Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

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Marine Pollution Bulletin

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marpolbul

Microplastic contamination in deep-sea sediments and polymetallic

nodules: Insights from the Clarion-Clipperton Zone, Pacific Ocean
Ana Carolina Ronda a,b,*,1, María Eugenia Adaro a,1, Lucía Villar-Muñoz c , Juan Pablo Tomba d,
Elisa Baldrighi e
a
Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS)-CONICET, Bahía Blanca, Argentina
b
Departamento de Geografía y Turismo, Universidad Nacional del Sur, Bahía Blanca, Argentina
c
Departamento de Geofísica, Facultad de Ciencias Físicas y Matemáticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
d
Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencia y Tecnología de Materiales (INTEMA), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata (UNMDP)-CONICET, Avenida Colón 10850,
7600 Mar del Plata, Argentina
e
Department of Biology, University of Nevada, Reno (UNR), NV, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study investigates MPs in sediments and polymetallic nodules collected from the Clarion Clipperton Zone
Polymetallic nodules (CCZ) in the Pacific Ocean, using samples collected during a deep-sea mining exploration. MPs were detected in
Sediment over half of the sediment samples and a third of the nodule samples, with an abundance ranging from 0 to 480
Pollution
items/kg dry weight (d.w.) and 0 to 80 items/kg d.w. for sediments and nodules, respectively, with no significant
Deep-sea
Seafloor
difference between the two matrices. In terms of size, the smallest particle found was 0.165 mm in sediments and
Microfibers the largest 10 mm in nodules, being >40 % of the particles counted <1 mm, with fibers being the predominant
morphology for both matrices. Transparent and blue particles presented the highest percentages, whereas
nodules displayed a more balanced percentage distribution among the observed colors. Raman spectroscopy
analysis identified polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) as the most abundant polymers,
along with pigments like indigo blue (IB), acetoacetic arylide (PY), and phthalocyanine blue (PB) commonly
associated with synthetic textiles and industrial sources. A global review of deep-sea MPs (>1000 m) reveals
considerable variability in reported concentrations, underscoring the challenge of assessing MP pollution in
remote marine environments. The findings highlight the need for standardized methodologies to improve
comparability across studies and enhance understanding of MP distribution in deep-sea ecosystems. Given the
CCZ's ecological and economic significance, further research is crucial to assess the potential risks posed by MPs
in this region.

1. Introduction design, plastics are resistant to degradation and as such are expected to
persist in the natural environment for hundreds, if not thousands of
Microplastics (MPs) are prolific, persistent, and pernicious contam­ years (Andrady et al., 2015). According to their chemical properties,
inants, posing an environmental and economic risk to marine ecosys­ MPs could be heavier or lighter than seawater. HDPE, LDPE, PP, and PS
tems across the globe (Rochman et al., 2016). These particles, might be able to float over surface seawater since they have a low spe­
encompassing synthetic plastic particulates, fibers, and films, are cific density (positive buoyancy); while PET and PVC could sink to the
defined as 1–5000 μm in diameter and have been widely identified in seabed since they have a high specific density (negative buoyancy).
marine ecosystems, including estuaries, coastal biomes, open oceans, However, even with positive buoyancy, many of them become denser
and polar waters (Lusher et al., 2015). Microplastics are either directly than sea as a result of ingestion/fouling by organisms or adherence to
manufactured (e. g. cosmetic exfoliates, air blasting media), or derive denser sinking particles, ultimately leading them to sin to the seafloor
from the fragmentation of larger plastics over time (Cole et al., 2011). By (Morét-Ferguson et al., 2010; Lobelle and Cunliffe, 2011; Reineccius and

* Corresponding author at: Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), Universidad Nacional del Sur (UNS)-CONICET, Bahía Blanca, Argentina.
E-mail address: [email protected] (A.C. Ronda).
1
Both authors contributed equally to this paper.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2025.117945
Received 22 January 2025; Received in revised form 3 April 2025; Accepted 4 April 2025
Available online 15 April 2025
0025-326X/© 2025 Elsevier Ltd. All rights are reserved, including those for text and data mining, AI training, and similar technologies.
A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

Waniek, 2022; Ikenoue et al., 2024). quantifying the abundance of MP particles in bottom sediments and on
Microplastics have been documented in deep-sea sediments across all polymetallic nodules, (ii) analyzing the physical and chemical attributes
major ocean basins (e.g., Van Cauwenberghe et al., 2013; Bergmann of MPs, such as size, shape, color, and polymer composition, and (iii)
et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2020), and their accumulation could be either conducting a comprehensive review of MP studies in bottom sediments
by directly sinking through the water column or indirectly through across various ocean basins. By examining the distribution and proper­
currents and sediment transport along continental slopes (Clark et al., ties of MPs in this critical region, our findings offer valuable insights into
2016). Like other particles, MPs on the seabed can be carried out the environmental consequences of plastic pollution in deep-sea eco­
through a combination of surface marine currents, marine bottom cur­ systems, elucidates the connection between surface plastic pollution and
rents, and internal tidal propagation (Peng et al., 2018). However, its deposition in deep-sea sinks, and underscores the broader implica­
despite this global scope, surveyed areas remain limited and sparse. The tions for marine environmental health and global plastic waste man­
extent of MP accumulation in deep-sea sediments remains poorly un­ agement strategies. This study builds on existing research by providing
derstood due to various logistical challenges. The vastness and depth of the first comprehensive assessment of MP contamination in deep-sea
the ocean, coupled with the significant costs and operational difficulties sediments and polymetallic nodules within the CCZ. Unlike previous
of obtaining samples from deep-sea environments, pose substantial ob­ studies that have primarily focused on deep-sea sediments alone, our
stacles. Despite these constraints, studying MPs in the benthic environ­ research examines both sediments and nodules as potential reservoirs
ment is essential, as the deep seabed may contain a significant amount of for MPs, offering new insights into their accumulation, transport, and
unquantified plastic pollution (Woodall et al., 2014). potential interactions with deep-sea benthic organisms. By comparing
The North Pacific Garbage Patch, one of the largest aggregations of our findings with studies from other Pacific deep-sea environments, we
floating plastic debris globally, is a critical contributor to MP pollution contribute to a broader understanding of MP distribution patterns,
in the Pacific Ocean. This massive convergence zone facilitates the transport mechanisms, and potential ecological implications in abyssal
fragmentation of macroplastics into MPs, which subsequently disperse ecosystems. Furthermore, this study has direct relevance for ongoing
throughout the marine environment (Egger et al., 2020). Understanding discussions on deep-sea mining and its potential environmental impacts.
the fate and distribution of MPs in regions neighboring this gyre is The CCZ has been identified as a key area for polymetallic nodule
essential for evaluating the scope of marine plastic contamination. In extraction (Morgan, 2017), and understanding the baseline levels of MP
this sense, the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ), a remote area in the Pa­ contamination in this region is crucial for evaluating the cumulative
cific Ocean, has gained attention for its polymetallic nodules (Morgan, effects of anthropogenic stressors on deep-sea ecosystems. Given that
2017), but also could be a potential hotspot for MP deposition. Poly­ MPs may interact with nodule-associated fauna and influence benthic
metallic nodules not only represent a potential source of mineral re­ food webs, our findings underscore the need for further research on the
sources but also play a key role in structuring benthic ecosystems (Villar- intersection between deep-sea mining and plastic pollution in the Pacific
Muñoz et al., 2024). Their presence increases habitat heterogeneity, Ocean.
providing substrate and shelter for various species, from microorgan­
isms to benthic megafauna, influencing the composition and abundance 2. Materials and methods
of these communities (Lins et al., 2021; Pape et al., 2021). Therefore,
this region, situated in proximity to the North Pacific Garbage Patch 2.1. Sampling area
(~2500 kms), represents a key site for examining the vertical and hor­
izontal transport of MPs from surface waters to deep-sea environments. The Clarion Clipperton Zone (CCZ) is a submarine area of 1,700,000
Despite its ecological and economic importance, limited data are km2, located in the Pacific Ocean (Lambshead et al., 2003) with
available on MP contamination within the CCZ, particularly regarding particular potential for submarine mining thanks to the presence of
their abundance, size distribution, morphological characteristics, and polymetallic nodules in the bottom sediments (Lodge et al., 2014). Be­
polymeric composition. sides the economic potential of this area, there is an interest in studying
Owing to their small size shapes and to their increasing quantities in the presence of MPs, given its proximity to the first plastic “island” found
sediments, MPs might be bioavailable to be ingested by organisms across by Charles Moor in 1997 in the Pacific Ocean (Moore et al., 2005). In the
trophic levels, including benthic fauna (Haegerbaeumer et al., 2019), framework of a campaign led by Nauru Ocean Resources Inc. – The
zooplankton (Steer et al., 2017), bivalves, fish destined for human Metals Company, aimed at evaluating the environmental impact of
consumption (Rochman et al., 2016), and marine megafauna (Duncan deep-sea mining, as requested by the International Seabed Authority,
et al., 2019; Nelms et al., 2019; Padula et al., 2025). Benthic faunal samples were collected for MP analysis from sediment and nodule
communities play a key role in ecosystem functions such as biogeo­ samples. Samplings were performed in different sites in the NORI-D
chemical cycling (Lessin et al., 2018). Among them, meiofauna (>32 area, as shown in Fig. 1: mining sites (STM) and special preservation
μm) is a dominant and diverse component of deep-sea metazoan benthos regions (SPR).
(Sinniger et al., 2016), with nematodes being the most abundant group,
sometimes exceeding 90 % in deep-sea environments (Singh et al., 2.2. Samples
2014). Meiofauna are widely recognized as sentinels for ecosystem
changes (Schratzberger and Ingels, 2018; Ingels et al., 2020), and To take sediment and nodules samples from the bottom, an octopus
nematodes, as a food source for macrobenthic animals; therefore, these multi-core was used (20 cores). Each corer was assigned with a number
organisms may facilitate the transfer of MPs within benthic food webs based on its position on the corer frame. Upon recovery of the multi-core
(Wright et al., 2013; Kang et al., 2021). on deck, corers were placed one by one in a 20-corers-rack, checked, and
The extent of MP pollution in deep-sea sediments remains insuffi­ photographed to assess their quality by the technical leads. One of the 20
ciently quantified, yet understanding its magnitude is essential for pre­ corers was destined to study MPs. The corer was placed in an extruder
dicting the distribution, ultimate fate, and ecological impacts of global corer and the topwater was carefully removed pushing down the corer
plastic pollution (Martin et al., 2017; Barrett et al., 2020). This study and letting the waterfall, avoiding sediment resuspension on the surface.
addresses this gap by presenting evidence of MP pollution in the seabed If nodules were present, they were first carefully removed using steel
of the CCZ, specifically in the NORI-D area, which is licensed for poly­ forceps and saved in a new-plastic bag. A 5 cm plastic ring was used to
metallic nodule prospecting under the authority of the International collect the uppermost 5 cm of sediment. This depth interval was selected
Seabed Authority. based on the established vertical distribution patterns of deep-sea
The primary objective of our research was to evaluate and charac­ meiofauna, which typically concentrate within the top 5 cm, exhibit­
terize MP contamination in this region. Specifically, we focused on (i) ing a decreasing gradient in abundance from the surface downwards

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A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

Fig. 1. Location map of NORI-D CCZ study area from the North of Pacific Ocean. Bathymetry is based on grid GEBCO_2020 (www.gebco.net): (A) General view of the
study area in the Clarion Clipperton Zone. The red rectangle corresponds to Fig. (B), the yellow dots correspond to multi-core sampling; (B) Zoom of the study area
with contour lines marked every 50 m depth. The stations on the left correspond to the mine site (STM) and those on the right are the stations present in the
preservation zones (SPR). The nomenclature of the samples analyzed in this study were reserved based on other samples that were obtained for deep-sea mining
exploration. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

(Rosli et al., 2018). This distribution is primarily driven by the avail­

Table 1
ability of organic matter (food sources) within the superficial sediment
Sampling site information, including ocean depth at the sample location and the
layers. Furthermore, previous studies investigating the impact of deep-
presence (Yes) or not (No) of Polymetallic Nodules.
sea mining activities on meiobenthic communities in the CCZ have
similarly focused their sampling efforts on this upper 5 cm layer (e.g., Site Latitude Longitude Depth (m) Polymetallic nodules

Pape et al., 2017; Uhlenkott et al., 2020), providing a relevant SPR159 10.90453173 − 116.1067560 4168.12 No
comparative framework. Given that MPs are expected to accumulate SPR160 10.83985459 − 116.1502607 4133.06 Yes
SPR161 10.96599108 116.1651061 4232.01 No
within this biologically active surface layer, and in order to align with −
SPR162 10.93572038 − 116.2649648 4251.77 Yes
existing meiofaunal distribution data and deep-sea mining impact STM164 10.43965819 − 117.1408103 4318.73 Yes
studies, limiting our sampling to the top 5 cm allows us to maximize our STM165 10.43239028 − 117.1448415 4321.91 Yes
chances to appropriately evaluate potential MP impacts. Additionally, STM166 10.37881636 − 117.1443666 4310.63 Yes
sedimentation rates in the North Pacific are extremely low, ranging from STM167 10.37718243 − 117.1343121 4304.36 Yes
STM168 10.37746062 117.1559511 4302.01 Yes
approximately 1.15 cm to <0.2 cm per thousand years (Lins et al.,
−
STM169 10.3823932 − 117.1265903 4308.77 Yes
2021). Consequently, the upper 5 cm of sediment analyzed in this study STM170 10.36671325 − 117.1546142 4305.62 No
could represent a deposition time frame spanning several millennia, STM171 10.35633463 − 117.1419657 4285.46 Yes
which far exceeded the age of plastic production. Finally, vertical bio­ STM172 10.36554807 − 117.1472737 4294.79 Yes
STM174 10.34830073 117.1706341 4282.57 Yes
turbation by meiofauna, particularly nematodes, can further disrupt −
STM175 10.35429823 − 117.1529609 4291.39 Yes
stratification and redistribute MPs within the sediment column (Leduc STM177 10.33908255 − 117.1730110 4290.38 Yes
et al., 2024). A steel slicing plate and a steel spoon were used to take the STM183 10.33283769 − 117.2278945 4295.86 Yes
sediment from the corer. Sediment samples were saved in new-plastic STM184 10.33983784 − 117.2204524 4286.35 Yes
bags as the nodules. Samples were stored at − 20 ◦ C until the pro­ STM187 10.35886329 − 117.2297513 4279.43 Yes
STM190 10.35939091 117.2404299 4296.58 Yes
ceedings. Sample sites and characteristics are described in Table 1.
−
STM195 10.33160203 − 117.1873081 4286.06 Yes
STM197 10.33071025 − 117.1942100 4291.41 Yes
STM198 10.33554308 117.1881391 4285.99 Yes
2.3. Grain size analysis −

Sediments were treated with hydrogen peroxide (30 %) to eliminate saturated NaCl solution was added to 25 g of dried sediment or nodule in
organic materials and finally, a laser particle size analyzer was used a beaker and vigorously shaken for 5 min with a glass rod. The selection
(model, Malvern Mastersizer, 2000; Worcestershire, UK). of NaCl as a flotation medium was based on its effective density for
particle separation, safety profile, cost-effectiveness, and ease of use in
2.4. Microplastic separation laboratory protocols. Samples were ultrasonicated in a bath at 30 ◦ C for
15 min and then standing at room temperature for at least 1 h to let all
Sediments and nodules were processed separately. Both samples the sediment/nodule settle (Ronda et al., 2019). This process was
were thawed at room temperature and a modified protocol according to repeated two times for every sample to improve the MPs extraction ef­
Thompson et al. (2004) was performed. Briefly, all samples were dried in ficiency (Hurley et al., 2018). Finally, the supernatant was filtered using
an electric oven at 60 ◦ C (~56 hs), and gently ground and homogenized. a glass filter previously muffled (pore size: 0.45 μm).
It's worth mentioning that when the nodules were fully dried, they were
fragile and disintegrated with minimal handling. Then, 200 ml of a

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A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

2.5. Stereomicroscope visualization of MPs campaign were analyzed. The spectra showed peak characteristics of
polypropylene and styrene-butadiene copolymer. Only one spectrum
After filtration, retained particles in the filters were visually similar to these from samples was discarded, as it was possibly due to
inspected under a stereomicroscope with a polarizer attached (Nikon cross-contamination during sampling operations.
SMZ1500/Nikon DXM 1200F plus Nikon eclipse 80i/Epi-Fluorescence). To prevent MP contamination in the laboratory, work surfaces were
Visual classification of particles was performed using previously estab­ thoroughly cleaned with 70 % alcohol and laboratory coats, cotton
lished criteria (Hidalgo-Ruz et al., 2012; Lusher et al., 2013): (i) Have no clothing, and nitrile gloves were worn. Additionally, all laboratory
cellular or organic structures visible; however, biofouling can alter the equipment, including filter equipment, forks, etc., were cleaned with 70
appearance of a piece of plastic, moreover, the organic material may be % alcohol. All solutions, including the saturated NaCl solution, ethanol,
visible just on the surface of the plastic; (ii) Fibers should be equally and distilled water, were filtered to ensure their purity and prevent any
thick throughout their entire l, although sometimes splitting or fraying is potential contaminants from affecting the results. All glassware was
seen in the extremes; (iii) Particles should display consistent and ho­ muffled before use. Petri dishes with control filters were exposed to the
mogeneous coloration; however, some plastics are not homogenous in air during all procedures to discard contamination with airborne MPs.
color, biofouling can potentially disguise color, part of the fiber may be Control filters followed the same protocol for samples and were pro­
bleached or a particle can have more than one color; (iv) if fibrous, all cessed in parallel during all phases of the analytical method, including
fibers had to have 3-dimensional bending. The hot needle test (based on the filtering stage, drying, and stereomicroscope observation. The con­
De Witte et al., 2014), was used for suspicious particles. Our established trols indicated contamination with cotton microfibers (n = 2), which
extraction methods, as described in Silva et al. (2024), are capable of were not considered in this study. Additionally, one microfiber in the
isolating particles up to 25 μm. The data presented here focuses on control exhibited a polyethylene terephthalate spectrum; however,
particles that could be confidently identified as potential MPs via ster­ neither its color nor spectrum matched any particles present in the
eomicroscopy. We acknowledge that particles smaller than this size samples.
present significant challenges for accurate characterization. The primary
limitation was the difficulty in reliably distinguishing potential MPs 2.8. Abundances of MPs
from the background visual complexity of the sediment matrix. To
ensure confident classification, only particles exhibiting distinct The concentrations of MPs were quantified and reported using four
anthropogenic colors or a bright, unnatural sheen were categorized as different metrics: (i) the number of items per 25 g of dry sample weight
potential MPs. Particles lacking these characteristics, even if within the and processed; (ii) the number of items per kilogram of dry sample
size range considered, were excluded from the analysis to minimize the weight (d.w.); and (iii) the number of items per unit area, as determined
risk of false positive identifications. This methodological constraint is from the corer. For the latter metric, only MPs detected in sediment were
acknowledged and will be considered in the interpretation of our find­ considered, while those associated with nodules were excluded. This
ings. Photographs of all potential MPs were recorded along with exclusion was necessary due to the heterogeneous distribution of nod­
maximum length (mm). Shape (fiber, film, fragment, foam, or pellet) ules across the analyzed samples, both in terms of abundance and size
and color were also recorded. variability. Moreover, the particles observed in the nodules were not
considered either, as they cannot be compared with other studies since
2.6. Raman microscopy this is the first to report them.

A subset of samples taken at random (50 % of the total number) were 2.9. Statistical analyses
interrogated by Raman microscopy. Among this subset, 52 % of the
particles yielded a Raman spectrum of enough clarity to be character­ The GraphPad Prism version 8.0.0 (GraphPad Software, San Diego,
ized. Random sampling is used to ensure an unbiased and representative California USA), R Software Package 3.6.0 version, and Info Stat (Grupo
selection of MPs for chemical characterization. By randomly choosing Info Stat, FCA, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba, Argentina) software
samples, we minimize selection bias and improve the likelihood that the were used. Data were assessed for normality and homogeneity of vari­
analyzed subset accurately reflects the overall polymeric composition of ance using the Shapiro Wilk and Levene tests, respectively. Statistical
MPs in the study area. This approach enhances the statistical validity of differences between the MP abundances and size were analyzed by the
the findings while optimizing time and resources, as full chemical Wilcoxon signed-rank test. Analyses of correlation were performed using
characterization of all particles would be impractical due to high costs Spearman's coefficient. The statistical significance level accepted for all
and labor intensity. Particles of blanks and coveralls used during the analyses was p < 0.05.
campaign were analyzed with the same protocol. All particles were fixed
onto a glass substrate employing double-sided tape (Silva et al., 2024) 2.10. MPs studies in marine bottom sediments
and were sequentially observed using 5× and 20× Leica objectives,
whereas spectra were taken with a 50× (0.75 NA) Leica objective. A literature search was performed using Google Scholar© and Sci­
Raman spectra were acquired in a Renishaw in Via reflex system enceDirect©, employing the keywords “sediment”, “bottom”, “marine”,
equipped with a charge-coupled device detector of 1040 × 256 pixels. A and “deep-sea”. Articles were selected based on predefined eligibility
785 nm diode laser (300 mW) was used as an excitation source in criteria aligned with the scope of this review, prioritizing peer-reviewed
combination with a grating of 1200 grooves mm− 1 and slit openings of publications from journals indexed in the Scimago Journal & Country
65 μm, which yield a spectral resolution of 4 cm− 1. The laser power was Rank. Only studies that included at least one sample collected at depths
kept below 5 % to avoid sample damage using 2 s exposure time and 4 >1000 m were considered. To ensure the inclusion of the most recent
accumulating scans. Regular confocality was sufficient to differentiate and relevant research, only studies published up to January 2025 were
the Raman scattering of the sample from the substrate. The only post- reviewed.
data treatment was baseline correction, carried out using the WiRE™
software. Finally, the spectra obtained were compared to our polymer 3. Results
database to identify the components present in the subsample.
3.1. Abundance and characterization of MP in the Clarion Clipperton
2.7. Controls Zone, Pacific Ocean

Different fibers from the coveralls used during the sampling Microplastics were detected both in sediment and nodule samples,

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A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

with a prevalence of 52.2 % and 35 %, respectively (Table 2). Some percentages below 10 % (Fig. 4B).
examples of particles found are shown in Fig. 2. Regarding polymeric composition, we found that Raman spectra
The abundance of MPs varied between the two types of samples, matched with those of plastics and polymer additives of our database.
ranging from 0 to 480 items per kilogram of dry weight (d.w.) in sedi­ Specifically, plastics that were present corresponded to polyacrylonitrile
ments, and from 0 to 80 items per kilogram of d.w. in nodules. The (PAN) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET); while dye additives
average abundance of MPs in sediments was 69.6 items/kg d.w., while recognized were blue like indigo blue (IB) or phthalocyanine-based
for nodules was 22.0 items/kg d.w. (Table 2, Fig. 3A). Although the (PB), or yellow like acetoacetic arylide-based (PY) (Fig. 5A). The most
concentration of MPs seems to be lower in nodules than sediments, the abundant spectra found was IB (46 %), followed by PET (23 %), PAN
difference was not statistically significant (p ≈ 0.085, Fig. 3A). (15 %), and the pigments PY y PB (8 %) (Fig. 5B).
Considering the area of sampling (area of the core = 0.0785 m2), the
MPs range of abundance in sediments was from 0 to 34.1 items/m2 with 3.2. Review of studies reporting MPs in bottom sediments
a mean of MPs of 4.9 items/m2. Moreover, no correlation was observed
between the abundance of MPs and either depth or grain size (data not By January 2025, a total of 19 studies had been conducted on the
shown). presence of MPs in seafloor sediments at depths exceeding 1000 m, with
Regarding size, particles <1 mm presented similar percentages for the first record documented in 2013 (Van Cauwenberghe et al., 2013).
sediments and nodules (~40 %), while particles between 1 and 2 mm The findings reveal significant variability in concentrations, predomi­
also were present with a high prevalence in nodules (36 %). The average nant sizes, and polymer types (Table 3). The reporting and methodo­
size found was 1.32 ± 0.82 mm for sediments and 1.94 ± 2.77 mm for logical procedures continue to be inconsistent in the publication of MP
nodules. The smallest particle observed was 0.165 mm located in the concentrations in marine sediments. Some studies opted to present
sediment, while the largest was 10 mm in the nodules. Although the concentrations based on volume, per area of sampling, or by the weight
statistical test did not show significant differences in the size distribution of the wet or dry sediment itself. Nonetheless, there is a growing trend
of MPs between sediments and nodules (p = 0.953, Wilcoxon), the his­ toward expressing these results in terms of dry weight. An additional
tograms reveal some visual trends. In sediments, a greater variety of MP limitation identified in some of the reviewed studies is the lack of
sizes is observed, while certain size fractions present in sediments were specification regarding the minimum size of MPs analyzed and their
not detected in the nodules. This suggests that, although the differences concentrations across different size groups, which may affect the re­
are not statistically significant (Fig. 3B), there may be size distribution ported total MP concentrations. A total of 38 % of the studies were
patterns that could be influenced by the interaction of MPs with conducted in the Pacific Ocean, with the majority concentrated in the
different substrates (Fig. 3C, D, E). Northwest region. In the Atlantic, Arctic, and Indian Oceans, the studies
In sediment samples, fibers accounted for 90 % of the particles, with accounted for 19 % of the total prevalence. Research in the Antarctic
films being the least abundant type, while 100 % of the particles found in seafloor was notably scarce, with only a single study representing a mere
nodules were fibers (Fig. 4A, Supplementary Table S1). The analysis of 5 % of the occurrences. Considering all these studies, the greatest depth
particle color revealed that transparent (35 %) and blue (30 %) were the at which MPs were found was 10,908 m, reported in the Southern
most predominant colors for sediments followed by green and white (10 Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean by Peng et al. (2018). At this
% each); others colors accounted for <10 % of prevalence. In nodules, remarkable depth, a concentration of 3370 items/kg d.w. was detected.
the most prevalent color was blue (37 %) followed by green, pink- By converting the reported concentrations to the most commonly
purple, and transparent (18 % each); white particles were found in used units, the highest concentrations of MPs were recently documented

Table 2
MPs abundances and grain size from NORI-D Clarion Clipperton Zone, North Pacific Ocean. The boxes labeled with a (− ) signify the absence of nodules in those
samples. The concentrations expressed per area were calculated using the diameter of the sampling corer.
Station Granulometry % Microplastics

Sediment Nodules

Clay Silt% Sand Items (25 g d. Abundance (Items/kg d. Estimated abundance per area in sediments Items (25 g d. Abundance (Items/kg d.
% % w.) w.) Items/m2 w.) w.)

SPR159 9.62 42.99 47.39 0 0 0 – –

SPR160 13.47 70.52 16.02 0 0 0 2 80
SPR161 16.19 61.05 22.76 0 0 0 – –
SPR162 21.19 59.16 19.65 1 40 2.84 0 0
STM164 21.81 62.86 15.33 2 80 5.68 2 80
STM165 18.95 59.60 21.46 12 480 34.12 0 0
STM166 17.08 59.92 23.00 4 160 11.37 0 0
STM167 14.84 64.83 20.33 6 240 17.06 0 0
STM168 17.23 55.70 27.08 1 40 2.84 0 0
STM169 23.13 61.93 14.95 0 0 0 0 0
STM170 9.06 54.90 36.04 1 40 2.84 – –
STM171 16.01 63.10 20.89 5 200 14.22 1 40
STM172 14.49 53.86 31.66 0 0 0 1 40
STM174 12.31 52.16 35.53 1 40 2.84 0 0
STM175 19.77 56.65 23.59 1 40 2.84 0 0
STM177 15.53 58.97 25.50 5 200 14.22 2 80
STM183 23.56 61.93 14.51 0 0 0 0 0
STM184 24.12 61.50 14.39 1 40 2.84 0 0
STM187 22.27 63.78 13.95 0 0 0 0 0
STM190 16.25 58.55 25.20 0 0 0 2 80
STM195 17.88 62.35 19.78 0 0 0 0 0
STM197 24.03 61.91 14.07 0 0 0 0 0
STM198 25.02 60.12 14.86 0 0 0 1 40
Average 1.7 69.6 4.7 0.6 22.0
Prevalence 52.2 % 35.0 %

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A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

Fig. 2. Examples of potential MPs observed under stereomicroscope in sediments and nodules from NORI-D CCZ, Pacific Ocean. The images illustrate variations in
shape and color among the collected particles.

in the Northwest Pacific Ocean by Tsuchiya et al. (2024), with excep­ made notable contributions in the Pacific (Zhang et al., 2020).
tionally high levels reaching nearly one million items per kilogram of The polymeric composition of the detected particles is significantly
dry weight at 5707 m. Excluding this particular study, the highest influenced by the specific particles analyzed and the methodological
concentrations were observed in the Indian Ocean and the Arctic Ocean approach employed (Table 3). Nevertheless, the most prevalent poly­
(Barrett et al., 2020; Tekman et al., 2020, respectively), which reported mers varied regionally. In the Pacific, Polypropylene (PP) and Poly­
levels approximately 75 times lower, at around 14,000 items per kilo­ ethylene (PE) were consistently identified across studies (e.g., Abel
gram of dry weight. In the other studies, concentrations varied from 0 to et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2020; Tsuchiya et al., 2024). In the Atlantic,
approximately 6600 items per kilogram of dry weight. Fig. 6 provides an Polyester (PES) was dominant, comprising up to 80 % of MPs (Courtene-
overview of MPs abundances in the bottom sediments of diverse oceanic Jones et al., 2020). In the Indian Ocean, notable polymers included
regions, independently of the MP size. Rayon (RY) (62.2 %) and PES (Qi et al., 2022), alongside cis-
Across most studies, different ranges of plastic sizes were analyzed polyisoprene (rubber/latex) (Barrett et al., 2020). Arctic samples also
(Table 3); however, MPs under <5 mm dominated, often focusing on showed diversity, with significant contributions from Chlorinated
finer fractions. The smallest particles characterized were reported by Polyethylene (CPE) and Natural Rubber-Based particles (NRB) (Tekman
Abel et al. (2022), who found that 45 % of MPs were <11 μm in size, et al., 2020).
while 27 % were between 11 and 25 μm in the Northwest Pacific Ocean.
Tekman et al. (2020) and Bergmann et al. (2017) in the Arctic found that 4. Discussion
particles ≤25 μm accounted for a substantial portion of MPs. Larger
microfibers (2–3 mm) were specifically noted in studies conducted in the The findings presented in this study contribute significantly to the
Indian Ocean by Woodall et al. (2014). Notably, the current study understanding of microplastic (MP) contamination in the deep-sea
observed the largest particle measuring 10 mm, categorizing it as environment, specifically within the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ) of
mesoplastic. the Pacific Ocean. The results reveal notable patterns in MP abundance,
Reported as 100 % of MPs in several studies, such as Woodall et al. size, morphology, and polymeric composition not only in sediments but
(2014) in the Atlantic and Peng et al. (2018) in the Southern Mariana also in polymetallic nodules, being reported for the first time, which,
Trench and excluded from other studies such as Bergmann et al. (2017) when contextualized with global data and interests, underline both
and Tekman et al. (2020) fibers were overwhelmingly common. Other regional characteristics and universal trends in deep-sea MPs pollution.
forms, including fragments, films, and pellets, were more region- The detection of MPs in 52.2 % of sediment samples and 35 % of
specific. Fragments were predominant in the Indian Ocean (Barrett nodule samples underscores the ubiquity of plastic pollution, even in
et al., 2020) and Antarctic samples (Cunningham et al., 2020), and films remote oceanic areas like the CCZ. This is the first record of MPs in

6
A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

Fig. 3. Abundances and size distribution of MPs in sediments and nodules from NORI-D CCZ, Pacific Ocean. (A) Average of MP abundances (+/− D.E.) in sediments
and nodules. (B) Average of MP size (+/− D.E.) for both sample types. (C) Frequency histogram illustrating the overall MP size distribution across all collected
samples. (D) MP size distribution within sediment samples. (E) MP size distribution within nodule samples. Statistical analysis using the Wilcoxon signed-rank test
(two-tailed) indicated no significant differences in MP abundances or size distributions between sediments and nodules (p > 0.05).

polymetallic nodules. Polymetallic nodules form on the ocean floor over specifically, whether concentrations are higher in the surface layers
millions of years through the accumulation of minerals in concentric compared to deeper ones, could help infer whether MP contamination
layers around hard cores, such as fragments of coral or shark teeth. This has increased in recent years, aligning with the global surge in plastic
process occurs in deep ocean environments where sedimentation is very production and use.
slow, allowing minerals like manganese, iron, and cobalt to deposit in The mean abundances of 69.6 items/kg d.w. in sediments and 22.0
low concentrations. As these minerals accumulate, the nodules grow items/kg d.w. in nodules are consistent in magnitude with concentra­
slowly, reaching sizes that can vary from a few centimeters to over 20 cm tions reported by Peng et al. (2020) and Abel et al. (2021) for the
(Villar-Muñoz et al., 2024). Considering the formation of polymetallic northwestern Pacific Ocean. However, these values are one order of
nodules, the large-scale development of the plastic industry, which magnitude lower than those observed in high-latitude regions, such as
began in the mid-20th century, and the first documented evidence of the Arctic (Bergmann et al., 2017; Tekman et al., 2020; Adams et al.,
plastic pollution in 1972 (Carpenter and Smith, 1972), the results of this 2021), and nearly 10,000 times lower than the concentrations reported
study do not conclusively demonstrate whether the MPs present in the by Tsuchiya et al. (2024). While the sizes of the particles analyzed in this
nodules were incorporated as part of their formation process or merely study were similar to those analyzed by Peng et al. (2020) and Abel et al.
adhered to their surface. However, given that MPs have a limited (2021), Bergmann et al. (2017) and Tekman et al. (2020) examined
persistence compared to the timescale of nodule formation, they are particles smaller than 25 μm, which could be influencing the total
likely to reflect only ‘recent’ deposition rather than a long-term record of concentrations reported by these authors. Conversely, the higher con­
contamination. Further investigation is required to determine the pre­ centrations reported by Adams et al. (2021) could be significantly
cise origin and interaction of MPs with the nodules. It would be valuable affected by the presence of cellulose fibers (57 %), which may not have
to investigate whether MPs can become embedded in the outer layers of originated from anthropogenic sources. Therefore, the lack of specifi­
developing nodules, potentially providing insight into contamination cation regarding the minimum size of MPs analyzed and their concen­
trends over recent decades. Additionally, taking into consideration also trations across different size groups can lead to inconsistencies in data
the presence of MPs in sediments, analyzing their vertical distribution, interpretation, complicating comparisons across studies. Without

7
A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

Fig. 4. Shape and color characteristic of the MPs for sediments and nodules from NORI-D CCZ, Pacific Ocean. (A) MP distribution percentage according to shape. MP
distribution percentage according to color.

standardized size classifications, smaller MPs may be underreported, sampling and analyzing MPs from bottom sediments, making it difficult
potentially underestimating their environmental and biological impacts. to compare results across studies and complicating the interpretation of
Moreover, the absence of concentration breakdowns by size group findings. While acknowledging these limitations, the variations in MP
hinders a more precise assessment of their behavior, fate, and potential abundances observed may be indicative of differing proximities to land-
toxicity, limiting the effectiveness of risk assessments and regulatory based pollution sources or variations in oceanic current dynamics
measures. In our study, we have clearly underrepresented MPs smaller Therefore, results and conclusions drawn from such research should be
than 0.025 mm. Potential errors in MP separation and quantification considered as preliminary. Notably, the absence of a statistically sig­
from sediments must also be considered, as processing small sample nificant difference in MP concentrations between sediments and nodules
sizes when dealing with minimal amounts of MPs can lead to inaccurate suggests that these microparticles may be similarly affected by ocean­
results. Conversely, processing large volumes of sediments or nodules ographic processes or particle-binding mechanisms across these
presents significant logistical challenges. Some studies have employed matrices. However, a trend toward higher concentrations in sediments
box corers (e.g., Zhang et al., 2020; Peng et al., 2020) for sampling, can be observed, which may indicate that MPs could be transported by
while others have used corers or multi-corers (e.g., Abel et al., 2021; deep-sea currents or biological activity, ultimately settling in the sedi­
Bergmann et al., 2017), with most opting to analyze only the uppermost ment. This finding underscores the need for a deeper understanding of
centimeters of sediment layers. Furthermore, the volumes of sediment the factors governing MP distribution in deep-sea environments between
analyzed vary considerably among studies, as do procedural settings, nodules and sediments.
such as the choice of decantation solutions (NaCl or ZnCl2) or pore sizes It is generally stated that the environmental fate and behavior of
for filtration, resulting in inconsistencies in the reported data. Regarding some pollutants are ultimately determined by the physicochemical
the decantation solution, we used NaCl, which has a good safety profile, properties of each compound and sediment, namely, sediment organic
is cost-effective, and is easy to use in laboratory protocols. However, matter content, water content, and size particle distribution (Schorer,
since its density is lower than that of the ZnCl₂ solution, we may not have 1997; Badin et al., 2008). For instance, finer sediments tend to be more
effectively separated all the MPs in the sample. These challenges are cohesive and flocculate regularly; then, it is expected that MPs may be
further compounded by the absence of standardized methodologies for retained in sediment during particle flocculation. On the other hand,

8
A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

Fig. 5. Polymeric characterization of MP particles from NORI-D CCZ, Pacific Ocean. (A) Representative Raman spectra of identified particles. (B) Percentage dis­
tribution of polymer types among analyzed particles. Abbreviations: PAN: Polyacrylonitrile; PET: Polyethylene terephthalate; IB: Indigo blue; PY: Acetoacetic arylide-
based pigment; PB: Phthalocyanine-based blue pigment. (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.)

previous research has indicated a greater likelihood of encountering resuspension and redistribution over time, leading to potential differ­
MPs at shallower depths (Ronda et al., 2019). However, it is noteworthy ences in size distributions. The absence of significant differences does
that the depths examined in this study were even shallower than the not necessarily imply that MP accumulation processes are uniform
present research, which may have implications for our understanding of across matrices; rather, it may reflect the combined effects of sample
MP distribution patterns. The lack of correlation between abundances size, hydrodynamics, and the structural properties of nodules. Future
and depth or grain size in this study reinforces the complexity of MP studies with larger sample sizes and more refined statistical analyses
distribution in bottom sediments, as also noted in studies from the In­ could help further characterize MP size distributions and accumulation
dian and Atlantic Oceans (Barrett et al., 2020; Courtene-Jones et al., patterns in deep-sea environments.
2020). Morphologically, fibers were the overwhelmingly dominant type of
The predominance of particles smaller than 1 mm in sediments is MP in both matrices, comprising 100 % of those identified in nodules
consistent with global findings, where fine MP fractions are typically and 90 % in sediments. This finding aligns with the majority of reports
dominant due to degradation processes. Interestingly, the slightly larger reviewed (Table 3). However, some studies exclude fibers from their
average size of particles in nodules might reflect differences in deposi­ definition of plastic particles, leading to inconsistencies in how MPs are
tion or entrapment dynamics. Our results indicate that MPs in sediments categorized and quantified. Fibers are predominantly attributed to in­
were generally smaller (mean size: 1.32 ± 0.82 mm) than those in puts from textiles and fishing gear (Cesa et al., 2017; Napper et al.,
nodules (mean size: 1.94 ± 2.77 mm). However, statistical analysis did 2022), highlighting their pervasive presence in marine environments.
not reveal a significant difference in MP size distributions between these The high prevalence of microfibers may be attributed to their inherent
two matrices. The large standard deviation in nodule MP sizes (2.77 characteristics. They originate from lightweight polymers such as
mm) suggests a broad size range, encompassing both small and large polyester or polyamide, which allow them to remain suspended in the
MPs, which may have masked statistical differences. Additionally, the water column and be transported over long distances. Their high
relatively low number of detected MPs could have limited statistical surface-area-to-volume ratio enhances buoyancy and facilitates the
power, making it more challenging to detect significant trends. Deep-sea adsorption of contaminants like heavy metals and persistent organic
sediments are influenced by hydrodynamic forces such as bottom cur­ pollutants (POPs) (Athey and Erdle, 2022). Additionally, their elongated
rents (Chen et al., 2023), which may preferentially transport and retain shape promotes entanglement with organic material and resuspension in
smaller MPs, while nodules, with their porous and irregular surfaces the water column, contributing to their accumulation in ocean conver­
(Skowronek et al., 2021), may capture a wider range of particle sizes. gence zones and deep-sea sediments. These properties increase the
The slightly larger MPs observed in nodules suggest that their physical prevalence and ecological impact of microfibers, as they enhance their
structure may facilitate MP retention, acting as passive collectors. In bioavailability and potential for bioaccumulation. Our morphological
contrast, smaller MPs in sediments might be more susceptible to homogeneity results contrast with regions where other forms, such as

9
 A.C. Ronda et al.
Table 3
Microplastic abundance and characteristics in worldwide marine bottom sediments. PES: Polystyrene; PP: Polypropylene; PU: Polyurethane; PA: Polyamide; PVC: Polyvinylchloride; RY: Rayon; PE: Polyethylene; PET:
Polyethylene terephthalate; EPM: Ethylene-propylene copolymer; EAS: Poly(ethylacrylate:st:arylamide)copolymer; AC: Acrylic polymer; CPE: Chlorinated Polyethylene; CF: Cellophane; NRB: Nitrile butadiene rubber; IB:
Indigo blue; PY: Acetoacetic arylide; PB: Phthalocyanine blue. UN: Unspecified.
Reference Ocean Depth (m) Concentration and Shape Size range (μm) Minimum Items Size Polimeric Polymer composition Sediment
units reported size (μm) >100 criteria determination layer (cm)
μm (mm)

Fischer et al., Pacific 4869–5766 60–2000 items/m2 Fibers (75 %); paint 300–500 300 UN <1 UN UN 0–2 and
2015 (Northwest) chips (25 %) 2–20
Peng et al., 2018 Pacific 5108–10,908 0.27–6.20 items/g Fibers 20–500 20 824 (p/ <5 Raman PES (19 %), PP (15 %), PU (14 %), 0–6
(Southern d.w. l) PA (12 %), PVC (10 %), RY (10
Mariana %), and PE (9 %)
Trench)
Peng et al., 2020 Pacific 4900–10,890 26.7–133.3 items/ Fibers (57.1 %); 70–12,370 70 UN UN μ-FT-IR PE, PP, and PET UN
(Northwest) kg d.w. fragments (42.8 %)
Zhang et al., 2020 Pacific 4601–5732 240 items/kg d.w. Fibers (52.5 %); films 100–500 100,1 240 <5 μ-FT-IR PP/PE (40.0 %), PET (27.5 %), 0–5
(Northwest) (30 %); fragments items/ EPM (10 %), EAS (10 %), CF (10
(17.5 %) kg d.w. %)
Abel et al., 2021 Pacific 5143–8255 14–209 items/kg d. UN ≤375 (100 %), UN 0,01 <5 μ-FT-IR PP (33.2 %), acrylates/PU/ 0–5
(Northwest) w. <125 (99) varnish (19 %), PP-oxidized
Abel et al., 2022 Pacific 5740–9450 5–1596 items/kg d. Fragments/films <11 (45 %); 11 0,05 UN μ-FT-IR Acrylates/PU/varnish (34 %), PP 0–5
(Northwest) w. (71–97 %); fibers 11–25 (27 %), (19 %), PE (14 %), PA (8 %), CPE
(3–29 %) 25–50 (15 %); (9 %)
50–75 (7 %)
Tsuchiya et al., Pacific 855–9232 7.9–997.8 items/g Grains (including 70–105 15,2 404.5 UN μ-FT-IR PE, PP, PA, PET 0–1
2024 (Northwest) d.w. pellets) (96 %); fibers items
(4 %)
This study Pacific 4133–4321 0–480 items/kg d. Fibers (92 %), Films 165–10,000 165 480 >0.025 Raman PAN, PET, and dyes IB, PY, and 0–5
10

(Northwest) w. (8 %) items/ PB.

kg d.w.
Van Atlantic 2479–4881 4 items Fragments (3); film 88–118 83 × 44 3 items <1 Raman UN 0–1
Cauwenberghe (1)
et al., 2013
Woodall et al., Atlantic 1000–2000 6–40 microfibers/ Fibers 2000–3000 UN UN UN FTIR PES, AC, RY 0–1, 0–2
2014 (subpolar and 50 ml sediment and 2–5
east)
Courtene-Jones Atlantic 2200 140 items Fibers (89 %); 510–1000 60 UN <5 FTIR PES (80 %), PP (6 %), PAN (4 %), 0–10
et al., 2020 (North) fragments (10 %); PA (3 %)
films (1 %)
Cunningham Antarctic 136–3633 1.04–1.30 items/g Fragments (56 %); UN UN UN <5 μ-FT-IR PES (59 %), PP (14 %), PA (7 %), 0–2
et al., 2020 d.w. (147 items in fibers (39 %); films (5 PU (7 %), PVC (7 %)
30 samples) %)
Bergmann et al., Arctic 2340–5570 42–6596 items/kg Fibers were excluded ≤25 (78 %), UN <10 % <5 μ-FT-IR CPE (38 %), PA (22 %), PP (16 0–5
2017 d.w. (average 4356 from quantification <150 (99 %) %), NRB (8 %)
items/kg d.w.)

Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

La Daana et al., Arctic 855–4353 9 items in 7 of the Fibers (5); fragments UN UN UN <5 FTIR PES, PS, PP, PAN, PA, PP, PVC 0–2
2019 11 samples (4)
Tekman et al., Arctic 272–5569 239–13,331 items/ Fibers were excluded ≤25 (50 %) 11 0,01 <5 FTIR CPE (31 %), NRB (18 %), PP (17 0–5
2020 kg d.w. from quantification %)
Adams et al., Arctic 40–1502 0.6–4.7 items/g d. Fibers (82 %); UN UN UN >0.125 Raman Cellulosic (57 %), 11 % were 0–5
2021 w. fragments (15 %); synthetic (PE, PAN, PU), 32 %
films, foams, spheres, dyes
fiber bundles (3 %)
Woodall et al., Indian 900–1000 1.4–4 microfibers/ Fibers 2000–3000 UN UN UN FTIR PES, AC, RY 0–1, 0–2
2014 50 ml sediment and 2–5
Barrett et al., Indian 1655–3062 0–13.6 items/g d.w. Fragments (90 %); 100 ≥50 UN <5 O-PTIR cis-polyisoprene (rubber/latex), UN
2020 fibers (10 %) PU, PES, PP
(continued on next page)
A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

fragments and films, were more prevalent, such as in the Indian Ocean
(Barrett et al., 2020). The occurrence of films in CCZ sediments, albeit

layer (cm)
Sediment
minor, suggests localized variations in pollution sources or transport
mechanisms. It is important to clarify that microfibers identified visually

0–5

0–5
white and spectrally as cotton were excluded from this study, as cotton is
unlikely to persist on the seafloor due to its known degradation in ma­

(5.1 %), PS (3.9 %), PP (1.3 %),

(6.1 %), wool fiber (4.7 %) and

and acrylonitrile-B-styrene (0.3

RY (62.2 %), PES (25.7 %), PE
rine ecosystems (Zambrano et al., 2021). Moreover, the presence of

Polyacetylene (39.5 %), PVAL

poly-AC, polyisoprene rubber,

PVC and epoxy resin (4.4 %),
cotton fibers in our blanks further justified their exclusion from the
analysis. At this point, it is remarkable that we had found components
Polymer composition

and others (1.8 %) like Indigo blue (IB), typically taken as an indication of the presence of
natural-based textiles fibers. Although IB is widely utilized to tint nat­
ural fibers like jeans and denims, there are reports of its use in synthetic
fibers like polyethylene terephthalate (PET, Son et al., 2005). Unfortu­
nately, the high inherent Raman intensity of the IB precludes the visu­

%).
alization of peaks arising from the base fiber.
The identification of polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and polyethylene
determination

terephthalate (PET) as dominant polymers, alongside pigments such as

μ-FT-IR and
Polimeric

IB and phthalocyanine blue (PB), underscores the significant influence

μ-FT-IR

Raman

of synthetic textiles and industrial additives on the region's MP profile.

UV-induced fragmentation suggests that PET may degrade in surface or
shallow waters of aquatic environments exposed to sunlight. In contrast,
PAN is likely to be more persistent under the same conditions (Sait et al.,
criteria
(mm)
Size

2021). It is important to note that both PAN (density: ~1.18 g/cm3) and
<5

<5

PET (density: ~1.38 g/cm3) are denser than seawater, making them
more likely to sink and accumulate in sediments, meaning that UV
>100
Items

exposure will not be a viable degradation mechanism once they settle

UN

UN
μm

below the photic zone (~200 m). This makes them highly persistent in
deep-sea sediments from CCZ (~4100–4200 m), where they may
Minimum
size (μm)

degrade very slowly, releasing monomers or additives affecting marine

organisms (Sait et al., 2021; Strafella et al., 2019). The presence of these
UN
44

polymers in the CCZ suggests contamination from maritime activities,

discarded fishing gear, and long-range transport of MPs from surface
waters. While PET is commonly reported in marine environments, the
Size range (μm)

items); >1000

detection of PAN and IB highlights the need for detailed spectral analysis
≤1000 (59
200–500

to better trace specific sources. However, polymers with lower densities,

such as polypropylene (PP) and polyethylene (PE), can also be found in
(40)

sediments due to processes like biofouling, aggregation, or by incorpo­

ration into marine snow (Porter et al., 2018; Reineccius and Waniek,
microbeads (15.6 %);
fibers (45.6 %); films
Fragments (47.5 %);

(4.4 %); pellets (2.5

2022; Ikenoue et al., 2024). The frequent detection of polymers such as

fragment 20.7 %
Fibers (62.1 %);

PP, polyester (PES), PE, polyurethane (PU), and polyamide (PA) across
studies reflects their extensive use in industrial applications, textiles,
packaging, and consumer products. Interestingly, the dominance of
Shape

polymers such as PE and PP, which are more common in shallower

%)

Pacific waters (e.g., Abel et al., 2021), was less pronounced in samples
from the CCZ. This disparity may point to selective transport or depo­
30.30–701.7 items/
Concentration and

sition mechanisms unique to deep-sea environments. Furthermore,

units reported

regional variations in polymer types observed worldwide, such as Rayon

in the Indian Ocean or chlorinated polyethylene (CPE) in the Arctic,
315 items

emphasize the spatial complexity of MP pollution and its dependence on

local pollution sources and environmental dynamics. These findings
kg

highlight the importance of region-specific studies to unravel the

multifaceted nature of MP distribution in marine ecosystems.
2161–4666
Depth (m)

Microplastic contamination in deep-sea environments is largely

influenced by oceanographic processes that govern their transport and
5190

deposition. Converging surface currents within oceanic gyres play a key

role in the global distribution of plastics, concentrating buoyant plastics
into massive accumulation zones such as the Great Pacific Garbage
Patch (Wang et al., 2020). However, these surface accumulations ac­
Indian

Indian
Ocean

count for only ~1 % of the estimated global marine plastic budget, with
the remaining 99 % presumed to reside in the deep-sea (Kane et al.,
Table 3 (continued )

2020). The CCZ is likely affected by these processes, given its relative
Ramadoss et al.,

proximity to the Great Pacific Garbage Patch and the presence of deep-
Qi et al., 2022

sea sedimentary environments. Ocean currents serve as major vectors in

Reference

the long-range transport of MPs, carrying debris across vast distances.

2025

For instance, the North Pacific Current is known to transport a sub­

stantial amount of marine debris, including MPs from the Great Pacific

11
A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

Fig. 6. Concentrations of MPs across various ocean research. Studies that did not report concentrations as items per dry weight are indicated in black (No-items/kg).
Only sediment samples collected from depths >1000 m were included. It is important to note that not all studies reported the minimum particle size analyzed or the
concentration of the different size groups, resulting in considerable heterogeneity in the criteria used. This figure provides a graphical representation of the
abundances of reported particles, regardless of their size.

Garbage Patch eastward (Wang et al., 2020). As these particles drift with for vertical transport. As these pellets sink, they facilitate the transfer of
ocean currents, some inevitably settle on the seafloor along its trajec­ MPs to deeper waters and ultimately to deep-sea sediments (Ramadoss
tory. Additionally, sedimentation processes may further contribute to et al., 2025). This biologically mediated sedimentation pathway un­
the presence of MPs in the CCZ (Volz et al., 2018). Floating MPs may derscores the complexity of MP cycling in marine ecosystems and sug­
become denser over time due to biofouling, aggregation with organic gests that deep-sea sediments, including those in the CCZ, may act as
matter, or other physicochemical interactions, eventually leading to long-term sinks for plastic pollution.
their vertical sinking through the water column. This sedimentation Kane et al. (2020) demonstrated how the thermohaline driven cur­
process may be particularly relevant in environments, where sediments rents, which regulate seafloor sediment accumulations, can control the
rich in polymetallic nodules provide potential substrates for MP accu­ distribution of MPs and create hotspots with the highest concentrations
mulation (Volz et al., 2018). Recent studies highlight the role of near- reported for any seafloor setting. It is possible to hypothesize that the
bed thermohaline currents in shaping MP distribution at the seafloor. same thermohaline currents have a role in MPs sedimentation and
These bottom currents, which supply oxygen and nutrients to deep-sea accumulation at the CCZ along with vertical settling from surface. The
benthic ecosystems, may also facilitate MP accumulation in biodiver­ main implication for the deep-sea biota is that these currents supply
sity hotspots (Kane et al., 2020). The CCZ, recognized for its ecological oxygen and nutrients to deep-sea benthos, suggesting that deep-sea
significance and mineral resources, could thus serve as both a sink and a biodiversity hotspots are also likely to be MP hotspots. Kane et al.
hotspot for MP contamination. Furthermore, MPs enter marine envi­ (2020) also reported the highest concentrations of MPs on the seafloor
ronments from both terrestrial and marine sources. Approximately 80 % from contourite drifts formed by bottom currents. It is logical to think
of MPs originate from terrestrial runoff, including urban discharge, in­ that the presence of polymetallic nodules may act as traps and/or
dustrial effluents, and riverine inputs, while the remaining 20 % derive physical obstacles for MPs, which remain stuck during their movements
from marine-based activities such as fishing, aquaculture, and shipping through the bottom currents. Furthermore, nematodes, which are the
operations (Strafella et al., 2019). These inputs, combined with hydro­ most abundant deposit feeders within the meiobenthos (Singh et al.,
dynamic conditions and environmental pressures (Zambianchi et al., 2014), may enhance the deposition rate of MPs into the surrounding
2017; Shahul Hamid et al., 2018), could contribute to the spatial vari­ sediments.
ability of MP accumulation in the CCZ. Beyond physical transport The presence of MPs in bottom sediments at CCZ suggests potential
mechanisms, biological interactions also play a crucial role in MP risks to deep-sea ecosystems, as they may be bioavailable to benthic
deposition. MPs have been detected in marine organisms at various organisms which in turn could influence benthic community structures.
trophic levels, including plankton, bivalves, and fish. The ingestion and The consumption of MPs by marine organisms is possible by filter
subsequent egestion of MPs via fecal pellets serve as an additional vector feeding, direct engulfment, ingestion of suspension materials, water

12
A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

intake, and the ingestion of lower trophic species contaminated with 5. Conclusions
MPs. Moreover, the particles can have chemical, physical, and biological
impacts on organisms, no matter if organisms ingest them directly or This study provides the first evidence of microplastic (MP) contam­
indirectly (Vandermeersch et al., 2015). One of the main problems with ination, predominantly synthetic microfibers, in the seabed of the
MP ingestion is that there is no enzymatic pathway available to digest Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ), both in sediments and polymetallic
the polymer, and the ingested particles remain bioinert in the organism's nodules. The findings reveal unique patterns of MP abundance, size
gut system. Therefore, a potential accumulation of MPs might make the distribution, and polymer composition in this remote region of the Pa­
organisms vulnerable for toxic substances from chemicals leached from cific Ocean. The detection of MPs in this study was limited by the size
the MPs or the adsorption of external pollutants to MPs, additionally to range analyzed, likely resulting in the underrepresentation of smaller
the physical problems resulting from an accumulation in the gut system particles (<25 μm). This limitation aligns with challenges reported in
(e.g., blockages by preventing the passage of food into the intestine other studies, where smaller MPs are often overlooked due to method­
tracts; Strafella et al., 2019). Previous studies have shown ingestion of ological constraints, such as filter pore size and detection techniques.
fibers by deep-sea species, leading to physiological stress and trophic The absence of higher concentrations or a greater prevalence of MPs in
transfer of contaminants (Woodall et al., 2014). Meiofauna is the most the study area may be attributed to this limitation, despite the proximity
abundant and one of the most diverse components of the metazoan to the Great Pacific Garbage Patch. This outcome underscores the
benthos in the CCZ (Pape et al., 2017). Recent studies conducted on the complexity of MP transport and deposition in ocean systems, empha­
benthic meiofaunal communities in four prospective mining areas of the sizing the need for further investigation into the mechanisms governing
CCZ reported nematodes as the most abundant and diverse taxon their distribution and ultimate fate in marine environments. The results
(Hauquier et al., 2019). Gusmão et al. (2016) documented for the first highlight the deep ocean's role as a critical sink for plastic pollution,
time the ingestion of microfibers by benthic meiofauna inhabiting sandy potentially affecting deep-sea ecosystems, including meiofauna. As
beaches. Meiofaunal organisms are key components of marine trophic previously noted by da Courtene-Jones et al. (2020), the deep-sea floor
web and their predation may cause trophic transfer of microfibers, represents the final repository for MPs transported through the ocean,
similarly to MPs, potentially harming higher trophic levels (Remy et al., yet remains poorly understood due to its inaccessibility. Enhanced
2015). Previous studies focused on MP ingestion by nematodes (Lei knowledge of deep-sea circulation processes, sediment dynamics, and
et al., 2018; Dong et al., 2018; Kang et al., 2021) demonstrated their MP interactions within this ecosystem is essential to address these gaps.
ingestion can cause serious intestine damages, inhibition of survival This study underscores the urgency of targeted research in the CCZ and
rates, body growth, and reproduction. The toxicity of MPs is closely the broader Pacific Ocean to inform mitigation strategies for protecting
dependent on their size, rather than their composition (Lei et al., 2018). marine ecosystems from the harmful effects of plastic pollution. It adds
Due to their size, MPs can be easily ingested by meiobenthic organisms to the growing body of evidence on the ecological implications of MPs in
affecting the digestion processes (Kang et al., 2021). Fueser et al. (2019) deep-sea environments and highlights synthetic microfibers as a domi­
demonstrated that some deposit-feeding nematodes ingest MPs and nant component of this pervasive pollution.
many of the consumed particles aggregate in their intestine. Finally, it is Finally, future research should prioritize measuring the weathering
important to highlight that Krause et al. (2020) provided unique evi­ and degradation rates of MPs in deep-sea environments. It is important
dence of plastic items introduced into deep-sea sediments at a depth of to consider factors such as deposition and settling rates in upcoming
4150 m in the eastern equatorial Pacific over two decades ago, with no studies. Investigating the bioaccumulation and potential toxicity of MPs
apparent physical or chemical degradation of the bulk polymer mate­ in deep-sea organisms is essential for assessing their ecological effects.
rials. Their study also revealed a distinct bacterial community on the We suggest establishing long-term monitoring stations to track MP
plastic samples, differing from those in surrounding sediments and concentrations and evaluate their impact on biodiversity in the CCZ over
polymetallic nodules. Notably, many dominant taxa attached to the time. Additionally, promoting policies and regulations to reduce plastic
plastic preferred anoxic or suboxic conditions, suggesting that plastic waste and prevent MP pollution is crucial. This includes encouraging the
debris can create localized oxygen-depleted zones in an otherwise oxic adoption of alternative materials and enhancing waste management
deep-sea environment. These findings highlight the long-term environ­ strategies, particularly in the context of future mining operations, to
mental impact of plastic pollution, as deposited items alter chemical minimize MP generation.
gradients and establish artificial habitats in deep-sea sediments (Krause Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
et al., 2020). More studies are urgently needed for assessing the effects of org/10.1016/j.marpolbul.2025.117945.
MP pollution on marine meiofauna and consequently on higher trophic
levels and to determine effective conservation needs (Ridall and Ingels, CRediT authorship contribution statement
2021).
These findings underscore the widespread nature of MP pollution Ana Carolina Ronda: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original
and the necessity for continuous monitoring and targeted mitigation draft, Visualization, Supervision, Methodology, Investigation, Funding
efforts. If not properly regulated, future deep-sea mining activities could acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptualization. María
become a significant source of MP contamination, emphasizing the need Eugenia Adaro: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
for clear guidelines on plastic use and waste management in mining Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Conceptu­
areas. Additionally, understanding the mechanisms driving MP distri­ alization. Lucía Villar-Muñoz: Writing – review & editing, Writing –
bution, identifying sources, and assessing ecological impacts are crucial original draft, Investigation, Formal analysis, Conceptualization. Juan
steps for developing effective conservation strategies and policy in­ Pablo Tomba: Writing – original draft, Methodology, Formal analysis,
terventions. Given these concerns, it is essential to advocate for policies Data curation, Conceptualization. Elisa Baldrighi: Writing – review &
and regulations aimed at reducing plastic waste and preventing MP editing, Writing – original draft, Investigation, Formal analysis,
pollution. This includes promoting the adoption of alternative materials, Conceptualization.
enhancing waste management practices, and ensuring that future min­
ing operations incorporate measures to minimize MP generation.
Strengthening these regulatory frameworks will be vital in mitigating Declaration of competing interest
the long-term impacts of MP pollution and protecting marine
ecosystems. The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.

13
A.C. Ronda et al. Marine Pollution Bulletin 216 (2025) 117945

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