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 “With an encyclopaedic knowledge of transhumanism and a deep philosophical
grounding, especially in Nietzschean thought, Stefan Sorgner tackles some of the
most challenging ethical issues currently discussed, including gene editing, digital
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conclusions. This study is one of the most detailed and comprehensive analyses
available today. Highly recommended for anyone interested in transhumanist/
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 WE HAVE ALWAYS
BEEN CYBORGS
Digital Data, Gene Technologies, and an
Ethics of Transhumanism
Stefan Lorenz Sorgner
First published in Great Britain in 2022 by

Bristol University Press

University of Bristol
1–​9 Old Park Hill
Bristol
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e: [email protected]

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Chapter 2.1 Transhumanism without Mind Uploading and Immortality: this chapter appears in Analyzing
Future Applications of AI, Sensors, and Robotics in Society (pp. 284–​291) edited by Musiolik, T.H., &
Cheok, A.D. © 2021, IGI Global, www.igi-​global.com. Reprinted by permission of the publisher.

Chapter 2.2.11 Glocalization and the War for Digital Data: this section appears in Journal of Posthuman
Studies 4(2), (2020), ‘Editor’s Note’, Stefan Lorenz Sorgner © 2020, The Pennsylvania State
University Press. This article is used by permission of The Pennsylvania State University Press.

All other content © Bristol University Press 2022

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 Contents

List of Abbreviations vi
Acknowledgements vii

1 Transhumanism: In a Nutshell 1
2 On a Silicon-​based Transhumanism 22
3 On a Carbon-​based Transhumanism 61
4 A Fictive Ethics 109
5 The End as a New Beginning 185

Notes 188
References 198
Index 209

v
 List of Abbreviations

AI Artificial intelligence
IEET Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies
IVF In vitro fertilization
KSA Nietzsche, F. (1967ff) Sämtliche Werke. Kritische
Studienausgabe in 15 Bänden. Edited by G. Colli and
M. Montinari. München/​New York: Deutscher
Taschenbuch Verlag.
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
PA Procreative autonomy
PB Procreative beneficence
PGD Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
PGS Preimplantation genetic screening
RFID Radio-​frequency identification
WP Nietzsche, F. (1968) The Will to Power. Trans. Walter
Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale. Weidenfeld and
Nicolson, London.
WTA World Transhumanist Association

vi
newgenprepdf

Acknowledgements

I wish to thank my Research Assistants of John Cabot University (JCU)

Rome for their support for getting this manuscr ipt ready for
publication: Selma Coleman, Moya Seneb, Moustafa Tlass, Megan
Dhlamini, Benedetta Grilli, and Francesca Dalmazzo. I particularly wish
to highlight the efforts for the polishing of this manuscript of my JCU
Research Assistants Ihsan Baris Gedizlioglu, Daniela Movileanu, and
Chryssi Soteriades. Furthermore, I am grateful for the exchanges I have
had, and comments I received, from Dr Markus Peuckert, Dr Pascal Henke,
and Prof Thomas Govero.

vii
 1

Transhumanism: In a Nutshell1

This book on ‘We Have Always Been Cyborgs’ is structured as follows.

Chapter 1 will be a general introduction to transhumanism. I will critically
analyse the wide range of digital developments relevant for transhumanism
in Chapter 2, ‘Silicon-​based Transhumanism’; for example, mind uploading
and cyborgization. In Chapter 3, ‘On a Carbon-​based Transhumanism’, my
focus will be on the wide range of gene technologies which are central for
transhumanism, that is, (1) Nietzsche and recent debates on transhumanism
and eugenics; (2) critical reflections on moral bioenhancement; (3) gene
modification; (4) gene selection after in vitro fertilization (IVF) and
preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD). In Chapter 4 the main ethical
discussions concerning transhumanism will be summarized and I will present
my own fictive ethical stance, that is, (1) virtue ethics; (2) the question of the
good life; (3) personhood and what is morally right; (4) transhumanism and
utopia; (5) transhumanism, immortality and the meaning of life. By this means
my key thought that we have always been cyborgs in the continual process
of self-​overcoming, will unfold itself in various dimensions. To begin with,
however, an informed understanding of transhumanism needs to be presented.
Transhumanism is the ‘world’s most dangerous idea’. This is at least Francis
Fukuyama’s judgement concerning this cultural and philosophical movement,
which he stated in the magazine Foreign Policy (Fukuyama 2004, 42–​43).
Transhumanism is a cultural movement which affirms the use of techniques
to increase the likelihood that human beings manage to transcend the
boundaries of their current existence. It is in our interest to take evolution
into our own hands. Thereby, we will increase the likelihood of our living
a good life as well as that of not becoming extinct.
Transhumanism has slowly increased in significance since 1951, when the
term was first coined by Julian Huxley in his article ‘Knowledge, Morality,
and Destiny’. Then, he described transhumanism as follows: ‘Such a broad
philosophy might perhaps best be called, not Humanism, because that has

1
 WE HAVE ALWAYS BEEN CYBORGS

certain unsatisfactory connotations, but Transhumanism. It is the idea of

humanity attempting to overcome its limitations and to arrive at fuller
fruition; it is the realization that both individual and social developments are
processes of self-​transformation’ (Huxley 1951, 139). I regard this formulation
still as the best possible definition of transhumanism.2
The concluding chapter of Julian Huxley’s book New Bottles for New Wine,
published in 1957, is entitled ‘Evolutionary Humanism’. The relationship
between evolutionary humanism, represented today by the Giordano Bruno
Foundation, and contemporary transhumanism must still be clarified more
precisely. There seems to be a structural analogy between transhumanism
and evolutionary humanism which needs to be considered when clarifying
the relationship between humanism and transhumanism, and also between
traditional humanism and evolutionary humanism.
Julian Huxley had a brother who is at least as well known as he himself,
Aldous Huxley. Between Julian Huxley’s affirmative considerations
concerning the impacts of technologies and those of his brother, the author
of the critical novel Brave New World, there are significant tensions in terms
of content. Julian Huxley also shares his fundamental evolutionary approach
with his grandfather Thomas Henry Huxley, who distinguished himself as
Darwin’s supporter. He was known as Darwin’s bulldog. Julian Huxley’s
half-​brother, Andrew Fielding Huxley, was also active as a natural scientist.
He was a university professor of biology in London and won the Nobel
Prize in Physiology or Medicine, but is currently less well known than the
other family members already mentioned. Julian Huxley was a university
professor in London, too. In addition, he was the first general director of
UNESCO who made a significant contribution to the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights, and was on the board of the British Eugenics Society.
A close friend of Julian Huxley was the catholic evolutionary thinker
Teilhard de Chardin, who used the word ‘transhumanising’ in The Future of
Man (De Chardin 1959, 251). The reflections by this Jesuit priest are still of
great relevance for considering potential religious aspects of transhumanism
and for further clarifications concerning the relationship between Christianity
and transhumanism.
In the time period 1969 to 1972 there were six manned US landings
on the Moon, which significantly revived interest in this way of thinking.
It was then that the notions of the ‘post-​’ and the ‘transhuman’ in a
transhumanist sense were coined. Both concepts definitely show up in the
article ‘Transhumans-​2000’ by F.M. Esfandiary (1974), who changed his
name to FM-​2030 to stress the contingency of naming conventions and
to highlight the relevance of a prolonged life span, as 2030 would have
been the year of his 100th birthday: ‘On our way beyond animal beyond
transhuman –​to a post-​human dimension’ (Esfandiary 1974, 298). In his

2
 Transhumanism

1973 book Up-​Wingers he had already talked about a ‘post-​animal/​human

stage’ (Esfandiary 1973, 170). The notion ‘superman’ is prominent in the
seminal book Man into Superman by R.C.W. Ettinger (1972). It is the notion
of the superman which relates transhumanist reflections to the philosophy
of Friedrich Nietzsche. A detailed debate (see Tuncel 2017) on the complex
relationship between these two ways of thinking was initialized in 2009
by my article ‘Nietzsche, the Overhuman, and Transhumanism’ (Sorgner
2010b, 2016a, 2018c, 2019b). Most leading transhumanist philosophers,
however, belong to the tradition of Anglo-​American analytical philosophy,
which is one reason why there is a widely shared hesitation within the
continental philosophical tradition to seriously engage with transhumanist
thinking (More and Vita-​More 2013).
Further, significant ancestors of transhumanist thinking can be found within
Russian cosmism and Russian science fiction. It would be anachronistic
to refer to any thinker before 1951 as transhumanist, yet many structural
analogies and parallels can be found between their reflections and the realm
of topics which is usually covered by transhumanist thinkers, activists, and
artists. Nikolai Fyodorovich Fyodorov is the most noteworthy thinker among
the Russian cosmists concerning the similarities to transhumanist reflections.
In contrast to Nietzsche, who was hostile towards religions, Fyodorov was
a devout, church-​going Orthodox Christian, which also influenced his
futuristic ideas. At least as fascinating as the cosmists were Russian science
fiction writers. Alexander Romanovich Belyaev’s books Professor Dowell’s
Head, Amphibian Man, Ariel, and The Air Seller are particularly relevant. The
novel We by Yevgeny Ivanovich Zamyatin is also noteworthy in this context,
as well as the brothers Arkady Natanovich Strugatsky and Boris Natanovich
Strugatsky, who developed the complex world of ‘Noon’ in which several
of their novels take place, and which was named after the first novel of their
series: Noon: 22nd Century.
Transhumanism as a cultural movement developed further during the
1980s with a close friend of FM-​2030, Natasha Vita-​More. In 1982 she
published the ‘Transhuman Manifesto’, which preceded the first version
of the ‘Transhumanist Arts Statement’ (1992), of which a revised version
was republished in 2003. In 2013 she summarized her central insights on
these issues in the article ‘Aesthetics: Bringing the Arts and Design into the
Discussion of Transhumanism’ (Vita-​More 2013, 18–​27). Like FM-​2030,
who was born as Fereidoun M. Esfandiary, she changed her name to highlight
the contingency of naming. Natasha Vita-​More was born as Nancie Clark,
and her husband Max More as Max T. O’Connor. Max More, Natasha Vita-​
More, and FM-​2030 were particularly relevant in promoting transhumanism
at the beginning of the 1990s. Max More’s essay ‘Transhumanism. Toward
a Futurist Philosophy’ (More 1990, 6–​12) and FM-​2030’s book Are You a

3
 WE HAVE ALWAYS BEEN CYBORGS

Transhuman (FM-​2030, 1989) were particularly important writings from this

period. Later during the 1990s some transhumanists realized that a more
formally organized structure was needed to increase the cultural impact of
transhumanism. Consequently, the World Transhumanist Association (WTA)
was founded by Nick Bostrom and David Pearce in 1998. Nick Bostrom is
particularly famous for the paper ‘Are You Living in a Computer Simulation?’
(Bostrom 2003, 243–​255). David Pearce is widely known for having authored
the ‘Hedonist Imperative’ (Pearce 1995). The WTA also established the
conference series TransVision and founded the Journal of Transhumanism to
promote transhumanism as a legitimate field of academic research.
Still, the WTA did not realize its expected academic impact. Hence,
Nick Bostrom and James Hughes established the techno-​progressive
think-​tank Institute for Ethics and Emerging Technologies (IEET) in
2004 and integrated the Journal of Transhumanism into the structures of this
organization. Thereby, the peer-​reviewed, academic, open access, online-​
only journal was renamed as the Journal of Evolution and Technologies. In order
to generate an increased impact and to reduce the fear resulting from the
word ‘transhumanism’, the WTA was rebranded in 2008, being renamed as
‘Humanity Plus’ and having cultural activism as its focus, whereas the focus
of the IEET is academic and it is open not only to transhumanists but also
to other techno-​progressive thinkers, like bioliberals. You can be a bioliberal
and regard it as morally obligatory to select specific fertilized eggs after IVF
and preimplantation diagnosis for implantation without regarding the coming
about of a posthuman as desirable. This is a position which is held by Julian
Savulescu, who is a prime example of a philosopher and bioethicist who is
close to transhumanists’ thinking but does not explicitly associate himself
with this movement. On the other hand, it can also be the case that you
reject the notion of any moral obligation, while regarding it as individually
desirable to overcome current human limitations by means of technologies,
which is the distinguishing feature of transhumanists.
A further opening towards academic debate took place with the realization
of the Beyond Humanism Conference Series in 2009, for which I have been
primarily responsible. Its goal is to promote academic exchange between
humanist, transhumanist, and critical posthumanist scholars. This is also the
dedicated aim of the book series Beyond Humanism: Trans-​and Posthumanism,
which I established in 2011. To further promote the goal of an academic
engagement with the great variety of discourses, James Hughes, Sangkyu
Shin, and I established the world’s first double-​blind and peer-​reviewed
academic journal dedicated to the posthuman, the Journal of Posthuman
Studies, which has been published in print as well as online by Penn State
University Press since 2017. Since 2019, the world’s oldest publishing house,
Schwabe Verlag (founded in 1488), which is deeply rooted in the humanist

4
 Transhumanism

tradition, has embraced the challenges related to emerging technologies

and has published a high-​class book series entitled Posthuman Studies under
my general editorship.

1.1 Philosophical issues

A main philosophical issue with which I will be less concerned here is
that of transhumanist politics. The media widely identifies transhumanists
with cold-​hearted, blood-​sucking, Silicon Valley billionaires who fight
for libertarianism. This description is one sided. There are libertarian
transhumanists like Peter Thiel or Zoltan Istvan, but the majority of
intellectual transhumanists are in favour of a social-​democratic version of
transhumanism, as it is upheld by most members of the IEET. Particularly
noteworthy concerning transhumanist politics are the activities of Zoltan
Istvan, who founded the US Transhumanist Party and who ran for the US
presidency in 2016. In the novel Transhumanist Wager (2013), Istvan explains
many of his transhumanist positions. Due to his libertarian sympathies, his
activism was not universally approved of by transhumanists. A complex
social-​democratic version of a transhumanist politics had been published in
the book Citizen Cyborg by James Hughes (2004). This monograph not only
presents a strong political position but also serves as an excellent introduction
to transhumanism in general.
No serious transhumanist rejects liberalism. All affirm some liberal political
stance, but the range of possible positions is enormous. This is also the
reason why the right to morphological freedom plays such a central role
in transhumanism. The concept was originally coined by Max More in
his 1993 article ‘Technological Self-​Transformation: Expanding Personal
Extropy’ (More 1993, 15–​24). A particularly strong case for morphological
freedom was presented by Anders Sandberg in his article ‘Morphological
Freedom –​Why We Not Just Want It, but Need It’ (Sandberg 2013, 56–6​ 4).
This right includes not only the self-​ownership of one’s body but also the
right to modify it according to one’s own wishes.
This right can be explained further by reference to a utilitarian foundation,
as most academic transhumanists belong to the Anglo-​American analytic
philosophical tradition, where utilitarianism is dominant. There are some
particularly strong transhumanist scholars in the disciplines of applied
ethics and the philosophy of mind. Academic contributions by these were
responsible for the recognition of transhumanism in academia as an approach
which deserves to be taken seriously, from the early 2000s onwards. This
does not mean, however, that there are no transhumanists who argue on the
basis of a different ethical theory. James Hughes used to be a Buddhist monk,
and many of his arguments are founded on a virtue-​ethical approach, for

5
 WE HAVE ALWAYS BEEN CYBORGS

example when he stresses the need to technologically enhance mindfulness.

I argue for a hermeneutical ethical position, which is strongly influenced by
Nietzschean reflections: a liberal ethics of fictive autonomy.
Depending on the ethical foundation, different concepts of the good
are being upheld by transhumanists, even though in the mainstream
media transhumanism is usually presented as if all transhumanists wish to
become immortal by turning into a Renaissance genius, whereby the male
version can be identified with Superman on Viagra, and the female ideal
is best described as Wonder Woman with Botox. It is not the case that no
transhumanist upholds these ideals, but it needs to be pointed out that there
is a much greater diversity concerning the concepts of the good which are
being affirmed than has widely been acknowledged. I will discuss this issue
in detail in Chapter 4, section 2.
The main aspect of the concept of the good which is shared among many
transhumanists is the prolongation of the human health span. The health span
must not be identified with the life span, the quantity of years we are alive.
What most people are interested in is the prolongation of healthy years of
their lives. This is what the health span stands for. One academic discussion
among transhumanists is about the status of this claim. Should the normative
claim be upheld that all human beings ought to identify any prolongation
of the health span with an increase in the likelihood of living a good life? Is
it the case that the health span is valid for most human beings, but that it is
not a universally valid normative ethical position? Does the affirmation of the
prolongation of the human health span imply the position that immortality
is being aimed for, or not? Is transhumanism a utopian enterprise, or not?
Should ageing be seen as a disease (de Grey and Rae 2010)? Is cryonics a
possible way to increase one’s health span? Is mind uploading the best possible
option for doing so, or should we create human–​animal hybrids to move
beyond the 122-​year age limit which seems to apply to currently living
human beings? All of these issues are being discussed in academic exchanges
by transhumanists. I analyse them in detail in this book.
My own take on these issues is that most human beings indeed identify
an increase of the health span with a higher likelihood of living a good life.
Yet, neither cryonics nor mind uploading seem to be the most promising
techniques for promoting this goal. This being the case, it needs to be pointed
out that immortality is not a realistic option. We cannot even conceptualize
the notion of immortality on the basis of a naturalist understanding of the
world. Immortality implies either that humans cannot or that they must not
die. Both options are absurd, if we think of the world on a naturalist basis.
In this case, the universe began with the Big Bang. It has expanded since
then, and eventually the expansion process will slow down so that the entire
universe will come to a standstill. A different theory is that at a certain stage

6
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