

1.Fight - by addressing the problem in an effective and straightforward way by breaking

the obstacles that are stopping him from his goal, or by becoming angry and aggressive;
and/or

2.Flight- by avoiding the issue, complaining, fleeing, being disinterested, and giving up
without a fight.

Frustration-tolerance - Individuals also differ in their capacity to tolerate

disappointments, or frustration tolerance. The ability to deal with frustration is known as
frustration tolerance. Some people may handle prolonged periods of stress without
exhibiting any bizarre symptoms. Others become neurotic or psychotic, or their
frustrations manifest as physical sickness, and others express their frustrations through
anti-social behavior or becoming alcoholics or drug addicts.
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Most normal persons react to frustration in the following ways:

1. direct approach
2. detour
3. substitution
4. withdrawal or retreat
5. developing feelings of inferiority
6. aggression
7. use of defense mechanism

DEFENSE MECHANISM

o Defined as unconscious resources used by the ego to decrease internal stress

ultimately. Defense mechanisms are supposed to protect the mind from feelings
and thoughts that are too overwhelming for the conscious mind to handle.
Types of Defense Mechanisms:
1. Denial- is the refusal to admit reality or fact, acting as if a painful event, emotion, or
sensation did not occur.
2. Regression- is the return to an earlier period of development in response to
unwanted thoughts or urges.
3. Acting Out- defined as engaging in excessive activity in order to convey thoughts or
feelings that the individual believes they are unable to express otherwise.
4. Dissociation- occurs when a person loses track of time and/or person and instead
seeks another representation of themselves in order to function in the present.
5. Compartmentalization- is a lesser type of dissociation in which portions of oneself
are isolated from awareness of other parts and behave as if they have distinct sets of
values.
6. Projection - assigning your own unacceptable feelings or qualities to others.
7. Reaction Formation- replacing an unwanted impulse with its opposite
8. Repression- Act of unconsciously keeping unpleasant information from your
conscious mind. However, these memories don't just disappear; they continue to
influence our behavior. For example, a person who has repressed memories of abuse
suffered as a child may later have difficulty forming relationships. Sometimes we do
this consciously by forcing the unwanted information out of our conscious awareness,
which is known as suppression.
9. Displacement- taking feelings, frustrations, and impulses out on other people
or sometimes objects that are less threatening.
10. Sublimation - converting unacceptable impulses into more acceptable form.
11. Intellectualization (Isolation) - Thinking about stressful things in a cold and
clinical way. This defense mechanism allows us to avoid thinking about the stressful,
emotional aspect of the situation and instead focus only on the intellectual
component.
12. Rationalization- justifying an unacceptable feeling or behavior with logic, avoiding
the true reasons for the behavior.
o Sour-grape mechanism / Sweet lemon (silver lining) mechanism
13. Avoidance Mechanism- refer as a refusal to deal with or confront unpleasant
objects or situations.
13.1. Fantasy- avoiding reality by retreating to a safe place within your mind such
as daydreaming to escape real problems.
13.2. Identification- the internalization or reproduction of behaviors observed in
others, such as a child developing the behavior of his or her parents without
conscious realization of this process.
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13.3. Undoing- An individual attempts to cancel out negative, harmful, or

threatening ideas or acts by engaging in opposite activity to fix what has
occurred.
13.4. Withdrawal- involves the removal of oneself from anything and everything
that reminds them of painful or stressful thoughts and emotions.
14. Affiliation- This means reaching out to others for comfort.
15. Aim Inhibition- it is a defense mechanism in which an individual is accepting a
modified form of their original goal.
16. Altruism- satisfying internal needs through helping others.
17. Compensation- overachieving in a particular field to make up for shortcomings in
another.
18. Humor- Pointing out the funny or ironic aspects of a stressful situation.
19. Passive-aggression- instead of telling someone of their upsetting behavior, an
individual using this defense mechanism will indirectly express their anger.
20. Scapegoating- it is the act of blaming other person for failure.
21. Emotional Insulation - creates an unconscious barrier of detachment that shields a
person from unpleasant emotions.
22. Introjection – occurs when a person internalizes the ideas or voices of other people,
so individual is not at their mercy as external threats. The act of accepting the values
of others, even if they conflict with one's own beliefs.
23. Sympathism – trying to get satisfaction by seeking sympathy and pity from other.
The person seeks to be praised by relating faults or problem.

Conflict - refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more incompatible motives

resulting to unpleasant emotions. It is a source of frustration because it is a threat to
normal behavior.

Causes of Conflict in Human Behavior:

1. Physical Conflict- refer to natural causes, like typhoon, an earthquake, a fire, a flood,
a storm.

2. Social Conflict- involve restrictions or rules in the home, in school, in the community.
Many laws are intended for public welfare, but they interfere with an adolescent’s
desires or interests.

3. Economic Conflicts- result from one’s inability to acquire material things because of
poverty or other financial obligations.

TYPES OF CONFLICTS

1. Double Approach Conflict – arises when there are simultaneously two attractive
opportunities, but the individual must make a choice between them. Since there are a
few equally attractive and mutually exclusive options, a person is torn between two
desired alternatives.

2. Double Avoidance Conflict - occurs when a person is confronted with the need to
choose between two unwanted things. Actually, this is a case of choosing the lesser of
two evils.
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3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a person encounters a circumstance that has both

good and negative aspects. It is also referred to as a "dilemma" since, whichever course
of action is selected, some of its positive and negative aspects must be accepted.

4. Multiple Approach- Avoidance Conflict – a circumstance where a decision must be

made between two or more options, each of which has advantages and disadvantages.
Because it is frequently challenging to compare the attributes of each option, it is the
most challenging to resolve.

Anxiety - is an intangible feeling that seems to evade any effort to resolve it. It is also
called neurotic fear. It could be intense; it could be low and can be a motivating force.

PSYCHOLOGICAL DISORDERS

Who are Normal Persons?

o A person who acts in accordance with social norms and standards is considered
normal. A person's behavior is deemed abnormal when it deviates from these
standards Some traits of normal people include the following:

1. Free expression of personality

2. Adequate security feelings
3. Efficient contact with reality
4. Adaptability to group norms
5. Emotional maturity
6. Adequate self-knowledge
7. Integrated and consistent personality

Who are Abnormal Persons?

• An individual can be called abnormal when he fails to meet the characteristics of a

normal person. When a person is frustrated in his attempts to adjust to difficult
situations over a long period of time, he may try to escape from these conflicts by
doing any of the following:
1. He may develop neurosis such as developing imaginary illnesses, phobias,
obsessions, or compulsions.
2. He may become psychotic, characterized by withdrawal from the real world into a
world of fantasy and make-believe where his hidden or unexpressed desires may
be fulfilled.
3. Rather than accepting reality or retreating, the individual could take things too far
and start acting aggressively toward other people. He is now regarded as a
psychopath, sociopath, or antisocial individual, and he turns into a criminal when
his antisocial actions conflict with the law.

Abnormal Behavior Defined:

1. Deviation from the average (from the statistical form) - To determine abnormality,
we simply observing which behaviors are uncommon or infrequent in a certain group or
culture and classifying these deviations from the norm as abnormal. Ex: eight, height, and
intelligence cover a range of values when measured over a population

2. Deviation from the ideal (from social norms) - One that measures behavior against
the standards toward which most people are striving - the ideal.
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3. Abnormality as a sense of subjective discomfort (personal distress) - It

concentrates on the psychological effects of an individual's actions. According to this
approach, behavior is deemed abnormal if it causes an individual to feel distressed, anxious,
or guilty, or if it causes harm to others.

4. Abnormality as the inability to function effectively (maladaptive behavior) - This

views abnormality when people who are unable to function effectively and adapt the
demands of society are considered abnormal like an unemployed, homeless woman living on
the street might be considered unable to function effectively.

Legal definition of abnormality

According to the law, the distinction between normal and abnormal behavior rests on the
definition of insanity (one which cannot understand the difference between right and wrong
or inability to exert control over his behavior at the time he or she commits a criminal act),
which is a legal, but not psychological, term.

Causes of Abnormal Behavior

1. Anxiety (psychological perspective) - a feeling of fear, dread, and uneasiness that if

become extreme, it may result to maladaptive behavior.

2. Faulty Learning (behavior perspective) – it is the failure to learn the essential

adaptive behavior because of wrongful development. This usually results to delinquent
behavior based on the failure to learn the necessary social values and norms.

3. Blocked or distorted personal growth (humanistic perspective) - presumably,

human nature tends towards cooperation and construction activities, however, if we show
aggression, cruelty or other maladaptive behavior, the result may be an unfavorable
environment.

4. Unsatisfactory interpersonal relationship - self-concept in early childhood by over

critical parents or by rigid socialization measures usually cause deviant behaviors among
individuals because they are not contented and even unhappy on the kind of social dealings
they are facing.

5. Pathological social condition – poverty, social discrimination and destructive violence

always result to deviant behavior.

NEUROSIS vs. PSYCHOSIS

1. NEUROSIS - is a mild mental illness characterized by anxiety, sadness, and other

emotional symptoms, maintaining awareness of reality and less severe impairment in
their daily lives.
2. PSYCHOSIS - is a severe mental illness characterized by a loss of reality awareness.
A person with this mental disorder usually experiences a symptom of hallucination,
delusion, and paranoia.

Some Manifestations of Mental Disorders

1. Cognition Disorder - Knowing

1) Perception disorders
 HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

a. Illusion- a false interpretation of an external stimulus. It may be

manifested through sight, hearing, taste, touch and smell

b. Hallucination- a false perception without an external stimulus. A person

with this symptom usually reported to hear or see things that does not really
exist.

2) Memory disorders

a. Dementia- a form of mental disorder resulting from the degeneration or

disorder of the brain characterized by general mental weakness,
forgetfulness, loss of coherence, and total inability to reason but not
accompanied by delusion or uncontrollable impulse.

b. Amnesia- loss of memory. People with amnesia cannot recall past

experiences, form new memories, or both. Several factors can cause memory
loss, such as physical injury, infection, psychological causes, or other
traumatic experiences that prevent normal brain function and trigger memory
loss. It has two types, namely:

1. Anterograde Amnesia - is the inability to form new memories. People

with anterograde amnesia might remember a birthday party they went
to 20 years ago but might have difficulty recalling what they ate for
breakfast.
2. Retrograde Amnesia - is the inability to recall old memories.

3) Content of thought disorders

a. Delusion- a false belief or perception about external reality that persists

despite indisputable evidence to the contrary.

b. Obsession- a recurring thought of something or someone, where it always

seems to be in a person's mind despite efforts to keep them out.

4) Trend of thought disorders

a. Mania- a state of excitement accompanied by exaltation or a feeling of

wellbeing which is not appropriate with the present situation of the patient.

b. Melancholia- is a severe form of depression marked by extreme sadness

and hopelessness, which is unwarranted by his physical condition and
external environment.

2. Emotional Disorders- Feeling

a. Exaltation- feeling of unwarranted well-being and happiness

b. Depression (major depressive disorder) - is a mood disorder that causes a

persistent feeling of sadness and loss of interest.

c. Apathy- people with apathy have a lack of interest in things around them and
have serious disregard for the surrounding and the environment.

d. Phobia- an uncontrollable, irrational, and lasting fear of a perfectly natural

situation or object.
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3. Volition disorders- Conation

a. Impulsion- characterized by sudden and irresistible force compelling a person to

the conscious performance of some action without motive or forethought. No matter
how severe the consequences, the person has no control over it.

b. Compulsion- it is an act wherein a person is compelled to perform some actions

against his freewill, and with duress as a result of external factors. It may be through
the use of force, violence, or intimidation. Some examples of Compulsion

1. Arithmomania – the impulse to count everything.

2. Dipsomania – the impulse to drink liquor.
3. Homicidal mania – the impulse to kill.
4. Kleptomania – the impulse to steal.
5. Megalomania – the impulse for fame or power.
6. Pyromania – the impulse to set things on fire.
7. Suicidal mania – the impulse to takes one’s life.

Classical Types of Mental Deficiencies

Mental deficiencies-mental sub-normality and/or mental retardation- is a condition

of subnormal mental development, present at birth or early childhood and characterized
mainly by limited intelligence and social inadequacy.

 Idiots (IQ: 0-25)- persons with mental defect to a degree that they are unable to guard
themselves against common physical dangers, their mentality is compared to a 2-year-
old child.
 Imbeciles (IQ: 26-50)- persons whose state of mind is similar to a child 3 to 7 years
old. It does not amount to idiocy but is incapable of managing themselves or their affairs.
 Feeble minded (IQ: 51-70) - persons whose state of mind manifest cases where there
exists mental defectiveness that do not amount to imbecility. Person in this state
requires care, supervision, and control for their own or from others.
 Morally defective- persons with strong vicious or criminal propensities. In the case of
children, they appear to be permanently incapable of receiving benefits from proper
instruction in ordinary schools.

Classification of Mental Retardation:

1. Profound- I.Q. is under 20.

2. Severe- I.Q. is between 20 and 35
3. Moderate- I.Q. is 36 to 51
4. Mild- I.Q. is 56 to 67
5. Borderline Retardation- I.Q. is 68 to 83

Specific Types of Mental Disorders

1. Psychoneuroses – also known as neurosis. It is a condition in which an individual's

perception of reality is not distorted, but is linked to sensations such as anxiety,
worry, morbid fears, obsessive thoughts, despair, or compulsive activities.
1.1. Generalized Anxiety Disorder- characterized by excessive, ongoing anxiety
and worry that are difficult to control and interfere with day-to-day activities. A
person with this neurosis tends to worry a lot, even when there's no reason.
 HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

1.2. Phobic disorder(phobia)- an uncontrollable, irrational, and lasting fear of a

perfectly natural situation or object.

1.3. Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder- Obsessions refer to a pattern of unwanted

ideas and thoughts. These obsessions cause you to engage in repetitive actions, also
known as compulsions.

2. Somatoform disorders- Neurotic disorders in which the symptoms take a somatic

(bodily) form without apparent physical cause.

2.1. Conversion disorder- also known as functional neurological symptom

disorder. It is a somatoform disorder in which a person experiences genuine
physical symptoms such as paralysis, numbness, or seizures, for which no
physiological basis can be found.

2.2. Hypochondriasis- a somatoform disorder in which a person misinterprets

typical body functions as signs of illness. Usually, they have fear that they have a
serious medical condition or that they're at high risk of becoming ill.

3. Dissociative Disorder- is a mental health problem characterized by a loss of

connection between ideas, memories, emotions, surroundings, behavior, and
identity. These situations include undesirable and unhealthy escapes from reality.
3.1. Amnesia- loss of memory.

3.2. Fugue (means flight)- an amnesia state in which a person walks away from
his or her home or usual surroundings and, when awareness sets in, has no
memory of how he or she got there.

3.3. Multiple Personality Disorder- also known as dissociative identity disorder.

A person with this type of disorder develops two or more separate very different
personalities.
4. Mood/Affective Disorders- is a mental disorder characterized by dramatic changes
or extremes of mood.
4.1. Bipolar disorder- chronic mood disorder that results in significant shifts in
behavior, energy levels, and mood.
4.2. Depression- It has been called “the common cold” of psychological
disorders. It is a mood disorder that causes a persistent feeling of sadness and
loss of interest.
5. Schizophrenia- formerly known as dementia praecox and literally translated as
“split mind.” It is a form of psychotic disorder, a disorder in which a person loses
contact with reality by experiencing grossly irrational ideas and distorted
perceptions.

SYMPTOMS OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

1. Delusions - a false belief or perception about external reality that persists despite
indisputable evidence to the contrary.
Types of delusions:
o Delusion of grandeur: a person might believe that they are the most
famous or powerful in the community where they belong.
o Delusion of control: a person might believe that other people
are attempting to control or influence them.
 HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

Delusion of thought broadcasting: a person might believe that other

o
people can hear what they're thinking.
o Delusion of persecution: a person might believe that others are trying to
harm, murder, or conspire against them.
o Delusion of reference: a person might believe they are the center of
attention or that all happenings revolve around them.
2. Hallucination – It is a false perception of nonexistent or absent stimuli.
o Tactile (touch)
o Visual (sight)
o Auditory (hearing)
o Olfactory (smell)
o Gustatory (taste)
3. Disorganized Thinking (Formal Thought Disorder)

TYPES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA

1. Paranoid Schizophrenia – it is the most familiar type of schizophrenia. Patient with

this illness is experiencing symptoms mainly hallucination and delusions.
Exaggerated hallucinations and delusions are characterized by an inflated sense of
self-importance. Additionally, they can be persecutory, which means they believe
that someone or something is "out to get them." For instance, a person with paranoid
schizophrenia might believe that they are being targeted or that they are being
threatened by voices. Even if they lack evidence, they might also think that someone
or something is spying on them.
2. Residual Schizophrenia – a person may be diagnosed with residual schizophrenia if
he/she had at least some positive symptoms of schizophrenia (such as hallucinations
or disordered thinking) but now solely has negative symptoms. Negative symptoms
of schizophrenia are associated with your feelings and social interactions. Negative
symptoms include despair, social disengagement, low motivation, and very little
speaking.
3. Disorganized Schizophrenia (hebephrenic) – considered as the most serious
type of schizophrenia. A patient with this type tends to express their thoughts and
emotions in ways that others find confusing, bizarre, or unsettling, such as speaking
in unusual patterns and laughing or scowling at inappropriate times.
4. Catatonic Schizophrenia – it impacts how an individual moves their body, reacts to
stimuli, and relates with their environment. A person of this type may show
symptoms of catatonic excitement, which is characterized by agitated, restless, and
excessive movements, or catatonic stupor, which is characterized by very little
movement and a withdrawn appearance.
5. Undifferentiated Schizophrenia – describe as a disorder that produced symptoms
of another kind of schizophrenia (such paranoid or disorganized schizophrenia), but
the patient did not fully meet the diagnostic requirements for a particular kind of
schizophrenia.

PERSONALITY DISORDERS

 Personality refers to a distinctive set of traits, behavior styles, and patterns that make up
our character or individuality. A person with a personality disorder thinks, feels, behaves
or relates to others very differently from the average person.

Types of Personality Disorders

Cluster A
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 Cluster A personality disorders involve unusual and eccentric thinking or behaviors.

1. Schizoid Personality Disorder – also called ‘’loners”. Schizoid personalities are

introverted, withdrawn, solitary, emotionally cold, and distant. A person with this
personality disorder shows very little, if any, interest and ability to form relationships
with other people.
2. Paranoid Personality Disorder - is a mental health condition characterized by a
pattern of distrust and suspicion of others without valid reason to be suspicious.
3. Schizotypal Personality Disorder - A pattern of peculiarities best describes those
with schizotypal personality disorder. People with schizotypal personality disorder
typically display unusual behavior, odd speech and magical beliefs such as saying
that they can predict the future or read other people’s minds.

Cluster B

 Cluster B personality disorders involve dramatic and erratic behaviors. People with these
types of conditions display intense, unstable emotions and impulsive behaviors.

4. Antisocial personality disorder - individuals with this personality disorder treat

others disrespectfully and disregard socially acceptable norms and standards. They
may also violate the law or injure others physically or psychologically. They might
show indifference to the detrimental effects of their acts and/or a refusal to accept
accountability for their conduct.
5. Borderline Personality Disorder - This disorder is characterized by control of
emotions difficulties, which lead to mood swings, impulsive actions, low self-esteem,
and ensuing relationship problems. These individuals generally have great difficulty
with their own sense of identity.
6. Narcissistic Personality Disorder - People with narcissistic personality have an
exaggerated sense of self-importance, are absorbed by fantasies of unlimited
success, and seek constant attention. This disorder is characterized by a persistent
pattern of grandiosity and imagined superiority, an overwhelming need for
recognition and appreciation, and a lack of empathy for other people.
7. Histrionic personality disorder – an individual with this personality disorder
constantly wants to be the center of attention and frequently experience sadness
when they are not. They have an overwhelming desire to be noticed by others, and
may display dramatic and/or inappropriate behaviors to get attention.

Cluster C

8. Avoidant Personality Disorder - People with avoidant personalities are frequently

too sensitive to rejection and will not interact with others until they are certain they
will be loved. Despite their desire to socialize, they typically stay away of interactions
with others because they are so afraid of being rejected.
9. Dependent Personality Disorder - this disorder is distinguished by an ongoing and
excessive need to be cared for by another person. It also includes submissiveness,
the need for frequent reinforcement, and the incapacity to make decisions.
10.Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder - this condition is distinguished by a
continuous and severe demand for orderliness, perfectionism, and control, which
ultimately hinders or impedes the completion of tasks. They are never satisfied with
their achievements.

SEXUAL DEVIANCY
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a type of psychiatric disorder characterized by unusual fantasies, urges, or behaviors that

are recurrent and sexually arousing.

Types of Sexual Deviancy

A. Sexual Reversals
1. Homosexuality – a sexual behavior directed towards the same sex;
lesbianism or tribadism for female relationship.
2. Tranvestism – involves recurrent and intense sexual arousal from cross-
dressing, which may manifest as fantasies, urges, or behaviors.
B. Abnormal Behavior Based on Choice of Partner
1. Pedophilia – sexual perversion where a person has the compulsive desire to
have sexual intercourse with a child of either sex (usually 13 years old or
younger).
2. Bestiality – is the act of having sexual relations with an animal.
 Zoophilia - emotional and sexual attraction to an animal.
3. Auto-sexual – sexual arousal and satisfaction is higher through masturbation
than with another person.
4. Gerontophilia – is a sexual desire with an elder person.
5. Necrophilia – an erotic desire or actual intercourse with a corpse.
6. Incest – - sexual intercourse with relatives
C. Based on Sexual Urge
1. Satyriasis – an excessive desire of men to have sexual intercourse.
2. Nymphomania – a strong sexual feeling of women with an excessive sexual
urge.
D. Based on Mode of Sexual Expression
1. Oralism – the use of mouth or tongue as a way of sexual satisfaction.

o Fellatio – the sexual activity of sucking or moving the tongue across the
penis in order to give pleasure and excitement.

o Cunnilingus – is a form of oral sex in which a person's lips and tongue

stimulate their partner's vagina and vulva, especially the clitoris.

o Anilism/Anilingus – licking the anus of the sexual partner.

2.Sadism – is a psychological condition where individuals find sexual pleasure

in hurting other people.
3. Masochism – A desire to take pleasure—particularly sexual pleasure—from
one's own pain or humiliation.
4. Sado-masochism – psychological tendency or sexual practice characterized
by both sadism and masochism.
E. Based on Part of the Body
1. Sodomy – is sexual act through the anus of the sexual partner.
2. Uranism – sexual gratification is attained through fingering.
3. Frottage – the act of rubbing the sex organ against body parts of another
person.
4. Fetishism – is sexual attraction to objects, situations, or body parts
(partialism) not traditionally viewed as sexual.
4.1. Partialism – it refers to the sexual libido on any part of the body of a
sexual partner.
F. Based on Visual Stimulus
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1. Voyeurism – watching an unsuspecting/non-consenting individual who is

either nude, disrobing, or engaging in sexual activity (SCOPTOPHILIA).
2. Scoptophilia – the intentional act of watching other people during sexual
intimacies.
G. Based on Number of Participants in the Sexual Act
1. Troilism – three people participate in sexy orgy such as two women versus
on man or vice versa.
2. Pluralism – group of people in sexual orgies such as couple to couple sexual
relations. It is also called sexual festival.

Other Sexual Deviation

• Exhibitionism – exposing one’s genitals to an unsuspecting person.

• Coprophilia – refers to sexual excitement from viewing, smelling, or handling feces.

• Coprolalia the use of obscene language to achieve sexual satisfaction

• Don Juanism – the act of seducing women as a career without permanency of sexual
partner or companion.

• Urolagnia – sexual gratification through urination.

VICTIMOLOGY

What is Victimology?

 It refers to the study of crime victims, including the role of the victim to their
victimization, the psychological effects of crimes on the victims, the interactions
between victims and the criminal justice system and the relationships between
victims and offenders.

Victim

• A victim is the person whom the crime was committed.

Who is the Father of Victimology?

• Benjamin Mendelsohn

Why we study victimology?

1. To know the reasons why a person becomes victim.

2. To know why are certain people victimized more than the rest.
3. To know what makes a person a target of criminals.
4. To know how does a person contribute to their victimization.

Effects of Crime Victimization:

1. Loss- it includes financial, property and productivity lose on the part of the victims.
Likewise, crime produces social costs that must be paid by non-victims.

2. Suffering- Millions of crime victims, suffer injury each year, ranging from scratch to
gunshot.

3. Fear- victims of violent crimes are the most deeply affected, fearing a repeat of their
attack. The effects of fear are critical considering that forms of victimization are so
 HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

widespread. People fear for the safety of others in their lives- children, spouses, and friends
whose safety they value- this is referred to as Altruistic Fear (fear for others).

4. Antisocial Behavior- there is growing evidence that people who are victims also seem
likely to commit crime themselves. There is strong evidence that being abused or neglected
as a child increases the odds of being arrested both as juvenile and as an adult. These
abuse-crime phenomenon is referred to as “Cycle of Violence.”

Theories of Victimization

1. Victim Precipitation Theory - this theory holds that victims' provocative behavior leads
to criminal acts. It also considers how a victim's interactions with an offender may contribute
to the crime being committed.

1.1. Passive – the victim unintentionally exhibits behaviors or attributes that trigger
or support the attack.

1.2. Active – in this precipitation, victimization occurs when the victim takes
aggressive or provocative acts.

2. Lifestyle Theory- asserts that particular individuals may become victims of crime as a
result of their lifestyle and choices, such as roaming alone at night in a dangerous
neighborhood, wearing expensive jewelry in public, leaving doors unlocked, and interacting
with known criminals.

3. Deviant Place Theory- suggests that being exposed to unsafe places increases one's
chances of becoming a victim of a crime. The more frequently a person enters dangerous
areas where violent crime is prevalent, the higher the probability of victimization.

4. Routine Activities Theory- crime will happen if the three element is present which are
the availability of suitable targets, the absence of capable guardians, and the presence of
motivated offenders.

5. Victim Facilitation Theory – Victim make it conducive for the offender to commit the
crime against them.

Types of Victims:

1. Primary Victim – Also called as direct victim. This pertains to the individual who
suffered actual harm as a result of the crime that was committed.
2. Secondary Victim – It refers those who suffered indirectly because of their
relationship to the direct victim, such as the spouse, children, siblings, parents and
friends of the victims.
3. Tertiary or Remote Victim - those who suffered psychologically because of the
seriousness of the crime committed to the victim and become afraid of the effects of
crime by watching television, videos in social media, and reading newspaper.

General Classes of Victims

Based on the classification of Hans Von Hentig:

1. The young – immature, lack of physical strength, and lack of the mental and
emotional maturity to recognize victimization.
2. The female – often lack of physical strength and easily dominated by males.
3. The old – the incapable of physical defense.
4. The mentally defective – those that are unable to think clearly.
 HUMAN BEHAVIOR AND VICTIMOLOGY

5. The immigrant – those that are unsure of the rules of conduct in the surrounding of
the society.
6. The minorities – racial prejudice may lead to victimization or unequal treatment by
the agency of justice.

Psychological Types of Victims

1. The Depressed – submissive person by virtue of emotional condition.

2. The wanton or overly sensual – ruled by passion and thoughtlessly seeking
pleasure.
3. The lonesome - person who eventually becomes a victim by virtue of wanting
companionship or affection.
4. The heartbroken – one who is emotionally disturbed by virtue of heartaches and
pains.
5. The tormented – a victim who asked for it, often from his own family or friend.

According to Benjamin Mendelsohn (and Von Hentig):

1. The completely innocent victim--such a person is an ideal victim in popular

perception. In this category placed persons victimized while they were unconscious, and the
child victims.

2. Victims with only minor guilt and those victimized due to ignorance.

3. The victim who is guiltier than the offender -the category was described as
containing persons who provoked the criminal or actively induced their own victimization.

4. The guiltiest victim “who is guilty alone”- an attacker killed by a would-be victim in
the act of defending themselves were placed in this category.

5. The imaginary Victim- those suffering from mental disorders, or those victims due to
extreme mental abnormalities.