International Series in

Operations
l Optimization Research
(Concepts, Models& Management Science
and Algorithms for Decision Making und

n-to-robust-combinatorial-optimization-concepts-models-and-algorithms-fo

Marc Goerigk
Michael Hartisch

An Introduction
to Robust
Combinatorial
Optimization
Concepts, Models and Algorithms
for Decision Making under Uncertainty

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Optimization (Concepts, Models and Algorithms for Decision Making und
International Series in Operations Research &
Management Science
Founding Editor
Frederick S. Hillier
-to-robust-combinatorial-optimization-concepts-models-and-algorithms-f
Volume 361

Series Editor
Camille C. Price, Department of Computer Science, Stephen F. Austin State
University, Nacogdoches, TX, USA

Editorial Board
Emanuele Borgonovo, Department of Decision Sciences, Bocconi University,
Milan, Italy
Barry L. Nelson, Department of Industrial Engineering and Management Sciences,
Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
Bruce W. Patty, Veritec Solutions, Mill Valley, CA, USA
Michael Pinedo, Stern School of Business, New York University, New York, NY,
USA
Robert J. Vanderbei, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA

Associate Editor
Joe Zhu, Business School, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA, USA

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Optimization (Concepts, Models and Algorithms for Decision Making und
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Optimization (Concepts, Models and Algorithms for Decision Making und
Marc Goerigk • Michael Hartisch

-to-robust-combinatorial-optimization-concepts-models-and-algorithms-f

An Introduction to Robust
Combinatorial Optimization
Concepts, Models and Algorithms
for Decision Making under Uncertainty

This Book is Available on YakiBooki.com

Optimization (Concepts, Models and Algorithms for Decision Making und
Marc Goerigk Michael Hartisch
University of Passau Friedrich-Alexander-Universität
Passau, Germany Erlangen-Nürnberg
Erlangen, Germany

-to-robust-combinatorial-optimization-concepts-models-and-algorithms-f

ISSN 0884-8289 ISSN 2214-7934 (electronic)

International Series in Operations Research & Management Science
ISBN 978-3-031-61260-2 ISBN 978-3-031-61261-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-61261-9

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Optimization (Concepts, Models and Algorithms for Decision Making und
Preface

-to-robust-combinatorial-optimization-concepts-models-and-algorithms-f

Thank you for joining us on this tour through the world of robust combinatorial
optimization. We have felt it long overdue that the tremendous progress that has
been achieved in this field since the publication of the first and only book on this
topic in the late 1990s is collected, ordered, and made accessible in one place.
Having given lectures on robust optimization for several years now, we expected
to encounter little difficulty in writing this book. Of course, we were very wrong.
Still, it has given us great pleasure to revisit classic as well as new results, sometimes
fixing what we felt was wrong, filling in gaps, and elaborating with new examples.
The result is a text completely written from scratch.
We thank our collaborators that made this book possible in sharing many
discussions and replying to quite some e-mails asking for clarification. We are
grateful for lecture notes provided to us by Anita Schöbel and Christoph Buchheim,
and for the many enjoyable and helpful discussions we have had with Adam
Kasperski, Paweł Zieliński, Michaël Poss, and Frauke Liers. We thank Werner Baak,
Luis Barthold, Dorothee Henke, Mohammad Khosravi, Heike Leers, Sebastian
Merten, Steffen Siebert, Pascal Wagener, and Lasse Wulf for spotting many errors
in previous iterations of this text.
Almost certainly, mistakes in the text will remain. We greatly appreciate if you
send us a short message, should you find any. Thank you!

Passau, Germany Marc Goerigk

Erlangen, Germany Michael Hartisch
March 2024

v
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Optimization (Concepts, Models and Algorithms for Decision Making und
Contents

-to-robust-combinatorial-optimization-concepts-models-and-algorithms-f

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 A Robust Decision-Making Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Purpose and Structure of This Book. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Basic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.1 Big-O Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.1.2 Polynomial-Time Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1.3 NP-Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.4 Approximation Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.2 Linear and Integer Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.3 Graph Structures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Combinatorial Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.1 The Knapsack Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.2 The Selection Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4.3 The Shortest Path Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4.4 The Minimum Spanning Tree Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.4.5 The Assignment Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.4.6 The Traveling Salesperson Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.7 Scheduling Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.4.8 The Matroid Optimization Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.5 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3 Robust Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.1 Robust Decision Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.2 Uncertainty Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.3 Comparing Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.4 Relationships to Multi-Criteria Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

vii
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 viii Contents
Optimization (Concepts, Models and Algorithms for Decision Making und
3.5 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4 General Reformulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
-to-robust-combinatorial-optimization-concepts-models-and-algorithms-f
4.1 Convexity of Uncertainty Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.2 Interval Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2.1 Min-Max Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.2.2 Two-Stage and Recoverable Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.2.3 Min-Max Regret Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3 Discrete Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.1 Min-Max Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.3.2 Two-Stage and Recoverable Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.3.3 Min-Max Regret Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4 Polytopal Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4.1 Min-Max Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.4.2 Two-Stage and Recoverable Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.4.3 Min-Max Regret Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
4.5 Budgeted Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.5.1 Min-Max Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.5.2 Two-Stage and Recoverable Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.5.3 Min-Max Regret Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.6 Relationships Between Uncertainty Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.7 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.9 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5 General Solution Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1 Scenario Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1.1 Abstract Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1.2 Scenario Generation for Min-Max Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.1.3 Scenario Generation for Min-Max Regret Problems . . . . . . . 106
5.1.4 Scenario Generation for Two-Stage and
Recoverable Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.2 Approximation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.1 Reducing Discrete Uncertainty Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.2 Norm-Based Approximation for Discrete
Uncertainty Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.2.3 Reducing Interval Uncertainty Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.3 Pseudopolynomial Methods and Approximation Schemes. . . . . . . . . 126
5.4 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.6 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

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Optimization (Concepts, Models and Algorithms for Decision Making und
6
Robust Selection Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.1 Min-Max Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
6.2 Min-Max Regret Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.2.1 Discrete Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
6.2.2 Interval Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
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6.2.3 Budgeted Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.3 Two-Stage Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.3.1 Discrete Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.3.2 Polytopal Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.3.3 Continuous Budgeted Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.3.4 Discrete Budgeted Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6.4 Recoverable Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.4.1 Discrete Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.4.2 Interval Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
6.4.3 Continuous Budgeted Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.4.4 Discrete Budgeted Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
6.5 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
6.7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
7 Robust Shortest Path Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.1 Min-Max Shortest Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.2 Min-Max Regret Shortest Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.2.1 Discrete Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.2.2 Interval Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
7.3 Two-Stage Shortest Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
7.3.1 Discrete Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
7.3.2 Discrete Budgeted Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.4 Recoverable Shortest Path . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.4.1 Discrete Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7.4.2 Interval Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
7.5 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
7.7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8 Robust Spanning Tree Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.1 Min-Max Spanning Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.2 Min-Max Regret Spanning Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.2.1 Discrete Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
8.2.2 Interval Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.3 Two-Stage Spanning Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.4 Recoverable Spanning Tree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8.4.1 Discrete Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8.4.2 Interval Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

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 x Contents
Optimization (Concepts, Models and Algorithms for Decision Making und
8.4.3 Discrete Budgeted Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.5 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
8.7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
-to-robust-combinatorial-optimization-concepts-models-and-algorithms-f
9 Other Combinatorial Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
9.1 Robust Assignment Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
9.2 Robust Knapsack Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
9.3 Robust Traveling Salesperson Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
9.4 Robust Scheduling Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
9.5 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
9.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
9.7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10 Other Models for Robust Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
10.1 Ordered Weighted Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
10.2 Ellipsoidal Uncertainty. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
10.3 K-Adaptability and Min-Max-Min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
10.4 Decision-Dependent Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
10.5 Further Reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
10.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
10.7 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
11 Open Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

A Problem Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Alphabetical Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

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