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Collection Highlights

Everything for Sale The Marketisation of UK Higher

Education The marketisation of UK higher education
Research into Higher Education 1st Edition Brown

The Uncertain Future of American Public Higher Education:

Student-Centered Strategies for Sustainability Daniel M.
Johnson

Nicolas de Condorcet The Revolution of French Higher

Education SpringerBriefs in Education Marty

Co Creation in Higher Education Students and Educators

Preparing Creatively and Collaboratively to the Challenge
of the Future 1st Edition Tatiana Chemi
Autobiography of India Brand Bharat 5 Vol Set Made In
India Roots In India Unique To India Lead From India
Future From India 1st Edition D. K. Hari

Ethnography in Higher Education Clemens Wieser

The Power of Play in Higher Education: Creativity in

Tertiary Learning Alison James

The Interruption of Heteronormativity in Higher Education:

Critical Queer Pedagogies Michael Seal

Higher Education in the Era of the Fourth Industrial

Revolution Nancy W. Gleason
Sudhanshu Bhushan Editor

The Future
of Higher
Education in
India
The Future of Higher Education in India
Sudhanshu Bhushan
Editor

The Future of Higher

Education in India
Editor
Sudhanshu Bhushan
Department of Higher and Professional
Education
National Institute of Educational Planning
and Administration (NIEPA)
New Delhi, Delhi, India

ISBN 978-981-32-9060-0    ISBN 978-981-32-9061-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9061-7

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019

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Preface

The higher education research community is small in comparison to the vast diver-
sity of institutions, students and teachers. The research agenda is currently focused
on understanding the access and equity dimensions and reforms relating to quality
in the midst of structural shift in favor of privatization in higher education. Indian
higher education reform process is heavily guided through the regulation and is very
much state-centered. What is most important to understand, however, is the decen-
tering of state through the state-initiated reform affecting structure, financing, and
agency of teachers and students. The book is an attempt to understand the change
process affecting the future of higher education in terms of macro influences accom-
panied through the micro-level changes. Current research agenda should help us to
understand more and more the micro-level changes associated with the shifts in the
structure and financing of higher education. The aim of the book is to initiate the
research agenda towards understanding the new phenomena. The current trends of
policies may be projected to understand the future of higher education. Current
trend influenced by market affects the structure of higher education and the resources
being made available for it. It also affects the agency of human being through its
effect on freedom and capabilities. Various other processes such as teaching and
learning and governance of higher education get affected by means of the role of
market and technology. To capture the essence of the future of higher education, the
book is organized into three parts of varying number of chapters. Part I deals with
the structure of higher education, the way the response to market-driven policies is
giving a shape to it. The idea of Teachers’ University is an imagination built into
it – a farfetched, nonetheless an alternative, to the mainstream emerging structure.
Part II deals with the overall change in the financing of higher education resulting
from a shift in the structure. The change process in terms of shifting burden on pri-
vate household expenditure to finance the cost of higher education is worth under-
standing. Part III deals with understanding the development of human agency, the
end result of higher education. This is examined in terms of freedom and capabili-
ties of student or teachers. It also deals with understanding teaching-learning trans-
formation and the practice implicit in the governance of higher education.

v
vi Preface

The Future of Higher Education in India is a critical understanding of the present

policies which are in the process of molding the present and determining future
directions. The study through its critical lens alerts us of the implications of the
market-induced policies and makes us aware of the dangers that present policies
might lead up to the future. The current market rationality inducing competition and
efficiency and treatment of higher education as a private good, it is argued, ques-
tions the very existence of university as the place where autonomous community of
scholars engage themselves in the free pursuit of knowledge. The blind faith in the
technology, too, may result in failed optimism, as its absorption demands behavioral
change not easy to come by. Besides, whether market or technology, both are not
neutral to social and economic structure. It may have asymmetric effects on social
and economic groups.
The book is not about the future. It is about the projection of present into the
future of higher education. It is not about the future because we do not know the
limits of market. It has immense possibilities of innovation. That is why, it holds
hope for many people. Even state, mired into its own contradictions, looks at it as
hope for the future. The hope lies in two forms of innovations. The first is the inno-
vation that technology brings with it. The reliance placed on technological rational-
ity is the hope of policy-driven measures. Another innovation is increasingly seen in
the methods. The research in learning theories derived from experimentation opens
new ways of teaching learning. The reliance placed on methods rationality is another
hope of policy-driven measures. There has of course been too much reliance on the
state bureaucracy who is expected to play the role of putting the innovations into
practice. Hopes are high to project the present into the future in a deterministic man-
ner. We are in the age of science, and this rational way of looking at the future may
look optimistic to many. I do not want to dismiss the hope.
My humble attempt to look at the present is to alert the people of the present
generation that market may have immense possibilities of innovation. However, the
social structure, institutions, and behavior of people have few possibilities of inno-
vations. The change may not exactly be as per the demands of market and its inno-
vations. In particular, teachers and students as the main actors of higher education
are not the passive agents. They respond with different response patterns, making
future highly indeterministic. The challenge of the future of higher education is to
understand the society and the politics that shapes it.

New Delhi, Delhi, India Sudhanshu Bhushan

Acknowledgment

The Future of Higher Education in India is the collection of viewpoints of few

young researchers who have authored the papers, and I would like to acknowledge
their readiness to come on a single platform and present the papers at the National
Institute of Educational Planning and Administration on 7–8 September 2017. The
papers were revised based on the feedbacks received in the seminar and the com-
ments from the editor of the book. I would like to thank all the chairs and discus-
sants of the seminar for their valuable points. I would also like to thank the faculty
of the National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi,
for their support and encouragement. MPhil and PhD scholars of NIEPA played an
important role in the academic management of the seminar. The administrative staff
of the NIEPA were also helpful in the hosting of the seminar. I would like to
acknowledge their contribution for the same. Prof. N V Varghese, VC, NIEPA, was
a source of inspiration for the seminar. I thank him for his moral support to the
seminar.
I gratefully acknowledge the funding support of the NIEPA for the holding of
seminar.
Sudhanshu Bhushan

vii
Contents

1 Contesting the Present in the Evolution of Public

Higher Education ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    1
Sudhanshu Bhushan

Part I Structure
2 The Emergence and Expansion of Indian Universities
Before Independence: A Historical Perspective������������������������������������   23
Mona Sedwal
3 Teachers’ University Revisit to Dr. B. R. Ambedkar����������������������������   41
Sudhanshu Bhushan
4 World Ranking of Universities: What Does It Entail
for the Future ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   55
Saumen Chattopadhyay
5 Global Wars, National Legacies, and State Controls:
The Dilemmas of Institutionalism of Public Universities ��������������������   77
Manisha Priyam
6 The World-Class University Discourse:
Disentangling the Conflict Between Efficiency
and World Class-Ness������������������������������������������������������������������������������   95
Aishna Sharma
7 Idea of a University: Rethinking the Indian Private
Universities Context�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 113
Sangeeta Angom

ix
x Contents

Part II Finances
8 Future of Higher Education Financing and Governance�������������������� 133
Sudhanshu Bhushan
9 Shifts in the Financing of Higher Education ���������������������������������������� 147
P. Geetha Rani
10 Pattern and Determinants of Household Expenditure
on Higher Education: Evidence from Rural Odisha���������������������������� 165
Pradeep Kumar Choudhury
11 Impact of Public Education Expenditure Across
Different Levels on Higher Education Access in India:
A Panel Data Study���������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 181
Sandhya Dubey
12 Factors Influencing Household Expenditure on Private
Tutoring in Higher Education���������������������������������������������������������������� 195
Anuneeta Mitra and Nivedita Sarkar

Part III Capabilities and Others

13 Higher Education Policy: Accountability Versus Capabilities������������ 215
Sudhanshu Bhushan
14 Capabilities of Students�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 227
Jitsun Lamo
15 Unpacking the Experiences of a Teacher as a Professional
Through the Framework of Capability Approach�������������������������������� 247
Isha Verma
16 Understanding Accessibility, Inclusion and Performance
of Students with Disabilities in Higher Education:
A Case Study of University of Delhi ������������������������������������������������������ 259
Shalini Saksena, Rashmi Sharma, and Bipin Kumar Tiwary
17 Freedom from Autonomy: A Critique on the New Managerialism
in Higher Education�������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 279
Amruth G. Kumar
18 Higher Education in India: Refocusing Faculty Development������������ 291
Neeru Snehi
19 Pathways to Internationalization in Indian Higher
Education: Reflections on Policy Options���������������������������������������������� 307
Rashim Wadhwa
Editor and Contributors

About the Editor

Sudhanshu Bhushan is Professor and Head of the Department of Higher and

Professional Education in the National Institute of Educational Planning and
Administration (NIEPA). He specializes in the internationalization of higher educa-
tion, policy issues in higher education, and educational planning. His present
responsibility is to conduct and guide research and provide policy support to the
Government of India. His recent contributions include Quality Assurance of
Transnational Higher Education: The Experiences of Australia and India, Public
Financing and Deregulated Fees in Indian Higher Education, and Restructuring
Higher Education in India. He is the Recipient of Amartya Sen Award 2012 for
Distinguished Social Scientist, an award instituted by the Indian Council of Social
Science Research, New Delhi.

List of Contributors

Sangeeta Angom National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration

(NIEPA), New Delhi, India
Saumen Chattopadhyay Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies, School of
Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
Pradeep Kumar Choudhury Zakir Husain Centre for Educational Studies,
School of Social Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
Sandhya Dubey National Institute of Education Planning and Administration,
New Delhi, India
P. Geetha Rani National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration,
New Delhi, India

xi
xii Editor and Contributors

Amruth G. Kumar School of Education, Central University of Kerala, Kasargod,

India
Jitsun Lamo National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New
Delhi, India
Anuneeta Mitra Researcher, Centre for Policy Research in Higher Education,
NIEPA, New Delhi, India
Manisha Priyam Department of Educational Policy, National Institute of
Educational Planning and Administration, New Delhi, India
Shalini Saksena Department of Economics, Delhi College of Arts & Commerce,
University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Nivedita Sarkar Ambedkar University, New Delhi, India
Mona Sedwal Department of Training and Capacity Building in Education,
National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration (NIEPA), New Delhi,
India
Aishna Sharma Department of Economics and Public Policy, School of
Management and Entrepreneurship, Shiv Nadar University, Noida, Uttar Pradesh,
India
Rashmi Sharma Department of Economics, Delhi College of Arts & Commerce,
University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
Neeru Snehi National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New
Delhi, India
Bipin Kumar Tiwary Equal Opportunity Cell, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
Isha Verma National Institute of Educational Planning and Administration, New
Delhi, India
Rashim Wadhwa Central University of Kashmir, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir,
India
Chapter 1
Contesting the Present in the Evolution
of Public Higher Education

Sudhanshu Bhushan

Immanuel Kant noted that the public character of the university consists of the fact
that it is funded by the state and there is an implicit contract between the state and
the faculty of producing the knowledge that is good for the people. To be specific,
he says that the role of philosophy is to critically evaluate all knowledge in the inter-
ests of people (Kant 1798). He connected the knowledge to the idea of enlighten-
ment which he says is ‘man’s emergence from his self-imposed immaturity.
Immaturity is the inability to use one’s understanding without guidance from
another. This immaturity is self-imposed when its cause lies not in lack of under-
standing, but in lack of resolve and courage to use it without guidance from another’
(Kant 1798). Hence, according to Kant, the public higher education stands for the
active agency of teachers who examines critically the knowledge for the humanitar-
ian cause.
John Stuart Mill stated that the public good relates not to the self-interest. It
relates to the happiness of others. The awakening of individual sensibilities through
arts and poetry leads to higher-order pleasures in the happiness of others. Higher
education develops those sensibilities through intellectual discussion. Mill looks at
education as public good in terms of knowledge as an end in itself (John Stuart Mill
[1873] 1981). Newman’s ([1852] 1959) notion that knowledge is capable of being
its own end is also an argument that puts higher education intrinsically useful.
Liberal training is to carry us to knowledge of ourselves and the world.
The public nature of higher education implies that access to higher education is
available to all at a nominal price.1 Hence, the higher education is funded by the
government and is produced not for the sake of profit. This is an economic

1
In the words of Samuelson, public good is one where the consumption by one individual does not
diminish the consumption of another individual (Samuelson 1954, p. 387).

S. Bhushan (*)
Department of Higher and Professional Education, National Institute of Educational Planning
and Administration (NIEPA), New Delhi, Delhi, India
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2019 1

S. Bhushan (ed.), The Future of Higher Education in India,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-32-9061-7_1
2 S. Bhushan

p­ erspective. The economic argument then is made that if social returns of education
are higher than private return, there is justification for government to invest to opti-
mize social return. If in higher education, on the other hand, private returns are
higher then there is justification for the private sector to invest. The debate on returns
to education is not settled. From the point of efficiency, ‘the size of the private
returns to education and difference between private and social rates calls for selec-
tive cost recovery in higher education’ (George Psacharopoulos and Harry Anthony
Patrinos 2018, p. 455).
The issue of governance of higher education in India has been a matter of critical
scrutiny by many academics. The fundamental point is whether university gover-
nance has been able to preserve the idea of university, namely, the academic free-
dom for the search of knowledge, and whether governance has been through the
community of scholars who alone are thought to be responsible and capable to run
the affairs of university, namely, teaching and research (Corson 1960). Within the
framework of public funding whether state and university has built the trust so as to
allow universities to function autonomously with the required funding support from
the government.
The public nature of higher education received a critique in social science. The
argument was that philosophers conceptualized the public character on the norma-
tive idea of benevolence. However, state is no more benevolent. Arrow (1951) noted
that there are no such procedures that satisfy certain apparently quite reasonable
assumptions concerning the autonomy of the people and the rationality of their
preferences. It implies that collective social ordering of alternatives is impossible.
Hence, education policy may not result in any social optimum. Buchanan and
Tullock (1962) noted that collective action is composed of individual action. They
reject any organic interpretation of the state. They suggest that the public interest is
simply the aggregation of private decision makers.
In Indian context, the public character of higher education has been for critical
scrutiny in recent years. There have been charges of overregulation by the National
Knowledge Commission (Government of India 2007). It noted that ‘The system, as
a whole, is over-regulated but under-governed’ (ibid. p. 62). There has been further
argument that ‘the rules and regulations that the UGC wishes to impose on our uni-
versities do not recognize ground realities’ (Ramaswamy 2018, p. 87). UGC has
been severely criticized for creating inefficiencies in the universities (Deshpande
2000; Singh 2004; Kapur and Mehta 2007; Kapur, Mehta and Vaishnav 2018;
Hatekar 2009; Chandra 2017). It is, therefore, said that governance from this point
of view has not been able to preserve the idea of a university.
It is argued that often there is a close nexus between the politicians and bureau-
cracy. In the appointment of vice chancellors, the nexus works to serve the vested
interests and destroys the public character of universities as the academic leaders of
the university system go in the wrong hands who will hardly have the ability to take
decisions based on the merit.
In practice, the governance is said to be flexible and free from rigid rules and
regulations. Flexibility in governance is desirable because it is argued that future of
Indian university system has challenges that cannot be addressed with rigid
1 Contesting the Present in the Evolution of Public Higher Education 3

g­ overnance. The challenge of Indian universities is to achieve quality and excel-

lence to match universities of high rank in the world. This means there should be
high-­quality research. This requires outstanding faculty and strategies to attract and
retain talent. This also means that universities should be accountable and perfor-
mance oriented. Students can be attracted only when the curricula are upgraded and
interdisciplinarity is inculcated in the pedagogy of teaching and research. High-
quality classrooms and technology-enabled pedagogy are required. Education needs
to be oriented for a large number of students who come from all across many coun-
tries. This also requires a very high degree of partnership and collaboration with
universities in the world. Such an ecosystem suitable for global university cannot be
achieved, it is argued, with rigid rules and regulations. The role of the government
needs introspection. ‘They ought to become facilitators and ensure autonomy and
independence of the Universities’ (Kumar et al. 2016).
Debate on autonomy has drifted in three directions, namely, the strengthening of
public universities by granting freedom to academia, the strengthening of private uni-
versities by granting freedom from the regulatory apparatus of the state and the
strengthening of the state to the high-power commission with the power to monitor.
The governance system ought to differ in all the three situations. In the first case, it has
to be collegial, participative and democratic, notwithstanding the political deviance.
In the second case, governance has to be guided by the market principles with suffi-
cient flexibility to adjust to the market principles. In the third case, the governance will
remain centralized and bureaucratic approach will be used to enforce accountability.
The higher education has been shaped currently by the decisions of the central
government clearly signalling intent of real practices that is being contradicted by
the draft National Education Policy of Kasturirangan committee (2019). The contra-
diction is that in real practice, the government has been relying more on promoting
privatization and market-friendly principles such as competition and ranking and
funding through self-financing and market loans and governance being guided
through measures of accountability. The draft national policy contradicts it by rec-
ommending the most ideal ecosystem of higher education to be financed by the
government.
Thus, we observe that the debate on public and private nature of higher education
is far from settled. There is an ambivalence in the intent of the government, in prac-
tice, in favour of pursing higher education influenced by private, although it talks
about retaining the public character of higher education in policy and other docu-
ments. It is the current practices that are being critiqued in the present volume to
clear the pathways for public higher education in the future.

Part 1: University System and Structure

Any consideration of the future of higher education cannot escape the attention of
the past. The manner and the circumstances that led to the establishment of univer-
sity system in colonial India have deeply influenced the expansion of Indian
4 S. Bhushan

universities in post-colonial India. There is no doubt that post-colonial develop-

ments over seven long decades have further influenced the development of Indian
universities, mainly the influence of growing economy in different stages of devel-
opment, the rising aspirations of youth from different sections of society, university
administration dominated by bureaucracy amidst caste and popular politics and,
most recently, the influence of the process of privatization and globalization.
However, colonial influence that still exists cannot be undermined while we make
any projection of Indian universities into the future. For example, a contrast that
may be made between European universities and universities in colonial India
relates to the core objective of university. European universities fought the battle of
the dominance of church, monarchy and in this process laid the foundation of secu-
lar and liberal democracy through the awakening of the masses by the spirit of sci-
entific methods of enquiry. This allowed development within university of a class of
scholars who could work autonomously relatively free from the influence of state.
This, in turn, permitted the synthesis of teaching and research in the production of
knowledge which supported the development, both in the economic and cultural
dimensions. On the other hand, the university in colonial India was established with
a direct purpose to support British administration. As a result, during colonial India,
the dominance of European knowledge and English as means of communication
severely limited the scope of expanding knowledge to fight against the deep-rooted
biases and prejudices through the awakening of masses. Besides, as a matter of
design, the structure of affiliating system inherited from the colonial past failed to
establish the unity of colleges and the university – both in terms of academic and
administrative functions – that resulted in a failure of teachers becoming the com-
munity of scholars running their own affairs. Universities became much like a
bureaucratic machinery to pass orders primarily to conduct examinations and much
less bothered to empower and serve teachers, students and colleges.
Mona Sedwal, the author of the chapter ‘Emergence and Expansion of Indian
Universities in India Before Independence: A Historical Perspective’, examines the
emergence and expansion of the university system in India in colonial period with
reference to the major transformation that took place amidst the national movement.
She notes that amidst opposition to English by the Orientalists, the colonial admin-
istration succeeded in imposing English upon the natives in order to spread European
literature and science. The future of Indian universities may also emulate the past in
so far as knowledge produced abroad will continue to dominate in the classrooms
and Indian universities will remain dependent upon the European and American
knowledge system unless the policy in the present is geared to break the domination
by means of language policy that encourages the knowledge dissemination and its
generation in local and regional contexts.
The universities of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras were established on the model
of London University whose main purpose then was to hold examination, affiliate
colleges and grant degrees. While the affiliating system led to the fragmentation of
teaching at the undergraduate and the postgraduate level, the undergraduate college
teaching was subordinated to the University administration and the postgraduate
departments which acted like masters. This colonial legacy continues till today.
1 Contesting the Present in the Evolution of Public Higher Education 5

There seems to be no concerted effort to break this fragmentation, leaving the

majority of students at the undergraduate colleges on their own with shrinking
resources and shortage of teachers, barring few colleges of excellence. If the present
policy is any guide, there may be few colleges of excellence being converted into
autonomous institutions; however, the majority may remain deprived at the periph-
ery of the University.
The disjunction of teaching-learning and examining is the crucial element of
colonial legacy. Universities even today are the examining body of all its affiliated
colleges which have been reduced to the status of coaching institutions. The stu-
dents are not rewarded of their knowledge by the respective teachers in terms of
learning experiences and their contribution to shaping of mind. Students are tested
through a standardized format by external examiners constituted by the examining
body of the University. The disjunction creates a situation in which students are set
to follow prescribed format of learning dictated by the pattern of examination.
Universities, ignorant of teaching-learning experiences of the students, become the
body to award degrees that become the end of teaching-learning. The degrees are
then treated as a license to enter the job market. Invoking excellence in higher edu-
cation requires reforms in teaching-learning through an active engagement with stu-
dents by the teachers, and examination reform must be reflective of that
experience.
The major transformation of Indian University system towards democratic gov-
ernance may be traced back to the recommendations of Calcutta University
Commission in 1919. Universities established since then developed the mechanism
of governance through representative bodies such as Senate, Syndicate, Academic
Council, Examination Board and so on. This was certainly a transformation in the
positive direction and was the result of demand both from the academic community
and the larger community which the universities are supposed to serve. These rep-
resentative bodies in the post-colonial setting were further transformed into larger
bodies to accommodate the representations of executive and legislative organs of
the state. Hence, the external influence upon the university began to be felt, quite
often disrupting the unity of university administration and demands of academic
circles. This created situations in which university was quite often sites of conflict
and oppositions. Will the future of Indian universities enable the knowledge genera-
tion amidst political and academic conflicts that most universities face in India
today? In my opinion while conflicts may remain an important feature of the univer-
sity education system, efforts need to be made to deliberate and deepen democratic
ethos. Imposition of a single dictate may exacerbate conflict rather than solve it.
The future of Indian universities, if they are to be built on a strong foundation,
needs to break away from the colonial legacy. Language is a barrier to a majority of
students. In many undergraduate colleges, universities must address the language
deficit of the students. The University campus should welcome the students who
speak different languages and develop the capacity of the students to a common
language of communication. Indian universities must slowly break the division of
undergraduate and postgraduate through the mobility of teachers and students from
one college to another and the mobility of teachers from postgraduate to undergradu-
6 S. Bhushan

ate and vice versa. For the mobility of teachers to take place, it is necessary to incen-
tivize some good teachers to teach in colleges which may be deprived of resources.
All teachers must be provided opportunity to develop their abilities. Universities
must also break the division of teaching-learning and examining. This is possible
through an internal assessment system where teachers measure the learning experi-
ence of the students and degrees are not the end of teaching-learning. The most
important challenge for the future of Indian universities is to settle the political and
academic conflicts amidst increasing democratization. In my opinion, universities in
India must strengthen the channels of communication among all the stakeholders, be
it students, teachers, administrators and even the representative of political parties.
During colonial period, the expansion of universities may be seen as a result of
the synthesis of ideas of colonial administration and views of the nationalist leaders.
Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar was constantly fighting for a new space of Dalits in the
mainstream political and economic activities. This fight was not only against the
British administrators but also against the domination of the Brahmanical practices
and their influence on the economy and society. One of the important agenda of
education reform in the 1920s was the introduction of teaching in the University
which so far was simply the examining body. Dr. Ambedkar’s idea of teachers’
University was much ahead of the Britisher’s idea of the teaching University. A
formal introduction of teaching, Dr. Ambedkar said, was not sufficient to transform
the University system in India. He held the view that the teaching University should
be teachers’ University. His advocacy of teachers’ University is of profound impor-
tance. The post-colonial development in the University reduced the agency of teach-
ers. They were subjected to submit to the authoritative direction from above. They
became the victim of politics of division along caste and ideologies. The division of
intellectuals could no longer hold the organic unity. As a self-interested individual,
few teachers began to flourish under the politics of patronage and favour for posts
that rewarded them in many ways.
The chapter on ‘Futures of Higher Education: Conceptualizing Teachers’
University’ by Dr. Sudhanshu Bhushan reinforces the idea of Dr. BR Ambedkar
advocating teachers’ University before colonial rule. This acquires importance in
view of marginalizing the agency of teachers, given the dominance of privatization,
bureaucracy and technology in all policy discourse today shaping the future of
higher education. Teachers’ University, advocated by Dr. Ambedkar, is an attempt
to reposition the agency of teachers in shaping the future of higher education. It may
not be surprising if the attempt is foiled in post-colonial India as well. However, the
chapter is an appeal to the community of scholars to shape the future of higher edu-
cation by working towards Teachers’ University.
B R Ambedkar, the author notes, was of the view that University must remain
under the authoritative control of teachers in all its academic affairs. The substance
of the point made here is that the present system of authoritative control at the level
of vice chancellor and centralized bodies like Senate, Syndicate, Academic Council,
Examination Board with few representation from teachers ultimately puts the
authoritative control in the hands of administrators. Authoritative control of teach-
ers in all academic affairs needs to be transferred at the level of schools/centres/
1 Contesting the Present in the Evolution of Public Higher Education 7

departments. Student intake, fees to be charged, admission process, curricular

guidelines, fellowship decisions, teaching-learning and research guidelines, assess-
ment and evaluation, professional development, participation in seminars, travel,
etc. need to be decided in a decentralized manner. While the guidelines for the stan-
dard procedures may be laid out by the University administrators, the final decision
must remain at the level of teaching unit. The function of the University is to facili-
tate students in providing infrastructure for residential, sports, library and canteen.
It must support students for cultural recreation, meet language deficit and raise
money for support to all the departments. Hence, University administrators must
work at the level of facilitation rather than controlling the academic affairs.
Another very crucial element of teachers’ university is the control over teachers’
recruitment at the level of University by the teaching staff of the University. On the
ground of mistrust, favour and corruption, there are attempts to centralize the recruit-
ment of the teaching staff. If the well-laid-out procedure is formulated and transpar-
ency is followed, the chance of favour and corruption may be minimized. Ambedkar’s
broad vision in envisioning Teachers’ University was that the senior teachers of the
university alone are capable to judge the scholarship of teachers to be recruited. The
proposition today may not be accepted in view of biases and favours at the level of
university. However, an open and transparent system of recruitment may eliminate
biases and favours rather than a closed-door method of interview by selection com-
mittee which is further subject to manipulation in the selection of experts.
Another feature of Teachers’ University, BR Ambedkar pointed out, is the unity
of teaching and examination. It means teachers in charge of teaching are most com-
petent to evaluate the students’ learning experience. Any disjunction of teaching and
examining, as is the case today, will push the learning examination oriented and
teaching will slowly lose its centrality. Control over learning through the examina-
tion conducted by the university is also based on the assumption that once such
control is lifted, the biases and favours by the teachers will give rise to corruption.
If, however, transparency is maintained through making answer sheets public after
the assessment is done, there is little chance of manipulation.
The most crucial question today is the divide between undergraduate and post-
graduate. Teachers’ University, according to Ambedkar, must not create compart-
mentalization of UG and PG teaching. UG and PG must be treated as continuum
where the influence of teachers upon students gets deeper in shaping the mind. The
divide puts college teachers at a disadvantage and inferior position to the postgradu-
ate teachers and disrupts the organic unity of teachers. Maintaining the organic
unity of teachers is fundamental in the Teachers’ University. Dr. Ambedkar makes
practical suggestions to maintain the unity as well.
Teachers’ University must award the teachers for the scholarship that they pos-
sess. No consideration other than merit and loyalty of a teacher to the profession
should matter in promotion, privileges and pay of a teacher. Only then, the realiza-
tion of Teachers’ University can take place. Ambedkar supports the case of deep
democratization of the university in the governance through effective participation
of teachers. According to him, the faculty should be the basic governance unit tak-
ing most of the academic decisions.
8 S. Bhushan

Teachers’ University, as suggested by Ambedkar, should be the basis of the

future of higher education. This has not been realized during colonial as well as
post-colonial period so far. There is no reason, however, why such a conceptualiza-
tion will not be realized in the future? Teachers’ University must remain the bench-
mark for the future development.
Policy of the government seems to favour the world-class universities to promote
competition and efficiency among the universities. It is argued that these universi-
ties will be research intensive and promote knowledge. The world-class universities
may also promote global networking among knowledge partners. By improving the
ranking of universities in the world, such universities will be a hub of international
students and promote the brand value of Indian universities in the world. The future
of Indian universities seems to be guided by above features of competition, effi-
ciency, global networking and knowledge promotion.
Saumen Chattopadhyay in his paper on “World Ranking of Universities: What
Does It Entail for the Future” and Aishna Sharma, the author of the chapter ‘The
World-Class University-Discourse: Disentangling the Conflict Between Efficiency
and World Class-ness’, critically examines the new discourse on world ranking
and world-class universities. They examine the new discourse on ranking and world
class within new public management philosophy. The authors note that the new
public management is an approach that favours the market principle in the gover-
nance of public university. Institutional autonomy is granted not to promote aca-
demic freedom but to follow business approach to government. In this model, there
is an emphasis on accountability, output, fast decision-making and entrepreneur-
ship. The new discourse is an attempt to reduce the public character and hence
public funding to the universities, thereby altering the very character of universities.
University may become a knowledge enterprise to be guided by short run.
The authors further point out that the policy move would create hierarchy among
universities and many state universities would continue to suffer remaining lower in
the hierarchy. Hence, claim that universities would gain by competitive spirit is false
as there is no level playing field to generate competition. Applying Foucault’s power
knowledge perspective, Aishna Sharma notes that state reinforces a new power rela-
tion in which teachers and universities themselves become the subject of discourse
and begin to self-regulate. Interestingly, the power so exercised is not repressive, yet
it is effective in so far as it gets embedded in the practices exercised by teachers
through discourse. The world-class university discourse is precisely the discourse of
power knowledge relationship in which teachers have to perform irrespective of
structural constraints. The leadership and the power to innovate are the appeals to
overcome any such barrier. The future of Indian universities may place teachers as
subjects of practices, thereby constraining the autonomy.
The authors note that in the new discourse practices would be shaped by the effi-
ciency rationale. The focus would be on producing output which is concomitant with
the demand in the market and the satisfaction of the student. In achieving efficiency,
the role of technology will acquire importance in each and every stage of the produc-
tion of output. They do not much emphasize the power of technology as much as a
technology of power through the instrument of global ranking. The knowledge to the
1 Contesting the Present in the Evolution of Public Higher Education 9

teachers that they are the part of the discourse of global ranking of a University in
which they work would begin to shape the practices of teachers. Thus, the behaviour
of teachers will be set by the expectations of being a part of global University. Hence,
there may arise a conflict between national and global expectations. For example, the
national expectation will be the equity and inclusion, whereas the global expectation
may be the focus on research and reputation. This will radically shift the agenda of the
future of universities in favour of research, mainly applied research. Teaching will be
a costly affair serving the select few. The new power knowledge relationship in a
world-class university will thus alter the very character of public University in the
future in so far as the output produced in these universities will serve the market by
aligning itself to the forces of market. The global agenda will subordinate the national
agenda of inclusion in the public University. The social character of public University
may be in danger in the world class. The academic freedom of the teachers will be
jeopardized as they become subject to the power of new discourse. A paper by Manisha
Priyam is an interesting addition to the debate in terms of the dilemma of institutional-
ism of public universities. The experiences of developing society such as India –
caught in the midst of market institutionalism, control and command approach and
what author calls ‘locked-in’ institutionalism of vested interests – calls for new frame-
work of institutions supported by the State and a public space for universities aspiring
for universal citizenship where conflicts and contestations cannot be ruled out.
The emergence of private universities in India and the exponential growth is
certainly determining the future of higher education. Hence, it is necessary to under-
stand the nature and characteristics of private universities that had begun to deter-
mine a new direction. What is the mission or purpose of the private university? In
which disciplinary area are they concentrating? How are they being governed?
What is the resource mobilization strategy? The most substantive question is: does
the emergence of private university alter the idea of university which the public
system has so far been developing? Some of these questions are important to under-
stand the future direction of university system in India.
Sangeeta Angom, the author of the chapter ‘Idea of a University: Rethinking the
Indian Private Universities Context’, analyses some of the questions noted above.
The author traces the origin of the modern European University from the mediaeval
period. She notes that the public nature of University is one where knowledge is
generated and disseminated for the benefit of public. The state protects the freedom
of the faculty in the examination of knowledge for the simple reason that it finally
benefits the public whose trust is necessary for the existence of state. The teachers
being supported by the Exchequer has the responsibility to admit to the university the
students, perform the teaching and confer the degree upon the successful completion
of the programme. The public nature of the University in disseminating knowledge
will be intact only when a synthesis of teaching and research takes place. An impor-
tant addition to the concept of University in the idealist tradition takes place when it
is asserted that the knowledge exists for the purpose of humanities. The knowledge
generation is clearly a scientific process, and there is no role of politics in it.
It is this classical idea of University which was the basis of the emergence of
University system in post-colonial India. The University is established by an act. It is
10 S. Bhushan

funded by the government. It is regulated by the regulatory bodies. It is accountable

to the legislature. The fees charged are minimal so that higher education is accessible
to all. The knowledge generation benefits the public. All disciplines are given equal
attention for the balanced growth of knowledge. The purpose of regulation and con-
trol by the state is to maintain a minimum standard. To this core idea of public
University, namely, knowledge generation for the benefit of public, there has been
certain transformation in the public University in a post-colonial development. For
example, University stands to the commitment of a just society and a vibrant polity,
and it creates young people with skills relevant for labour market and opportunity for
social mobility, and it also creates all responsible citizens who value a democratic
and pluralistic society. In the twenty-first century, the challenge is to find a path to
achieve the divergent goals for the growth of higher education. So, the universities
are expected to expand to achieve enrolment target by additional capacity and ensur-
ing equal access opportunities while being supported to improve the quality of teach-
ing-learning, attain excellence in research and contribute to economic development.
The author asks the question whether the emergence and growth of private uni-
versities in India could preserve the spirit of public University system that devel-
oped on the lines of European Universities. While privatization of higher education
was a response to the market, the author finds, there is a substantial difference in the
public and private higher education. The mission of private University serves the
private interests rather than the public. It is owned by the Private body and tuition
fees charged from the students is the main funding strategy which is in sharp con-
trast to the case of public institutions. This makes all the difference in the admission
of the students, courses being offered to the students and the pedagogy and the
assessment practices. Education being guided by the private return makes private
universities responsive to the skill needs of the market. The technological integra-
tion in the teaching-learning process is swift and fast, and it is demand driven.
Governance model is entrepreneurial and business like with the purpose to earn
profit. Hence, the emergence of private University makes a substantial departure
from the past development of public university system in India. No doubt, it sup-
ports the process of economic growth, yet the idea of inclusive growth may be a
serious casualty of the growth of private universities.

Part Two: Financing

Traditionally higher education policy has been supportive of public funding to uni-
versities and colleges. The effect of public funding on higher education participation
has been studied in the literature. In the context of the decline in public funding stud-
ies have shown that students from lower income groups are forced to opt for labour
market and drop out from higher education institutions. Those who join have choices
restricted to get admitted to low-quality colleges. Hence, the impact of reduction in
public expenditure and increased private source of funding is ultimately felt in
restricting the access of poor to colleges. It is in this context that the understanding
of state financing policy on the access and participation assumes importance.
1 Contesting the Present in the Evolution of Public Higher Education 11

Sandhya Dubey in the chapter ‘Impact of Public Education Expenditure Across

Different Levels on Higher Education Access in India: A Panel Data Study’ exam-
ines the effect of public expenditure on higher education access in different states
and across different social groups and also examines the access to higher education
in high income and other than high-income states. The study highlights that from a
long-run perspective of development, the future access policies of higher education
in India should target schools to guide students and raise their aspirations for higher
education. The access policies should also focus on achieving the higher levels of
academic preparation of students for higher education by improving the quality of
elementary and secondary education. There should be investment in confidence
building among scheduled castes and scheduled tribes’ students and the proper dis-
tribution of the financial aid information among students belonging to economically
weaker section of the society. Some of these findings are important to appreciate the
role of public funding across different levels of education to promote access to
higher education in the future.
Financing of higher education has been undergoing major transformation. This
transformation is going to shape the future of universities system in India. The
major transformation has been the reduced role of state funding and shifting the
burden of financing on the households. Households need to increasingly find
resources to meet expenditure on account of meeting the living costs as well as
tuition fees charged by the institution. They can meet the expenditure either from
household income or sale of the fixed assets. Those who cannot meet the expendi-
ture from the household source may have to fall back upon borrowing from banks
or non-bank sources such as relatives or friends. Given the insecurity of funding,
there will be high probability to drop out after the secondary education. Hence, the
future of higher education will be susceptible to insecurity in the transformation
from subsidy to loans as opposed to the system of state funding, providing stability
and security of studies during the undergraduate years of college.
There will be a greater need to understand in some detail the components of
households financing of higher education. For example, what is the distribution of
fee and non-fee component? How does this distribution vary in institutions by type
of management? How is this distribution sensitive across various social and
­economic groups? A deeper understanding of households financing will also give a
clue to the question of affordability, issue that will acquire much greater importance
in the future of higher education.
The greater reliance on the source of funding from the market will also affect the
students’ choice of subjects and disciplines. Students will be much more concerned
with the private returns on education as they have to pay back the principal as well
as the interest component of the loan. Choice of disciplines will be guided by the
situations prevailing in the labour market. If the labour market is favourable to dis-
ciplines such as IT, engineering, management, education, medical, pharmacy and
law, there will be much higher demand for such courses. Social sciences, physical
sciences and humanities having lower private returns may not be in great demand.
Hence, the market-based funding will lead to unbalanced development of courses
and the institutions. The technical and vocational education to be supported by pri-
12 S. Bhushan

vate institutions will flourish, and the general education offered in government insti-
tutions will have few takers.
A completely new phenomenon in the funding of higher education institutions is
slowly the shift from grant- to the loan-based funding. Hence, the institutions of
higher education will have to compete for funding from higher education funding
agencies for any capital expenditure such as addition to the infrastructure. Hence,
the loan repayment by the institutions to the funding agency will increase the user
charges for various services, other than tuition fees, provided by the institutions to
the students. This will have the impact of overall increasing the cost of education.
Loan-based funding to the institutions will create further division among institu-
tions – those located in urban will flourish at the cost of institutions located in rural
area.
The shift from grant-based to loan-based system of financing may be referred to
as the structural shift in the financing of higher education. Such a shift may have
impact on the social and economic composition of students. Institutions in the pri-
vate sector offering courses of high demand may have less representation of stu-
dents from marginalized sections of the society, whereas institutions in the
government sector offering courses of low demand might witness overrepresenta-
tion of students from marginalized sections. Government and private institutions
will differ in many ways leading to the fragmentation of higher education.
Increasing private source of financing higher education has also implication for
the teaching-learning processes. The greater attention on teaching-learning process
with learner centeredness acquires importance. The objective of studying higher
education is to develop soft skills enabling student to get a job in the labour market.
An important part of the cost of higher education is additional coaching in private
tuition centres. Private tuitions have emerged as a result of competitive examina-
tions for admissions and the need for certificates and diplomas granted by private
training centres. These certifications help students get market-based skills to obtain
a job. Many coaching centres have also emerged for coaching students to fetch high
marks in university and college examinations.
It is against this background that structural shifts in the financing of higher edu-
cation are going to determine the futures of higher education being sensitive to
­private returns rather than social returns and hence greater justification for private
players in the financing of higher education. The future of higher education will
favour vocational and technical skills being imparted in private institutions. The
cost of education will rise, and the cost recovery from students will put pressure on
household financing. Further, the rising loan component of household financing will
lead to insecurities among students arising from the fear of non-repayment of loans
if they fail to secure a job in the labour market.
P Geetha Rani in the chapter ‘Shifts in the Financing and Provision of Higher
Education in India: Is It Structural?’ notes that from a state subsidy to the market
loan system of financing, there is a clear shift from supply to the demand side. It
implies that access, choice of course and quality of higher education will be driven
by the demand for it. On the other hand, supply-side factors will be determined by
1 Contesting the Present in the Evolution of Public Higher Education 13

the income of the household and the availability of loans from commercial banks in
relation to the cost of education.
As per the estimates made by the author, source of funding from the household
has considerably increased from around 16% in 2007–2008 to 32% in 2015–2016.
There has been a decline in the government funding from 45% to 37% during the
same period. The third component of financing higher education through loans has
been increasing from 2000–2001 to 2015–2016 at a growth rate of 33%. This has
impacted the provision of higher education. The private unaided enrolment has gone
up from 21% in 2000–2001 to 45% in 2015–2016. The share of enrolment in gov-
ernment institutions has come down from 41% to 32% during the same period. The
enrolment of students in technical and vocational education in the private unaided
institutions has been increasing. What is most significant to note is the fact that the
cost of education for many technical and vocational education in private unaided
institutions is almost twice as much prevailing in the government institutions.
Hence, in the structural shift, the burden of payment by the households towards
meeting the cost of education has considerably increased.
P Geetha Rani examines whether scheme of interest subsidy on loan has pro-
moted inequity in higher education. For instance, she reports, ‘education loan, the
proxy for cost of higher education for medicine is six times more than low-cost
courses such as education. Given such structure of course costs (education loan),
equal interest subsidies across courses essentially create unequal interest subsidy
across courses. Interest subsidy for medicine, the high cost course gets the highest
subsidy over the years’. The author further points out that relatively long-duration
and high-cost courses getting higher subsidies are cornered by relatively rich and
poor students opt short-duration and low-cost courses and hence lower subsidies.
This may perpetuate inequality across lifetime earnings. This will further lead to
subdivision as long-duration courses will attract talent, whereas short-duration
courses will have less talented students.
The author concludes with a grim sense of caution. The private market-based
financing has substituted government source of financing to a great extent. Both
sources of financing are not complementary to each other. This means that public
character of higher education as a means of good to the public will disappear. Higher
education will be driven by private return and society may not benefit as much as an
individual. The future of higher education will have a tendency to create fragmenta-
tion, subdivision, conflict and tensions within universities and colleges.
Sudhanshu Bhushan in the chapter ‘Future of Higher Education Financing and
Governance’ expresses a similar concern in a move from subsidy- and scholarship-­
based funding to loan-based funding to individuals and institutions. Financing of
higher education affects the mode of governance. Market-based strategies call for an
efficient system whereby the debt is repaid to the lenders. Hence, the question of
efficiency in higher education acquires importance. An overall policy drive may be
seen to be guided by increasing productivity by increasing the hours of teaching and
research, reducing salary payment to the teachers, increasing part-time teachers, ban
in the recruitment of permanent teachers and increasing use of technology in gover-
nance as well as teaching-learning. There might be cut in library, infrastructure, etc.,
14 S. Bhushan

and an advocacy for the use of technology may be intensified. Fourth, the question
of efficiency will also give rise to increasing accountability not only for the teachers
and staffs who are being paid by the government but also for the students in terms
of attendance, discipline and control over student’s union activities. Wherever the
autonomy to the institutions will be granted, there will be a rider to the autonomy in
terms of performance and responsibility not only in the areas of teaching and
research but also in terms of efficiently raising resources through the market.
The author examines the structural shift in financing from the point of view of
equality of opportunity, equity and efficiency. It is pointed out that the shift in the
financing of higher education was also necessitated by the logic of the capitalist
growth. It may not be possible to tax the rich and support higher education without
adversely affecting the rate of growth. It is relatively easier to reduce subsidy and
transfer the burden of payment for higher education on the households. Hence,
privatization of higher education is in the interests of corporate sector which does
not get taxed to support higher education. Moreover, corporate sector is able to
share the gains due to privatization in higher education.
The reality checks of various recent changes pronounced by the government
indicate that the future of higher education financing will move towards raising
internal resources through fees. Loan as component of financing households and
institutions of higher learning will rise. Institutions of higher education will acquire
more autonomy to raise resources and will be subjected to market risks. Institutions
will furthermore be subjected to prove the accountability and fund support will be
linked to performance of institutions. Hierarchy among institutions, as a result, will
grow with three-tier system of autonomy and funding. Institutions of higher educa-
tion located in rural areas will have to be closed down for want of funding or if they
continue, they will impart low quality of education to the masses. The claim of fiscal
federalism and resource transfer to states, if not translated to higher funding support
to state universities and colleges, will siphon away resources to meet populist
demands rather than meet the ambitions of poor to study in higher education institu-
tions with subsidized support.
In the changed scenario, it is important to understand the components of house-
hold expenditure on higher education. Pradeep Choudhury, the author of the chapter
‘Household Expenditure on Higher Education in Rural Odisha’, in a recently con-
ducted household survey in two districts of rural Odisha in 2016–2017, estimates
per student annual household expenditure on higher education to be about Rs.
61,490. In rural Odisha, it is interesting to note that fee consists of only 5% of total
expenditure on higher education. An important component of cost of study from
household point of view is non-fee expenditure on food and accommodation, text-
books and study materials, transport, private tuition/coaching, computer class,
mobile and the Internet. Students are spending on an average Rs. 11,349 on private
tuition/coaching that constitutes 18% of the total household expenditure. Thus, the
field reality is that in rural Odisha, there is low fee. However, the quality of educa-
tion is also very low due to the poor infrastructure and shortage of teachers. The
students of rural areas are able to afford higher education. However, the employ-
ability of students is low. As a result, they have to fall back upon private coaching
1 Contesting the Present in the Evolution of Public Higher Education 15

where fees are charged four times the fees charged in higher education institutions.
It is also important to note that fees in the government colleges and aided as well as
unaided private colleges are not substantially different. This is so because private
and aided colleges cannot charge high fees due to the low-paying capacity of stu-
dents. Yet, the privatization is active even in rural area in terms of the coaching
institutions of some sort or other. High household expenditure for the hostellers
further indicates that the students would prefer to commute even long distances in
the rural areas. The author further reports that household expenditure on higher
education in rural Odisha varies widely across socioeconomic groups such as gen-
der, caste and family income. OBC students spend more than SC and ST students in
both fee and non-fee items. There is pro-male bias in household spending on higher
education, i.e. the household expenditure on higher education is more for male stu-
dents than the female students in rural Odisha.
The above result indicates that the future of higher education in large part of rural
India may continue to be cheap in terms of the fees component. However, the rural
colleges will suffer from the low quality of education due to the state withdrawing
funding support to higher education institutions. In such a scenario, many of the
students from rural background will have to fall back upon the private coaching
which may prepare them to some extent for employment in the labour market.
Further, the discrimination and differentiation that exists in rural area continues to
be reflected in the household expenditure on higher education.
The emergence of private coaching is emerging as the phenomenon of future
worldwide with the weakening of public institutions as the payment for coaching is
substantially higher than the payment for formal degrees in higher education. In
most of the developing countries, the reasons for the growing phenomenon of pri-
vate coaching are attributed to low public educational expenditure, large-sized
classes and inadequate number of universities. In addition to this, private coaching
has been considered as a response to dismal quality schooling of the public educa-
tion system. There are also studies that show that a smooth and successful transition
from school education to university or professional higher education institutes and
to the work places is another major determinant of private coaching. The private
coaching has been favouring the privileged classes and communities, thereby add-
ing to the inequality in higher education and labour market.
A study by the authors Anuneeta Mitra and Nivedita Sarkar in a chapter on
‘Factors Influencing Household Expenditure on Private Tutoring in Higher
Education’ uses the latest National Sample Survey (NSS) round on education (71st
round unit level records) to address the following question: Whether social, eco-
nomic, locational, family background variables, type of institution and nature of
subject influence an individual’s household expenditure on private coaching in
higher education. The author’s calculation from 71st NSS round shows that within
the higher education category, 19.1% of individuals take private coaching. An
important aspect of private coaching is that private coaching as percent of house-
hold consumption expenditure varies across socioeconomic groups widely in such a
manner that it leads to benefit the rich and privileged. The disaggregated informa-
tion is shocking. Almost 65% in urban and 46% in rural area belonging to higher
16 S. Bhushan

castes group in top quintile are participating in private coaching. Participation and
expenditure on private coaching is higher for households whose children are in gov-
ernment institutions. Why is this so? An important reason, in my opinion, could be
the enrolment in government institutions for the sake of formal degree at low price
and search for employability through the private coaching. Exponential growth in
private coaching seems to be the last nail in the coffin so far as confidence in govern-
ment higher education institutions are concerned. What is most worrying in the
future is the fact that youth, employed or unemployed, failing to go through the
process of liberal education would fall prey to false knowledge on nationalism
bound by faith in caste, creed and religion. They may not be able to develop scien-
tific spirit and values of deliberative democracy.
Regression results by the authors make the point most obvious in terms of dis-
crimination. Result shows being a female lowers the expenditure on private coach-
ing by 7% when compared with males. Being from a reserved category has an
adverse impact on private coaching expenditure. Expenditure on private coaching
has a positive impact with respect to the educational level of the household heads. A
graduate and above level head would spend 13%, 7.7% and 14.5% more, respec-
tively, at all India, rural and urban sectors than their illiterate counterparts on private
coaching. Locational factor reveals that residing in the rural sector an individual
spends 24% less (significant at 1%) on private coaching when compared with their
urban counterpart.

Part Three: Capabilities

The future of higher education needs to be directed towards the development of

human capabilities. Amartya Sen defines capability in terms of the abilities to be
and to do. Higher education enables development of human capabilities and enlarges
set of opportunities for an individual. If higher education reproduces inequality in
terms of participation and graduation, then it may not be able to enlarge opportuni-
ties for some individuals or groups in the society. In fact, the labour market itself
may represent inequalities and loss of potentials for development. Capability per-
spective suggests inclusive approach to higher education. All individuals must have
the full opportunity and freedom to join higher education and thereby be entitled to
access the job market and avail opportunities that he or she likes. Inclusive higher
education requires all marginalized sections of the society to be treated favourably
so as to develop capabilities.
It may be argued that human capital approach treats all individual alike. The dif-
ferences in participation across social/religious/economic groups really do not mat-
ter. It treats higher education as production unit where all inputs are processed to
form a product. The formation of human capital is simply treated as producing
income streams in the future. Higher education graduate, irrespective of differences,
is treated as a capital. By ignoring differences, issue of equity and distribution is of
no relevance. Group differences in participation of higher education are ignored.
1 Contesting the Present in the Evolution of Public Higher Education 17

Human capital approach treats human being as a commodity and higher education
is treated as private good. Capability approach, on the contrary, allows inclusive
approach in which the participation of marginalized sections of the society is of
much greater value for the development of a nation.
Highlighting the difference between human capability and human capital
approach, Narendra Thakur, in the chapter ‘Social-Economic Exclusion and
Inequality in Indian Higher Education and Labour Market: A Capability Approach’,
highlights capability deprivation in terms of inequality in educational attainment
and employment opportunity. The author notes differences in number of persons
with graduation and above degrees (graduates) in general, technical and profes-
sional subjects between Hindu and Muslim community and the SC, ST and other
category across different states. The author estimates that around 50% of graduates
are not used productively in the job sector. Subsequently, the absence of the excluded
workers suppresses their capability and their life plan. There is further inequality to
be observed across social group with respect to the share of knowledge workers to
total workers. There is also gender bias, the shares of total females including SCs
and STs and the all socio, economic and religious categories in the knowledge
workers, in 2001. Average spending per student has also been rising making higher
education highly unaffordable.
The future of higher education warrants capability development through an
appeal to inclusive higher education providing substantive opportunities to all social
and religious groups. The future of higher education cannot escape attention to stu-
dents with disabilities. Policy intervention has led to the formation of institutions
such as Rehabilitation Council of India, Equal Opportunity Offices in the University
and College. Regulation for the ease of access to institutions is in place. However,
not much has been done at the policy level in terms of curriculum restructuring,
delivery and evaluation as well as the provision for necessary support and accom-
modation to ensure that SWD have equal opportunity in real terms. Without appro-
priate support, students with disabilities are at risk of academic failure and associated
loss of self-confidence and self-esteem.
Tiwari et al. in the chapter ‘Persons with Disabilities and Higher Education: A
Case Study of a Central University’ note that 20% of the total disabled population
falls in the age group of 20–29 years who are potential entrants into the higher edu-
cation. The disabled in this age group who reach secondary stage need to be pro-
vided support to reach higher education institutions. The recent verdict of Supreme
Court in December 2017 says that right to dignity applies with much more vigour in
cases of persons suffering from disability. Based on the survey results from 159
respondents from Delhi University, authors have noted certain interesting findings.
Students with disabilities have limited information to effectively utilize the facilities
earmarked for them. Commuting to and fro from colleges is an important difficulty
to attend classes; 42% of the students with disabilities were not even aware of EOCs
in the colleges. Accessibility to Delhi University colleges was, however, found to be
satisfactory. Sensitivity towards disability was found to be much more in the case of
peers rather than teachers. In the academic performance at the college level, ease of
access and sensitivity towards disabled campus colleges were ahead of non-campus
18 S. Bhushan

colleges in Delhi University. Authors furthermore analyse the determinants of aca-

demic success for the disabled students. Findings of the research are of interest to
develop the sensitivity towards disabled students and develop their capabilities so
far as the future of higher education to achieve the goal of inclusive education is
concerned.
A key to capability development for the future of higher education is the prepara-
tion of academics for effective teaching-learning process. There has been increas-
ingly recognition of faculty development with recent advances in the researches
related to teaching-learning. Dr. Neeru Snehi in the chapter ‘Faculty Development
in Tertiary Sector: A Review of Global Practices’ notes various innovative pro-
grammes of faculty development. She suggested teaching certificate programme for
junior faculty; faculty learning communities in the USA; teaching-learning centres
in the UK, the USA, Australia, etc; subject-based networks in the UK, teaching-­
learning associations and network; and peer-to-peer faculty mentoring and evalua-
tion some of the examples from around the globe. They are all supported from the
government which competent staff and organizational support.
There is no doubt that the preparation of faculty has been practised in Indian
higher education institutions mainly through the academic staff College which is
renamed as Human Resource Development Centre. However, the cut in funding by
the government is a concern. The teaching-learning centres, faculty development
centres and subject-based networks are some of the recent additions in the faculty
preparation. A review of these centres and networks shows that most of them are
guided by technological rationality. There is a need to understand the diverse needs
of students in terms of language, content, social and cultural contexts, and accord-
ingly teachers need to prepare the classroom transactions. The future of higher edu-
cation ultimately rests on the capabilities of teachers in their effective engagement
with diverse group of students.
Perspectives of capability development have been widening, providing a range of
opportunities to the students. Internationalization of higher education, notwith-
standing the dimensions of commercialization, has been an important phenomenon
that will guide the future of higher education. Capability development now requires
the graduates to be well-suited to the global labour market. To fully utilize such
opportunity, it has become necessary to strategize the university administration and
the teaching-learning process so as to prepare students for global demand. Higher
education, therefore, has to be out towards looking in the future. The strategy for
internationalization in a developing country must be planned with a view to accom-
modate the needs of higher education in a national context.
The chapter on ‘Pathways to Internationalization in Indian Higher Education:
Reflections on Policy Options’ by Rashim Wadhwa suggests various alternatives to
the traditional pathway relating to the mobility of students and teachers. Massive
open online course (MOOCs), internationalization of curriculum and teaching and
learning, extracurricular activities, mobility of programmes and the providers of
higher education are emerging. Mobility of programmes includes twinning, fran-
chise, joint degree and virtual arrangement, and mobility of providers operates
through branch campus, acquisition, virtual university and independent institution.
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