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Dictionary of
Caribbean
English
Usage
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2019 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofcariOOOOunse
Dictionary of
Caribbean
English Usage

Edited by
Richard Allsopp

with a French and Spanish supplement

edited by
Jeannette Allsopp

University of the West Indies Press

Jamaica • Barbados • Trinidad & Tobago
Dictionary of
Caribbean
English Usage
University of the West Indies Press
1A Aqueduct Flats Mona
Kingston 7 Jamaica

This edition reprinted by the University of the West Indies Press

by arrangement with Oxford University Press. First published by
Oxford University Press in 1996.

© Oxford University Press 1996

© 2003 by The University of the West Indies Press

All rights reserved. Published 2003

09 5 4 3 2

CATALOGUING IN PUBLICATION DATA

Dictionary of Caribbean English usage / edited by Richard Allsopp;

with a French and Spanish supplement edited by Jeannette Allsopp.

p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references.
Originally published: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996.

ISBN: 976-640-145-4

I. English language - Caribbean Area - Dictionaries. 2. English language -

Dialects - Caribbean Area - Dictionaries. 3. Creole dialects, English -
Caribbean Area - Dictionaries. I. Allsopp, Richard (Stanley Reginald Richard).
II. Allsopp, Jeanette.

PE3304.D54 2003 427.9729’03

Offset from the Oxford University Press edition of 1996 by the

University of the West Indies Press.

Cover design by Robert Harris.

Printed in the United States of America.

For many neighbours

To harness, by naming, creation around;

To label, unwritten, folk thoughts that abound;
To fight life, with language sole arm of the fighter,
Their tongue is the pen of a ready writer.

S.R.R.A.

How can I dialogue . ..

if I start from the premise
that naming the world is the task of an elite,
and that the presence of the people in history
is a sign of deterioration which is to be avoided?
How can I dialogue . ..
if I am closed to—and even offended by—
the contribution of others?

Paulo Freire, Pedagogy Of The Oppressed

(tr. Myra B. Ramos). Printed by permis¬
sion of The Continuum Publishing Company.

The beginning of Wisdom

Is
Knowing who you are.
Draw near and listen.

Swahili Proverb
'
 CONTENTS

Personnel viii
Acknowledgements xii
Introduction xvii
Caribbean English xxxix
Glossary of Linguistic Terminology Used in the
Dictionary lviii
Explanatory Notes lxiii
Abbreviations lxix
Symbols lxxiii
Structure of an Entry lxxiv
Pronunciation lxxvi

THE DICTIONARY i

Appendices:
1. Layout of Steelband 625
2. National Symbols of Caribbean States 626
Citation Codes for Bibliographical References
Used in the Dictionary 627

FRENCH AND SPANISH SUPPLEMENT

Introduction 669
How to Use the Supplement 672
Bibliography 673
Territorial References Used in the Supplement 675

THE SUPPLEMENT 677

vii
 PERSONNEL

Co-ordinator and Editor S. R. Richard Allsopp

Editorial Adviser Laurence Urdang

Research Associate (1990 - ) Jeannette E. Allsopp

RESEARCH ASSISTANTS

Cave Hill Campus, UWI

Rodina Herbert (1974-5) Audrey Burrowes (1979-87)
Myma Martineau (1975-80) Cecilia Francis (1989-90)
Yvette Keane (1975-8) Alma Taitt (1990)

Part-time (at various times between 1975 and 1990): L. Alexander;

M. Alexander; J. Allsopp; Y. Allsopp; E. Best; A. Burrowes; R. Cole;
G. Crichlow-Brathwaite; L. Darmanie; C. Francis; S. Gill; W. Griffith;
R. Henry; H. Hyman; I. Inniss; L. Inniss; M. Isaac; D. Jules; A. C.
Matthews; M. Moseley; S. Phillips; D. Singh; W. Singh; M. Taitt; H.
Taylor; C. Toppin; M. Williams; Fifth Formers of the St Michael’s Girls’
School (1973-6).

Overseas: Ron Hall (London); John and Kathleen Kaye (Washington);

Marjorie Mann and team (Ottawa).

St Augustine Campus, UWI

Judy Antoine (1979-80) Winford James (1981-3)
Patricia Aquing (1981-3) (Tobago)
Clive Borely (1981-2) Betty Joseph (1981-3)
Wendy Sealey (1982-3)

Mona Campus, UWI

Yasmin Stewart (1979-80)

Belize University Centre, UWI

Colville Young (now Sir Colville) (1979-82)
Oswald Sutherland (1979-82)

University of Guyana
Kuntie Ramdat (1976-78) Claudith Thompson (1976-80)

Part-time (1977-9): N. Barker; S. Griffith; L. Harry; C. John; D. Ramphal;

K. Singh.

Vlll
 PERSONNEL

CONSULTANTS
African Languages
Akan (Twi, Fante, Nzema) Jack Berry, Northwestern U.
Igbo Benson Oluikpe, U/Nigeria
Yoruba Ayo Banjo, U/Ibadan
Kole Omotoso, U/Ife (1978)

Other Languages
Amerindian Languages Amerindian Languages Project,
(Guyana) U/Guyana (1977-80)
Chinese (Cantonese and John Tjon-A-Yong, Guyana, 1987
Hakka)
Hindi/Bhojpuri Satesh Rohra, U/New Delhi,
U/Guyana; Peggy Mohan,
Howard U. (1979-82)
Spanish Jeannette Allsopp, Erdiston
Teachers’ College, Barbados
(1983-92)

Caribbean Flora
Taxonomic Identification E. G. B. Gooding

INFORMANTS
African Languages (at various times, 1967 and between 1975 and
1986)
Bini R. Ezomo
Ci-Nyanja O. Muzombwe; S. Mchombo
Edo A. Amayo (U/Ibadan)
Efik N. Ekanem (SOAS, U/London);
N. J. Udoeyop (U/Ibadan Press)
Ewe E. Adjorlolo (Broadcasting Station,
Accra)
Fante A. B. K. Dadzie (Kumasi U.)
Fulani C. Hoffman (U/Ghana); I. Mukoshy
Ga-Adangme O. Appiah, M. Kropp (U/Ghana);
Bureau of Ghana Languages (Accra)
Hausa I. Mukoshy; I. Amadi Ume
Idoma Robert G. Armstrong (U/Nigeria);
S. Amali
Igbo I. Amadi Ume
Ijo/Izon Kay Williamson (U/Port Harcourt)
Isoko B. Mafeni; O. Obuke

IX
 PERSONNEL

Kikongo & Lingala Ungina Ndoma (Northwestern U.)

Ki-Yaka Y. M. A. M’Teba
Krio Jack Berry (Northwestern U.);
M. Broderick
Mende Richard Spears (Northwestern U.);
M. Bangura; J. Sengova
Nupe J. O. Ndagi; F. A. Umaru
Nzema I. K. Chinebuah (U/Ghana)
Shona Hazel Carter (SOAS, U/London);
L. I. Ferraz (U/Zimbabwe); W. Qwete
(U/Ibadan); J. Chafota
Twi L. Boadi, B. S. Kwakwa (U/Ghana)
West Afr. Drumming J. H. Nketia (U/Ghana)
West Afr. Pidgin I. Amadi Ume
Wolof M. Cham (U/Wisconsin)
Yoruba A. Adetugbo, S. A. O. Babalola
(U/Yaba); A. Bamgbose (U/Ibadan);
O. Lamidi; A. O. Obilade; J. Sterk
(U/Wisconsin)

Other Languages
Gullah John Roy (Columbia U.)
Irish English Loretto Todd (U/Leeds)
Sranan Christian Eersel (U/Suriname);
G. Huttar (Summer Institute of
Linguistics)

Computerization
Specialist Adviser Marvel O’Neal
Assistant (1990-2) Hazelyn Devonish

Typists and Keyboarders

Leona Darmanie Camileta Neblett
R. Campbell J. Gilkes
L.Johnson A. Taitt
L. Lewis D. Sandiford

X
 PERSONNEL

UWI Advisory Committee* 1979-91

Dennis Craig, Professor, School of Education, Mona—Chairman 1979-90
Mervyn Alleyne, Professor, Dept, of Linguistics and Use of English, Mona
Lawrence Carrington, Reader, School of Education, St Augustine
Helen Pyne-Timothy, Senior Lecturer, Dept, of Language and Linguistics,
. St Augustine—Chairperson 1990-1
(* Campus Deans were formally added to the Committee in 1989)

xi
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

A sincere effort has been made to include the name of every person or
institution that has helped in the collection of data, but it has not been
practical to list the participants in the various territorial workshops who,
for example, amounted to 76 in Antigua and over 100 in Guyana and St
Vincent (though many others were, of course, quite small). On the other
hand I have tried, by writing out their first names in full, to recognize in
this small way some persons whose continued or particular extra efforts to
help the exercise merit special mention. R.A.

Funding of the Caribbean Lexicography Project, obtained from the fol¬

lowing sources, is gratefully acknowledged:

The Ford Foundation 1971-3, 1974-6

Barclays Bank International 1974-7
American Council of Learned Societies 1974-5
The Government of Guyana 1975-82
The Government of Barbados 1977-87, 1990-1
International Development Research Centre (Ottawa) 1977-8
The Government of Trinidad and Tobago 1981-3
University of the West Indies 1979-92
UNESCO 1980-1, 1988
The Commonwealth Foundation (London) 1985

Special thanks are due to the Government of Guyana and to the University
of the West Indies whose funding at critical times prevented the Project
from halting altogether.

Accommodation: The Project was based at the Cave Hill Campus of the
UWI from its inception. Offices and equipment were also provided for
Research Assistants at the University of Guyana (Faculty of Arts), the UWI
at St Augustine (ISER), and the UWI Extra-Mural Department in Belize.

Data-collection: Assistance was received from persons and institutions in

the collection or verification of data in or in relation to the following
territories, at various times between 1973 and 1991. An asterisk (*) against
the name of an institution or place indicates that a data-collection workshop
was held there with teachers and other interested participants, and usually
of about five days’ duration:

xii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ANGUILLA: Education Officer; teachers of the Valley Community Centre*

and other schools; B. Buchanan; A. Hodge; I. Richardson.

ANTIGUA: UWI Resident Tutor E. Bird; Leeward Islands Teachers Training

College*; Chief and other Education Officers; Chief Agricultural Officer;
A. Crick; V. Evelyn; B. Farquhar; O. Josiah; R. Prince; I. Richards; H.
Roberts; Dorcas White.

BAHAMAS: UWI Representative G. Hamilton; Director of Education; Learn¬

ing Resource Centre* (Nassau); San Salvador High School*; South Andros
Senior High School*; Rock Sound High School* (Eleuthera); Principal and
staff, College of the Bahamas; Curator, Botanic Gardens; Chief Agricultural
Officer; R. Bain; C. Bethel; K. Bethel; L. Davis; Hon. E. Dupuch; A.
Hilton; J. Holm; G. Morley; Fr. K. Sands; A. Shilling.

BARBADOS: Erdiston Teachers’ Training College*; Dept, of Archives; Min¬

istry of Agriculture; Fisheries Dept.; Supreme Court Registrar; H. Boxill;
J. Callender; E. Deane; H. McD. Forde; E. Greaves; M. Hutt; G. Davis-
Isaacs; P. McConney; E. Payne; Erica Pile; Kenneth Pile; R. Quintyne;
F. Ramsey; D. Seale; F. Spencer; C. Sylvester; Pat Symmonds; A. Taitt;
G. Tutt; V. Weekes; L. Wellington; P. Went; J. Wickham; W. Willock.
Steelband: G. Cheltenham (National Cultural Foundation); G. P. Mendoza.

UWI Cave Hill campus colleagues in various Faculties, Units, etc. : C. Barrow,
B. Callender, Sean Carrington, F. Chandler, N. Duncan, B. Farquhar, I.
Gibbs, C. Hollingsworth, L. Jackson, Anthony Lewis, N. Liverpool, E.
Moore, Alan Moss, A. Phillips, M. Pidgeon, D. Sardinha, A. Thompson,
K. Watson.

BARBUDA: V. Browne (Warden); Holy Trinity School*; C. Beazer; Mam

Peg; E. Samuel.

BELIZE: UWI Resident Tutors V. Leslie and J. Palacio; Education Officers E.

Gutierrez and R. Cayetano; Belize Teachers’ College*; University Centre*;
Dangriga*; La Inmaculada RC School* (Orange Walk); Ministry of Ag¬
riculture; Dept, of Archaeology; Chief Forest Officer; Govt. Entomologist;
S. Coleman; J. Courtenay; A. Forde; D. Humes; G. Stuart.

BERMUDA: M. Bean.

BR. VIRGIN ISLANDS: UWI Representative B. De Castro; Chief Education

Officer; Chief Agricultural Officer; Chief Information Officer; BVI High
School* (Tortola); Anegada Primary School*; St Mary’s Primary School*
(Virgin Gorda); R. O’Neal; D. Penn; V. Penn; J. Wheatley.

CAYMAN ISLANDS: Ministry of Education* (Grand Cayman); Senior In¬

formation Officer; A. Benjamin; L. Bodden; R. Bodden; A. Ebanks; A.
Kohlman.

xiii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

DOMINICA: University Centre; Ministry of Education; Dominica Teachers’

Training College*; Division of Culture; Government Information Service;
Konmité Pou Etid Kwéyôl; Chief Agricultural Officer; Chief Fisheries
Officer; Director of Forestry and Wildlife; Secretary, WINBAN; Alwyn
Bully; R. Burnett; H. Clarendon; Olive Harris; F. Henderson; Verna
Liverpool; O. Marie; A. Peter; Douglas Taylor; M. Zamore.

GRENADA: UWI Resident Tutor B. Steele; Grenada Teachers’ Training

College*; Ministry of Social Affairs; Chief Fisheries Officer; C. Clarendon;
J. Copland; J. Finlay; Claude Francis; V. Francis; C. Glean; E. Glean;
Alister Hughes; Crofton McGuire; G. Payne; Wilfred Redhead; L. Seon;
C. Sylvester; Myrna Taitt.

GUYANA: Ministry of Education; Teachers’ Training College*, (George¬

town); New Amsterdam Government Secondary School* (Berbice); Anna
Regina School* (Essequibo); Aishalton* (Rupununi); Linden* (Demerara
R.); Mabaruma* (NW Region); Ministry of Agriculture; Chief Fisheries
Officer; Guyana Forest Commission; Walter Roth Museum; Guyana Rice
Board; E. Abrahams; Herbert Allsopp; Philip Allsopp; J. Bennett; B. Carter;
I. Cornette; E. Croal; C. Dolphin; L. Dolphin; C. Hollingsworth; E.
Hubbard; M. Khan; B. Laud; M. Lowe; I. McDonald; L. Munroe; C.
Rodway; S. Sadeek; Arthur Seymour; L. Slater; Sr. A. Tang; John Tjon-
A-Yong; Clement Yansen; V. Yong-Kong.

University of Guyana members of various Faculties, Units, etc. : Amerindian

Languages Project, Z. Bacchus, Joel Benjamin, V. Bentt, Dean Bynoe
(Educ.), Dean Carr (Arts), G. Cave, Walter Edwards, Desiree Fox, Joyce-
lynne Loncke, John Rickford, Ian Robertson, S. Tiwari, B. Tyndall, Uni¬
versity Herbarium.

JAMAICA: Ministry of Education; Mico Training College*; Shortwood

Teachers’ College*; Sam Sharpe Teachers’ College*; Ministry of Ag¬
riculture; Librarian, Hope Gardens; Jamaica Information Service; Sec¬
retariat, International Bauxite Association; Bureau of Standards; J.
Carnegie; Jean D’Costa; C. Lewis; E. Miller; Daphne Nicholson; E.
O’Callaghan; R. Reid.

UWI Mona campus colleagues of various Depts.: Mervyn Alleyne; Pauline

Christie; Dennis Craig; I. Goodbody; D. Hall; Maureen Lewis; V. Mulch-
ansingh.

MONTSERRAT: UWI Resident Tutors G. Irish and H. Fergus; University

Centre*; Chief Education Officer; Director of Agriculture; Govt. In¬
formation Officer; M. Allen; E. Bellot-Allen; L. Bishop; Ivan Browne; D.
Greenaway; Hughon James; Alfreda Meade.

xiv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

NETHERLANDS ANTILLES: Linda Richardson-Badejo.

NEVIS: Inspector of Schools; Charleston Secondary School*; Chief

Agricultural Officer; O. Dyer; P. Kalski; H. Liburd; Franklyn Manners;
P. Williams.

ST KITTS: UWI Resident Tutor V. Josse; Ministry of Education; University

Centre*; Teachers’ Training College* (Basseterre); M. Archibald; Hon. F.
Bryant; Loma Callender; J. Challenger; H. Ellis; G. Glasford; J. Halliday;
O. Hector; L. James; C. Joseph; A. Ribiero; D. Richardson; R. Thomas.

ST LUCIA: UWI Resident Tutor Pat Charles; Ministry of Education; St

Lucia Teachers’ College*; Vieux Fort*; Ministry of Agriculture, Lands and
Fisheries; Folk Research Centre; Mouvman Kwéyôl Sent Lisi; WINBAN;
Librarian, OECS; Fr. P. Anthony; Embert Charles; L. Didier; S. Edward;
S. French; M. Gill; H. Isaac; Martha Isaac; A. James; Robert Lee; E.
Martyr; G. Sarjusingh; J. Sifflet; Kieran St Rose; M. St. Rose; E. Tobias;
C. Trezette; R. Yorke.

ST VINCENT AND THE GRENADINES: UWI Resident Tutor H. Williams;

Ministry of Education; Memorial Hall* (Kingstown); Chief Education
Officer F. Toney; Deputy Chief Information Officer E. Crick; Editor, The
Vincentian; V. Brereton; A. Da Silva; Marcia Hinds; K. Huggins; E. John;
Yvette Keane; A. Keizer; Cameron King; Earle Kirby; E. Providence; B.
Richards; C. Richards; J. Sylvester; V. Thomas; Grace Williams; I. Williams.

SURINAME: J. Defares; Christian Eersel; E. Essed; S. Kishna; J. Park.

TOBAGO: Senator Jacob D. Elder; Dept, of Education; Fairfield Complex*

(Scarborough); Yvette Arnold; Eugene Blackett; Winford James; V. Wheeler.

TRINIDAD: Ministers of Education Hon. O. Padmore and Hon. C. Joseph;

Chief Education Officer; Valsayn Teachers’ Training College*; Corinth
Teachers’ College*; Chief Fisheries Officer H. Wood; Chief Agricultural
Officer; Chief Information Officer; Cislyn Baptiste; J. Habib; Anthony
Lewis; Earl Timothy.
Steelband: H. Puckerin (UWI); A. McQuilkin (Despers); C. Lindsey.

UWI St Augustine campus colleagues of various Faculties, Depts., etc. : Lawrence

Carrington; V. Jones; Jake Kenny; Charles McDavid; Sylvia Moodie; H.
Phelps; G. Pollard; Helen Pyne-Timothy; Compton Seaforth.

TURKS AND CAICOS ISLANDS: Chief Minister Hon. J. McCartney; Chief

Education Officer E. Ersdaille; Grand Turk High School*; North Caicos
Junior High School*; South Caicos Primary School*; I. Buchanan; C.
Duncanson; S. Garland; C. Hutchings; H. James Snr.; Hope James; D.
Jones; H. Sadler; N. Turner.

xv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

US VIRGIN ISLANDS: (St Thomas) Enid Baa; Vincent Cooper; Chief Ag¬
ricultural Officer, Dept, of Agriculture; Norwell Harrigan; Arona Peterson;
Gilbert Sprauve; Edward Towle.
(St Croix) Arnold Highfield; M. Scott.
(St John) Lito Vails.

Use of other Scholars’ Works: All dictionaries, grammars, and other

works of reference for African, Amerindian, Indie and other foreign lan¬
guages which have been used in etymological and other researches are
acknowledged in the comprehensive list of Citation Codes for Bibliogra¬
phical References. Each such work is given full bibliographic identification
after its listed Citation Code. In the body of the Dictionary, a Citation
Code is given in brackets each time the particular work to which it refers
is used as authority for any etymological or other data indicated. Examples:
Cp (ADMY) Yoruba baba ‘father’; Cp (WIED) Igbo any a ukwu (= eyes
big) ‘greed’. In such cases ADMY and WIED are references to Abraham’s
Dictionary of Modem Yoruba and Williamson’s Igbo-English Dictionary for
which full bibliographic identification is given within the list of Citation
Codes.

xvi
 INTRODUCTION

THE CARIBBEAN REALITY

Be one’s environment small or large, the need for a reliable inventory of it

in order to live intelligently and thence creatively is unquestionable and,
accordingly, a sufficient justification, if one were needed, for a lexical
record. In western writing cultures, of which the Caribbean is a part, that
record must be professionally lexicographical. That is the object of this
book.
It is now 500 years since the Caribbean first disclosed itself to Columbus
and submitted its indigenous peoples and cultures fatally to European
misjudgement. An emptiness of population followed while European ad¬
venturers made tentative calls, Englishmen among them. Sir Francis Drake
watered his ships at an uninhabited St Christopher (St Kitts) in 1585 (later
settled by Thomas Warner, 1624). Sir William Courteen’s ship ‘found’ an
empty Barbados in 1625 and his English settlers followed in 1627. So
settled the English tongue permanently in the Caribbean, in the company
of others. The many-faced generations of replacement peoples who followed
through the centuries developed, though unrespected and ill-documented,
ways of life—in a new and common historical experience within a unique
ecology also new to them—out of which evolved today’s Caribbean culture:
Caribbean birds, fishes, and crawling things, Caribbean fruit and foods,
forest flowers, bush medicines, timber trees, building styles, body wear,
mixed folklore, folksongs, festivals, dances, music, religious expression,
skin-shade identification, household idiom, colonial terms, etc. All these
required new labels, new adaptations and compoundings of European
labels, and therefore essentially needed expression of a different life-view
from that of Europe, obviously in a home-made Caribbean idiom. As
home-made, the Caribbean linguistic product has always been shame¬
faced, inhibited both by the dour authority of colonial administrators
and their written examinations on the one hand, and by the persistence
of the stigmatized Creole languages of the labouring populace on the
other.
Nevertheless the facts of that open-ended list in the preceding paragraph
made Caribbean language a reality, and the emergence of the obligatory
self-reliance and nationhood of many English-speaking territories made its
organized documentation a necessity. Scholarly attention to Anglophone
Caribbean Creole studies began soon after World War II, the present

xvii
 INTRODUCTION

author’s MA Thesis (Univ. London, 1958) on Guyanese Creole pronominal

forms being probably the first such dissertation on record. However, there
followed two decades of independent nationhood and what was called
‘statehood’ of Caribbean territories with consequent political reinforcement
of the need for self-recognition. Although that had already begun to be
stated through notable postwar ‘West Indian’ literature, it is necessary to
show, as tabulated below, the geopolitical distribution of the English
language that ultimately gives substance to the present work.

Caribbean Area in Population (est. Remarks

territory sq. miles 1987-90)

Anguilla 35 7,200 (1987)

Antigua and 108 1
79,000 Independent 1981/11
Barbuda 62 )
Bahamas 5,380 253,000 Over 700 islands
Independent 1973/7
Barbados 166 256,000 Independent 1966/11
Belize 8,866 179,800 (1988) Independent 1981/9
Dominica 290 78,030 (1990) Independent 1978/11
Grenada and 120 1
Carriacou
Guyana
I3!
83,000
110,000 Independent 1974/2

750,000 (1989) Independent 1966/5

Jamaica 4,244 2,410,000 (1988) Independent 1962/8
Montserrat 40 12,250 (1988)
St Kitts and 68 )
Nevis
St Lucia
36
238
1 47,000 (1988) Independent 1983/9

142,000 (1989) Independent 1979/2

St Vincent and 133 { 104,000 Over 100 islands
Grenadines
Trinidad and
17 1 9,000 ) Independent 1979/10
1,864 )
1,190,427 (1988) Independent 1962/8
Tobago Il6 j
Turks and Caicos 193 12,350 (1990)
Virgin Islands 59 14,786 (1990) About 40 islands
(British)
Virgin Islands 136 103,200 (1988) (50% St Croix,
(US) 46% St Thomas)
TOTAL 105,184 5,758,043

xviii
 INTRODUCTION

THE NEED FOR A NORM

Scattered around one million sq. miles of sea, this aggregate population
of 5.8 million speakers unevenly distributed over numberless discrete
land-masses totalling a mere 105,000 sq. miles appears statistically in¬
significant in contrast with the massive English-speaking domains of North
America, the British Isles, and Australia. Nevertheless, when it is observed
that these territories include twelve independent nations in their number,
each with a linguistic entitlement to a national standard language, size and
statistics cease to be major considerations as other more serious realities
come to the fore: What is the right/wrong national way to speak? May local
or regional usage be formally written? By what criteria is acceptability to be
judged, and acceptability to whom—Britain, North America, the ‘in¬
ternational’ community, other Caribbean states, teachers? On what ground
can any local or folk ‘thing-name’ be rejected as ‘wrong’ and what other
name is ‘right’ and why? Who decides? What spelling shall be determined
(and by whom) for items nationals never bothered to spell until now that
they need to write them? What terms are unparliamentary, libellous,
offensive? What norms, what guide must national examiners and those of
the (then emergent) Caribbean Examinations Council observe?
Clearly the answer to these and other pertinent questions could not be found
by reference to British or North American English. Their dictionaries (and 90
per cent of those used in the Caribbean are published in England) practically
ignored Caribbean items and totally ignored Caribbean usage; their grammars
were neither conveniently normative nor related to Caribbean needs.
As for ‘grammar’ or ‘correct English’, regionwide and perennial com¬
plaints began and continue about the ‘poor standard of English’ written
by Caribbean students, employees and even university graduates; such
complaints regularly go in pair with statements (often in newspapers)
that ‘Standard English’ is a clearly defined model which is either being
incompetently taught or interfered with by the encouragement of local
dialects, or confusingly compromised by university linguists. Such com¬
plainants did not trouble to notice that the concept of ‘Standard English’
was now a widespread and confusing problem both in its original homeland
and internationally, but these matters will be more appropriately addressed
in the statement following on Caribbean English.

EARLIER LEXICOGRAPHY IN THE CARIBBEAN

As for dictionaries, however, although Caribbean life-style had from time

to time prompted a few local glossaries, in no case did any territorial
authority, let alone government, take any of them seriously but, remembered
only as popular literature though they be, tribute is due here to those I
have found and used:

xix
 INTRODUCTION

J. A. Van Sertima (1905) The Creole Tongue (Georgetown, Guyana), 60

pp.
J. G. Cruikshank (1916) Black Talk—Notes on Negro Dialect in Br.
Guiana (Georgetown, Guyana), 76 pp.
F. A. Collymore (1955) Glossary of Barbadian Dialect (Bridgetown), 120
pp.
C. W. Francis (c.1971) Popular Phrases in Grenada Dialect (St George’s),
36 pp.
C. R. Ottley (1965, 1971) Creole Talk of Trinidad and Tobago (Port-
of-Spain), 100 pp.
G. A. Seaman (1967) Virgin Islands Dictionary (St Croix), 32 pp.
A. J. Seymour (1975) Dictionary of Guyanese Folklore (Georgetown), 74
pp.
C. A. Yansen (1975) Random Remarks on Creolese (Margate), 58 pp.
L. Vails (1981) What a Pistarckle (St John, USVI), 139 pp.

In 1967 the first scholarly regional dictionary appeared, Cassidy and Le-
Page’s Dictionary of Jamaican English [DJE] (CUP), 489 pp. (2ndedn., 1980,
509 pp.). Designed on historical principles it therefore fully documented
Jamaican basic Creole lexicon, together with upper-level Jamaican originals
in international English. Notwithstanding its scholarly achievement and
acclaim, its design was above or outside of the everyday needs to which
the foregoing questions on ‘national standard language’ pointed. It is also
naturally seen as limited to Jamaica although its linguistic scholarship is
regional in reach and importance. Most unfortunate of all is the fact that
neither this nor its smaller cousin, Holm and Shilling’s Dictionary of
Bahamian English (Lexik, 1982, 228 pp.) is in general use by educators in
their source territories.

MOVES TOWARDS CARIBBEAN LEXICOGRAPHY

Yet, parallel with these developments, and perhaps inevitably at the

material level, the inadequacy of imported British and American dic¬
tionaries to answer the legitimate needs of national and territorial
examination practice prompted recognizable yet cautious appeals for
help. Among the resolutions passed at their Easter 1967 Conference in
Trinidad by the Caribbean Association of Headmasters and Head¬
mistresses was the following:

Resolution 6: Whereas the general interchange of teachers among the Caribbean

territories is increasing, Be it resolved that this Association request the
appropriate department of the University of the West Indies to compile a list
of lexical items in each territory and to circulate these to schools for the
guidance of teachers.

xx
 INTRODUCTION

Obviously a call for territorial ‘lists of lexical items ... for the guidance of
teachers’ shied far away from the need for a common authentic Caribbean
lexicographical reference. The school Heads could not be accused of chal¬
lenging the authority of British and American dictionaries. They wanted
complementary help, but they were evidently unaware of the actual di¬
mensions of their request.
The Resolution was sent to the University of the West Indies (UWI)
Registrar at Mona, Jamaica, who passed it to the present author for
information, I being at that time the designer and University Moderator
of the Use of English, a compulsory undergraduate first-year course. For¬
tunately the Headteachers’ request also lay within my interests as I had
begun collecting data for a glossary of Guyanese English well before I had
joined the University at Barbados in 1963, my first series of related articles
on ‘The Language we Speak’ appearing in A. J. Seymour’s literary journal
Kyk-Over-Al from 1949. In Barbados contact with local and Eastern
Caribbean students, a visit to Belize in 1965 and regular inter-campus
business visits to Jamaica and Trinidad provided welcome opportunities to
cross-reference and expand my data territorially, so that by the time of the
Headmasters’ ‘request’ of 1967 I already had some ten shoe-boxes each of
about 1,000 6x4 cards and many loose unfiled cuttings, notes and other
material, the collection being aimed now at a Glossary of Caribbean English,
but not a dictionary. This latter, my private data-collection experience had
already shown to be forbidding, and furthermore etymological requirements
seemed quite overwhelming. Still, a start with inquiries into African language
background had been made in my visits, with the help of W. H. L. Allsopp
in 1967, to universities at Legón and Kumasi in Ghana, and Lagos and
Ibadan in Nigeria.
About this time an independent suggestion was made that OUP’s Pocket
Oxford Dictionary might be used as a base for producing a ‘Caribbean
Pocket Oxford Dictionary’ for schools by removing a couple of thousand
selected entries of theirs to make room for an equal number of Caribbean
items. This seemed to me, as I think the present work has sufficiently
proved, quite impractical. However, an Australian Pocket Oxford Dictionary
was done along those lines.
The UWI’s Caribbean Language Research Programme funded by the
Ford Foundation first in 1969 provided the opportunity for me to
introduce and initiate as pan of that Programme, in 1971, the Caribbean
Lexicography Project with myself, its designer, as Co-ordinator, based
at Cave Hill, Barbados. The undertaking which I outlined was agreed
on as follows:

A survey of usage in the intermediate and upper ranges of the West Indian speech
continuum. This will involve (1) the collecting of speech recordings in different

xxi
 INTRODUCTION

social situations from persons involved in education, commerce and industry, the
public services and public life as well as in the lower social strata of society, (2) a
study of predominant attitudes towards and the levels of acceptability of the forms
and structures discovered in (1); (3) the compilation, arising out of (1) and (2)
together with a related and in-depth survey of lexis, of a dictionary of West Indian
usage.

CONTENT

That agreement set in train my definitive work on the Dictionary of

Caribbean English Usage. I designed it to provide the following:

1. As complete an inventory as practicable of the Caribbean en¬

vironment and life-style, as known and spoken in each territory but not
recorded in the standard British and American desk dictionaries.
2. The cross-referencing of different names for the same item through¬
out the Anglophone Caribbean. Exs.: —golden-apple (Bdos) || golden-
plum (Belz) y Jew-plum (Jmca) || pomme-cythère ( Gren, StLu, Trin,
Vils)
,
—susu (Dmca Gren, StLu, StVn, Tbgo, Tnn) liasue (Baha) ||box (Guyn)
II meeting (Bdos) upardner (Jmca) || syndicate (Belz)
3. The identifying of different items called by the same name in different
territories.
Exs.: —ackee Jmca) in contrast with akee (Bdos)
—doctor-bird (ECar) in contrast with doctor-bird Jmca)
—pepperpot (Bdos, Gren, Guyn) in contrast with pepperpot (Angu,
Antg, Jmca)
4. Some guidance as to acceptability of certain word-forms and usages
frequently encountered in speech and sometimes in writing in various
parts of the Caribbean. Exs.: blam (vb), force-ripe (adj, vb), pre-
tensive, stupidness, tinnen (adj, n) touchous, trouble (vb), vexen
(vb)
5. Some account of the status and function of certain dialectal forms
particularly such as have become part of the regional vocabulary and/or
may be encountered in West Indian literature, proverbs or sayings.
Exs.: all-you, backra, bobol, buse, braata, dem so, jumbie, jook,
mamaguy, obeah, pappyshow, plimpler, shak-shak, you-all.
6. Guidance as to the form and function of French Creole loan-words
current in the spoken English of St Lucians, Dominicans and Grenadians.
Exs.: they were malpaléing people; poor malèwèz!; to have bouch-
kabwit; to look kabousé.

[Spellings and usage to be settled in collaboration with relevant academic

workers in St Lucia and Dominica, later using the Handbook For Writing
Creole of the Mouvman Kwéyôl Sent Lisi.]

xxn
 INTRODUCTION

7. Lexical explanations of a number of Hindu and Muslim terms

occurring increasingly in Caribbean culture from Guyana and Trinidad.
Exs.: arti, Bhagwat Jag, daru, Eid, Holi, Hosein, Phagwa,
mandir, masjid, Youman-Nabi.
8. Expansions of an increasing number of regional acronyms—
CARIFTA, CARICOM, CAIC, CONCACAF, ECLA, etc.
and of National Honours—C.C.H. (Guyn), C.H.B. (Bdos), G.C.S.L.
(StLu), O.N. (Antg & Brbu, Jmca), T.C. (Trin & Tbgo), etc.
9. A rationalization and/or guide for the authentication of spellings
that have remained conjectural or experimental so far. Exs.: bazodi
(cp basodee etc.); bobol (cp buball etc.); cou-cou (cp cookoo
etc.).
10. The listing of idiomatic expressions derived from or associated with
headword entries, explaining their particularities as Caribbean wherever
appropriate, giving some guidance as to status if considered necessary,
and indicating their origin if possible. Exs.:

to cut your eye at/on/after somebody; to have eye-turn; it’s me

and you; to make your eyes pass somebody; to put your mouth
on somebody/something; to kiss/suck your teeth; to take sick.

11. Etymological information as available.

12. Identification of regional pronunciation where necessary or useful,
using the symbols of the International Phonetic Association (IPA)
with the convenient modifications used by American linguists; par¬
ticularly also showing differences of accentuation and pitch that
distinguish
(a) Caribbean from British and American speech, exs.:

bad-talk /T2/ (CarA) ‘slander’

rudeness IC2I (Jmca) ‘fornication’
sweet-man IC2I (ECar) ‘an exploiting male lover’

(b) one meaning from another within some Caribbean speech com¬
munities, exs.:

one time I i'll (CarA) ‘without the risk of delay’

one time! /3T/ (CarA) ‘there and then; instantly’
just now IC2I (Bdos) ‘soon’
just now l2r\l (Bdos) ‘a short while ago’

A commitment to this outline (with the exception of item 11) was set out
in a printed expository brochure which was circulated to all Ministries of
Education, Teacher Training Colleges and academic colleagues in the
Caribbean, and to a number of external agencies. The work had hardly

xxiii
 INTRODUCTION

begun, however, but three things became clear. First, supportive citations
from both spoken and written sources would be necessary to validate senses
and usages. How else could one authenticate those in relation to many of
the items, especially the idioms given as examples above? A quantity of
field notes I already had would supply citations from oral sources, but it was
clear that more corroboration would have to be solicited in data-collection
workshops and tours. As for citations from written sources, I and eventually
all Research Assistants and some volunteers (all included in the list of
Acknowledgements) set about reading and excerpting a large selection of
West Indian literature, newspapers and printed writings of every kind in
the Anglophone Caribbean, committing duly identified excerptions to
cards. In these ways accountability was being ensured. Indeed the corpus
of written sources expanded enormously and, although some books were
excerpted fully while others were only minimally so, the total identification
of written sources amounted to over 1,000 West Indian books, journals,
etc., as the Citation Codes for Bibliographical References in the following
pages will attest.
Second, it was clear that the work would be as much materially weakened
by the absence of etymological data as it would be rendered culturally
valuable and academically useful by the inclusion of such data. Accordingly
I set about the daunting task of etymological researches (adding especially
from grammars and dictionaries of African languages to what I had already
gleaned in early efforts in visits to universities in Ghana and Nigeria and
at Howard and Wisconsin). However, this decision slowed progress down
very considerably, notwithstanding the great and indispensable con¬
tributions especially of the late Professor Jack Berry and Professor Ayo
Banjo who both visited the Project at some length to help with African
languages, as also did Dr Satesh Rohra to help with the Hindi/Bhojpuri
items (see Acknowledgements).
Third, the techniques of lexicography were not to be assumed. I was
therefore fortunate in being able to visit Professor Walter Avis, editor-in-chief
of the Dictionary of Canadian English (1967) at the Royal Military College
(Kingston, Ontario), Dr H. Bosley Woolf, editor of Webster’s (Eighth) New
Collegiate, at Springfield, Massachusetts, and both Dr Robert Burchfield,
editor of the OED Supplement, and Mr J. B. Sykes, editor of the Concise
Oxford Dictionary (7th edn.) and other members of the Dictionary team at
Walton St. and later St Giles’, Oxford, between 1972 and 1974. These
visits were warm experiences, very humbling but equally enlightening.
Between that time and 1984 I paid three more visits to Oxford (and also
contributed a few Caribbean items to the OEDS). Much was gathered
from discussions both in those visits and with colleagues at biennial
conferences of the newly formed Dictionary Society of North America.

xxiv
 INTRODUCTION

Specifically important at this period, however, was a visit to the Project

at Cave Hill in 1977 by Prof. F. G. Cassidy, of the well-known Dictionary
of Jamaican English. His assessment, commissioned by the UWI, was
favourable, and more particularly his advice practical and valuable. His
recommendation that a Senior Assistant be urgently appointed fell through
only for lack of funds, and slow progress became an increasingly serious
problem.
In the same context, but some years later when Oxford University Press
were chosen as publishers, they and the UWI agreed on the choice of
Laurence Urdang Inc. to provide ‘supervisory editorial, lexicographic and
technical help’ in the preparation of the Dictionary. Mr Urdang’s expertise
in lexicography, perhaps especially because it is well established both in
Britain and the United States, was an invaluable advantage as the work
proceeded. From about 1987 to early 1992 he reviewed once, and com¬
mented on nearly the whole printout (some 4,000-5,000 pages) of the draft
manuscript. The few places in the text where his personal information is
acknowledged in the notes to entries are only a token reflection of the
professional debt the work owes to him, and if there is criticism in any
regard, as there may be, it must be assigned to myself as author, possibly
in places where I disagreed with a professional convention that obscured
Caribbean grass-root realities, or where perhaps the editorial length and
time the work called for produced some other weakness.

ACADEMIC QUESTIONS

Although a dictionary on historical principles such as Cassidy and LePage’s

DJE needs to be undertaken on a regionwide scale at some time, the
present is not such a work. There is a one-hour time difference and several
hours’ flying time between Guyana and Belize; within this boundless
Caribbean panorama, there is the challenge of a dynamically evolving life,
one which is largely without inventory but in which the everyday machinery
of literacy controls all national advancement. The immediate ‘work’ priority
is, therefore, not a chronicle of our linguistic past, but a careful account
of what is current, at least as an available basis for intra-regional intelligence.
Therefore a descriptive work is clearly indicated, i.e. one that reliably
itemizes the environmental data and details the current life-style agenda of
the English-speaking Caribbean; descriptive, yet not so without important
qualification. Words and expressions like bound-place, company-path,
cob, creole, be behind somebody like a slave-driver, giving laugh
for peas-soup, gone in Maxwell Pond, etc. that are in a grey area of
currency serve to remind us that even at the surface of today’s com¬
munication the historical dimension is still with us, although it is far more

xxv
 INTRODUCTION

massive at the etymological roots of Caribbean English. In dealing with

those features a chronicling of some of the partnership between historical,
social and linguistic developments from the seventeenth century to the
present is involved in the work.
Again, words and expressions that are in a grey area of acceptability as
‘educated’ speech or writing raise another academic question. Consider,
for example, hard-ears (adj), cut-tail, suck-teeth, to break stick in
your ears, to force-ripe a fruit, to pound somebody’s name, to wuk
up, etc. In observing both a written form and a working status in each
such case, in making unavoidably subjective judgements of that status even
when backed up by selected citations, the work has a prescriptive aspect.
Again, in omitting the mass of Caribbean basilectal vocabulary and idiom
in favour of the mesolectal and acrolectal, and using a hierarchy of form¬
alness in status-labelling the entries throughout, the work is being pre¬
scriptive. This is in keeping with expressed needs, and with the mandate
agreed and supported by successive regional resolutions (see Endorsements
below).
The practical neglecting of basilectal vocabulary cannot, however, mean
a linguistic or even operational despising of it. The weight of evidence of
the pages of West Indian literature soon settles that question. As examples
Guyanese Edgar Mittelholzer writes:

Jannee frowned and sucked his teeth, uttering a deep ominous sound. ‘One o’
dese days me an’ he going come to grip. Yesterday me pass hospital gate an’
’e shout out provoke me. Me na say nutten. Me waitin’ good. One o’ dese day
’e go provoke me bad an’ me go bus’ ’e tail’ MCT:38 (1941)

Jamaican Roger Mais writes:

An’ de ole knee was a sose-a tribulation . . . / Rheumatism must be, so de doctor-man
did say when she went to de doctor-shop ... an’ did tell him ’bout de pain-a-joint. /
Scasely can sleep night-time wid de man snorin’ widouten a trouble in de world,
stretch out side-a her, de bed a-go crips-crips every time him turn. MHJT:y2
(1953)

Trinidadian Samuel Selvon writes:

[And one day] The old man went up to Chaguanas . .. And when he come back
he bust the mark. / ‘Betah,’ he say, ‘I think you coming big man now, and is time
you get wife.’ SITOS.-Sj (1957)

Such extracts, which can be paralleled hundreds of times from scores of

authors of West Indian literature—from Guyana through the Bahamas to
Belize—do much more than answer the academic question of the place of
Caribbean Creole dialects in the inventorying of Caribbean culture and
environment. They make it obvious that the presence of the folk, represented
by their own language, has a dominant place in any genuine account of

xxvi
 INTRODUCTION

Caribbean life, and therefore in its literature. From 1940 to the present no
worthwhile author’s serious work is without it. Creole dialects are a
pan-Caribbean reality which no professional lexicography, whatever be its
mandate, can simply ignore. Moreover they introduce problems of spelling
and presentation on which authors may justly seek guidance, and problems
of sense and function of which especially non-creole readers of West Indian
literature—and many young native persons now are—may properly seek
authentic explanation. Those responsibilities lie squarely in the domain of
a regional dictionary, and this book, in anticipation of reasonable inquiry,
attempts, from its opening pages, to treat a limited number of basilectal
particles, function words, pronominal and a few other traditional Creole
forms that occur in Caribbean narrative dialogue as reported in fiction,
newspaper columns, and court records. Indeed, as the extracts above
demonstrate, the basilectal shades so readily into the mesolectal that treating
the one often involves explaining the other. (The terms basiled, mesoled,
and acroled, in the origins of which Caribbean Creole studies played indeed
a prominent part, are listed entries in the Dictionary for the reader’s
benefit.)

ANSWERS EMERGING

A broad, general, but fundamental answer emerges from the foregoing

considerations: a pioneer and long overdue work of this nature, required
to answer practical needs, must focus pointedly on that objective, not
being constrained by the historical/prescriptive/descriptive categorizations
of modem linguistics, nor being embarrassed by preference for academic
conventions over grass-root Caribbean realities. A good case in point is
syntactic classification or ‘parts-of-speech’, but there turned out to be other
cases not so easily identified or determined.
In all lexicography the line separating lexicon from grammar is often
fuzzy, because meaning rests heavily upon function and function is basically
the domain of grammar, being also determined wholly by context and
structure. In Caribbean English (CE) the function of an item can vary
tangentially from the set of possibilities in British or American English, so
making function more difficult to categorize: the Standard English (SE)
item like may be adj., prep., adv., conj., noun or verb; but in the complete
CE sentence Like you vex ‘You seem to be annoyed’, like belongs to none
of the SE categories. Again, what is and what not ‘idiomatic’ in the generally
understood sense of that word? Is the phrase behind me like a slave-driver
inadmissible as ‘idiom’ because its sense is entirely derivable from the sum
of its parts? These and other particularities of Caribbean phrasing and
structure are the reasons why a following essay on Caribbean English is

xxvii
 INTRODUCTION

considered necessary as part of the front matter of this Dictionary, as also

the addition of ‘Usage’ to its title. For a Caribbean English Dictionary
cannot really skip such problems. Even if it may be faulted for attempting
too much, it must at least address the facts, although it can only do so
briefly.
For these and one other reason, namely that educators have largely
abandoned the teaching of grammatical structure, the Dictionary la¬
boriously identifies, for the Caribbean reader’s benefit, the grammatical
function of all listed phrases (adj phr, n phr, vb phr, etc.) with a
consistency not found, perhaps because not thought necessary, in current
standard desk dictionaries. However, for practical purposes, the label vb
phr is used to identify both actual ‘verb phrases’ and what are properly
‘phrasal verbs’.
Of a number of other grammatical features that need particular re¬
cognition in a Caribbean lexicon, some were best treated collectively.
However, within the practical considerations of this work, only four could
be given that focus: Echoic Words (i.e. ideophones). Names of Natives
(i.e. adjectival place-name derivatives). Passivity, and Plural Forms. These
are four productive areas of open lists of items and functions that could
not practically all be itemized in a work of this size. Their case is also
treated in the essay on Caribbean English.

BASES OF AUTHORITY

The principal authority on which the foregoing answers and decisions and
indeed all else in the work are based is its comprehensive and entirely
Caribbean source of material. They are as follows:

• Thirty-eight data-collection Workshops in twenty-two territories from

Guyana to Belize. (These are identified in the list of Acknowledgements.)

• Transcriptions of tape-recorded spontaneous speech, and field-notes

made in all of those territories.

• Responses to a checklist of 300 idioms of Caribbean English,

unidentified as to territorial source, presented one each in four
6 ins. x 4 ins. boxes per sheet. The inquiry in a ‘box’ was designed
to elicit individual identifying, paralleling, or varying of the structure
and/or sense of each idiom, the respondent being also invited to
indicate in a list of possibilities the frequency, rural/urban placement
and social status of each idiom. These checklists were both answered
by participants at the Workshops referred to above and distributed by
correspondence to others.

xxviii
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