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Creep – Fatigue Models
of
Composites
and
Nanocomposites

LEO RAZDOLSKY
President, LR Structural Engineering, Inc.
Lincolnshire, Illinois, USA

p,
p,
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
A SCIENCE PUBLISHERS BOOK
First edition published 2023
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2023 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data (applied for)

ISBN: 978-1-032-21301-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-21302-6 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-26772-0 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003267720

Typeset in Times New Roman

by Radiant Productions
Preface

Difficulties in determining the resources of engineering objects are directly

related to the complexity of the processes that occur in structural materials under
the existing operating conditions. Understanding the laws of these processes
will allow building a reliable mathematical model that will contain specific
parameters of the stress-strain state (SSS) that meet the working conditions of
the object, and which, ultimately, can become the theoretical basis for creating
methods and algorithms for assessing the resources of objects in accordance
with the individual histories of their use. Since the processes of damage
accumulation are closely related to the kinetics of the SSS, the accuracy of the
calculated estimates of the strength and service life of the structure elements
will depend on the degree of certainty with which the ratios determining the
mechanics of defective materials (MDM) represent danger zones of deformation
in structural elements at predetermined operating conditions. Viscoelastic
deformation parameters such as length and type of trajectory, type of stress
state, history of its change, and others significantly affect the rate of damage
accumulation. Thus, the main goal of research in the field of mechanics of a
deformable solid is rather not to clarify the various formulations necessary
for determining macroscopic deformations from a given loading history, but
to seek to understand the basic laws of phenomena that prepare the ultimate
state of the material and structure until it fails. This manuscript represents a
logical extension (in terms of applied methods of mathematics used in this
book) of the author’s previous book “Phenomenological Creep Models of
Composites and Nanocomposites” that was published by CRC (Taylor and
Francis) Company back in 2019. The subject matter of the manuscript offered
here is significantly different, since the phenomenon of fatigue-creep behavior
of composites and nanocomposites at high temperatures is considered. In
recent years, the use of composites and nanocomposites in various aerospace,
automotive, marine, and civil engineering applications has been constantly
increasing. Without exaggeration, it can be said that it is among the most
complex and urgent problems of the mechanics of deformable solids, since
phenomenological models in this case are much more complex, since they
have to take into account an additional number of factors arising during cyclic
iv Creep-Fatigue Models of Composites and Nanocomposites

loading. They are primarily associated with the development of cumulative

damage. Currently, the problem of structural strength under cyclic loading
is considered in a much broader sense. This is due to the development of
new industries with modern technology, such as aircraft, power engineering,
aviation and rocket technologies. The cyclic loading significantly reduces the
creep-fatigue resistance in the entire frequency range, and it became obvious
that such traditional characteristics of strength as endurance limit, static creep
limits and long-term static strength can no longer suffice the design criteria
for reliable performance. As a result, new directions appeared in the areas of
high-temperature strength-cyclical creep and long-term cyclic strength. These
circumstances led to the creation of new methods and means for determining
the resistance of composite and nanocomposite materials and a continuum
of damage development under cyclic loading; to the creation of appropriate
physical models. Particularly relevant is the intensification of creep by high-
frequency cyclic loading in composite materials, which usually occurs at
high temperatures. Most of the known studies in the field of cyclic creep are
experimental, and the direct use of the number of cycles to define the damage
model cannot escape the empirical relation that predicts fatigue life level.
This chapter presents new phenomenological cyclic creep-fatigue models
for describing the fatigue life and behavior of time-dependent composites and
nanocomposites. Certain criteria imposed on selecting the creep functions
have the potential to describe a wide range of material behaviors. Unlike
metals, composite materials are substantially heterogeneous and anisotropic.
This author presents the new phenomenological cyclic creep-fatigue models
describing the fatigue life and behavior of time-dependent composites and
nanocomposites. Damage does not accumulate in a localized form, and failure
does not always occur because of the propagation of a single macroscopic crack.
Due to the high specific stiffness and strength of composite materials, they
are often used for weight-critical structural applications. However, existing
imperfections in the methods for evaluating the strength of these materials often
leads to the fact that large safety factors are required in structural calculations
and designing. Although the technology of composite materials is developing
rapidly, their use in real structures is hampered by the lack of sufficient reliable
experimental fatigue data, which contains the main operational parameters.
The analysis of the stress state under variable high temperature loads presented
below requires taking into account the anisotropy of the averaged elastic
properties of the composite and nanocomposite materials. The book consists
of five chapters. The first chapter considers issues related to the formulation
of the creep-fatigue problem in general on the basis of the classical Volterra
integral equation of the second kind in the case of nonlinear creep. Of course,
this integral equation is supplemented with a periodic function reflecting the
fatigue process of a composite or nanocomposite. In addition, the kinematic
 Preface v

differential equation of the continuous damage function has been added. This
chapter also provides the required parameters that are obtained from simple
tensile (compression) experiments on a composite sample. In order to “test”
the proposed model, an example of a creep-fatigue calculation of a simple
mechanical element of the Kelvin – Voigt model is given.
The second chapter is devoted to the application of the cumulative
damage function to the solution of the problem of creep-fatigue of composites
or nanocomposites under the action of high temperatures. Without loss of
generality of the problem posed, some restrictions are introduced on the
function of accumulative damage and the integrand of the Voltaire equation of
the second kind. In the case of nanocomposites, the functions of cumulative
damage consist of two parts, reflecting the technological process of creation
(nucleation and growth of clusters) under the action of high temperatures.
In the third chapter, various phenomenological models of the maximum
lifetime of a composite or nanocomposite are considered. At the same
time, it is noted that some parameters of the system (such as the volumetric
percentage of any filler or the temperature dependence of the viscosity
coefficient significantly affect the life of the composite. In the fourth chapter
parameters and variables (dependent and independent) in dimensionless form
are used to obtain fatigue curves analytically. It should also be noted that,
in addition to the usual dependence (a0 – Nf), it is also possible to obtain
other dependences of the cumulative damageability (ω - Nf). In this case, the
limiting state of the system is f (ω) = 1 @ ϴ = ϴmax or the usual dependence
of the fatigue curve (a0 – Nf) of composites and nanocomposites. Thus, the
creep-fatigue problem is solved in a deterministic formulation. In structural
engineering practice an empirical so-called safety factor is usually introduced.
Chapter five contains various methods of the applied theory of probability
applied to evaluate this coefficient qualitatively and quantitatively. It appears
inevitable that the structural engineering community, as well as many other
engineering communities that are ultimately responsible for life safety issues,
will eventually incorporate probabilistic analyses methods to some degree.
Probabilistic analyses methods, unlike traditional deterministic methods,
provide the means to quantify the inherent risk of a structural design and
to quantify the sensitivities of the most important parts of the design in the
overall reliability of the structural system as a whole. The degree to which
these methods are successfully applied depends on addressing the issues
and concerns discussed in this book. The importance of a probabilistic
approach in the issues of the cyclic creep-fatigue process and the long-
term behavior with a specified reliability is addressed in NASA reports and
other technical publications. One of the prime issues for these structural
components is assured long-term behavior with a specified fatigue life. The
present book addresses issues pertaining to the probabilistic creep-fatigue
vi Creep-Fatigue Models of Composites and Nanocomposites

life of composites under combined thermal/mechanical cyclic loads through

some typical examples. The focus of ongoing research has been to develop
advanced integrated computational methods and related computer codes to
perform a complete probabilistic assessment of composite structures. These
methods account for uncertainties in all the constituent properties, fabrication
process variables, and loads to predict probabilistic micro, ply, laminate,
and structural responses. The results are supported by step-by-step practical
design examples and should be useful for practicing structural engineers, code
developers as well as researchers and university faculty personnel.
It should also be noted that some restrictions are introduced in this book
(not violating the generality of the issue under consideration), namely:
1. All differential and integral equations, as well as independent, dependent
variables and their parameters are presented in a dimensionless form. At
the same time, in accordance with the theory of dimensionlessness, it is
possible to achieve the minimum number of parameters and independent
and dependent variables.
2. Solutions of all integral and differential equations describing the behavior
of composite and nanocomposite materials under the action of static,
dynamic and high temperature loads are presented in the form of numerical
integration of the corresponding equations. This computer output is
presented in three parts: systems of differential equations, explicit inputs,
and implicit inputs. Due to the fact that these output datasets differ only
in the value of one load parameter, in this case the complete solution (all
three parts) is given for the smallest load value, and in all other cases the
system of differential equations and the desired expression of a particular
function (for example, the dependence of the oscillation amplitude on the
variable temperature) are given.
3. The proof of the mathematical method for solving integra-differential
equations is purely mathematical (Existence and Uniqueness Theorem
for Volterra Integral Equations of second rang) and not included in this
book. However, the simple result of this theorem in this particular case
is as follows: in order to substitute the Volterra Integral Equations with
corresponding Differential Equation the Initial Condition must be added.
Contents

Preface iii
Nomenclature x

1. Introduction and Assumptions 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Fatigue curve and endurance limit 3
1.3 Creep-fatigue process under cyclically changing strain 6
1.4 The concept of effective stresses 6
1.5 Use of scalar internal variable to quantify damage 7
1.6 The scalar measure of damage 8
1.7 Strength as endurance limit of composites and 9
nanocomposites
1.8 Continuous damage accumulation model 10
1.9 Damage accumulation function for composites 13
1.10 Paris’ Law and Miner’s Rule 14
1.11 The Bergman-Milton theory 16
1.12 Failure criteria 17
1.13 The Bergman-Milton theory 20
1.14 Failure criteria 23
1.15 Principle of stress equivalence 25
1.16 Standard linear model 28
1.16aStandard Linear Model with different 35
viscosity – temperature relationships
1.17 Temperature effect on viscosity 36
1.18 Viscosity of dispersed systems 38

2. Cumulative Damage Model (CDM) of Cyclic Creep-Fatigue 50

Process
2.1 Introduction 50
2.2 The concept of effective stress 53
2.3 Classification of composite materials 55
viii Creep-Fatigue Models of Composites and Nanocomposites

2.4 Objectives of this research 58

2.5 Cyclic loading types 64
2.6 Creep-fatigue constitutive model with cumulative 66
damage law
2.7 Proposed constitutive model of the creep-fatigue process 73
2.8 Analytical formulas for S – N fatigue curves 77

3. Phenomenological Creep-Fatigue Models 97

3.1 Introduction 97
3.2 Effect of temperature – time relationships on 100
creep-fatigue behavior of composites
3.3 Effect of chemical energy on cyclic creep-fatigue 109
process
3.3.1 Chemical kinetic effect on nanocomposites 109
creep-fatigue process
3.4 Nanocomposite material under cyclic creep-fatigue 112
conditions
3.5 Viscosity change effect at high temperature 114
3.6 Analytical expression of crystallization function f3 118
3.7 Effect of increase in frequency ‘p’ 124

4. Peculiarities of Phenomenological Models of Nanocomposites 130

4.1 Introduction 130
4.2 The concept of effective stresses 133
4.3 Creep-fatigue behavior of nanocomposites 134
4.4 Defining the damaged medium mechanics 137

5. Probabilistic Approach to Creep-Fatigue Models 179

5.1 Introduction 179
5.2 Creep-fatigue process under periodic loads 180
5.3 Continuum damage mechanics and durability of composites 180
5.4 Damage function ω and decrease of cross section area 181
5.5 “Forward” and “Reversed” probabilistic problem 183
5.6 Phenomenological models of creep-fatigue of composites 184
5.7 Failure criteria 186
5.7.1 Maximum stress theory 186
5.7.2 Haskin’s failure theory 186
5.8 Specifics of constitutive equation of creep-fatigue of 187
composites
5.9 Effect of high temperature on fatigue curves (S – Nf) 189
5.10 Examples 190
 Contents ix

5.11 Probabilistic approach for creep-fatigue model of 200

composites
5.11.1 Main assumptions 200
5.11.2 Continuum damage and temperature effects on the 202
probabilistic approach
Conclusions 220
Index 223
Nomenclature

A constant
Ai unknown parameter
[a;b] interval
E modulus of elasticity
C; C1 specific creep
D diffusion rate, D is a constant,
Q is an activation energy
J compliance function (often also called the creep function)
K stress memory function
Sd esign load
R structural resistance
t and t1 time t > t1
T temperature
t
retardation time
tr
relaxation time
Ș viscosity
Į material property parameter
İ strain
ı stress
p frequency
Nf number of cycles to failure
Ȧ FRQWLQXXPGDPDJHIXQFWLRQ
ij YROXPHWULFFRQFHQWUDWLRQ
F force
Ea
T [T  T* ]  Dimensionless Temperature
RT*2

RT* E
E1 N m 7* %DVH7HPSHUDWXUH>0 .@
Ea Ef
h2
Time: t W [sec]
a
 Nomenclature xi

RT*2
Temperature: = T è θ+ T
+* T [K], where T* = 600oK is the base line
E *
temperature
k The thermal conductivity that has the dimensions W/m*K or
J/m*s*K
T Temperature
d thickness in the direction of heat flow.
ρ is the air density
cp is its specific heat capacity at constant pressure
K is the number of collisions per second resulting in a reaction At is
the total number of collisions
E activation energy
R is the ideal gas constant
P Heat loss due to thermal radiation
e Emissivity factor
σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant (σ=5.6703(10-8) watt/m2K4);
To ambient temperature
cp average specific heat at constant pressure
t time

v(u; v; w) velocity vector
D Diffusion coefficient [m2/sec]
p is the pressure
ν kinematic viscosity; ν = μ/ρ
θ dimensionless temperature
“τ” dimensionless time
“h” height of the specimen [m]
“a” thermal diffusivity [m2/sec]
h2
Time: t = τ [sec]
a RT*2
Temperature:
= T θ + T* [K], where T* = 600oK is the base line
temperature E

Coordinates: x = x / h and z = z / h - “x” and “z” – dimensionless coordinates.

ν ν
Velocities: u = u [m/sec] and w = w [m/sec] - horizontal and vertical
h h
components of velocity respectively ; ν – kinematic viscosity [m2/sec]; “u”
and “w” – dimensionless velocities.
gh 3
Fr = Froude number
νa
g is gravitational acceleration
Le = a/D = Sc/Pr - The Lewis number
 xii Creep-Fatigue Models of Composites and Nanocomposites

Sc = ν/D - The Schmidt number

RT
âβ = * - Dimensionless parameter
E
cp RT*2
ãγ = - Dimensionless parameter
QE
eσ K v ( β T* )3 h
P= - Thermal radiation dimensionless coefficient
λ
σ = 5.67(10–8) [watt/m2K4] –Stefan-Boltzmann constant

Kv = Ao h/V – Dimensionless opening factor

E E
=δ
ä ( 2
)Qz(exp(− )) - Frank-Kamenetskii’s parameter
RT* RT*
ν
W = W - Vertical component of composite’s velocity
h
ν
U = U - Horizontal component of composite’s velocity
h
b = L/h, “L” and “h”- Length (width) and height of component accordingly
W; U – dimensionless velocities
Coordinates: x = x / h and z = z / h - “x” and “z” – dimensionless coordinates.
Chapter 1
Introduction and
Assumptions

1.1 Introduction
Without exaggeration, one might say that the cyclic creep-fatigue problem is
among the most complex and urgent problems of the mechanics of solid body
deformation. It is primarily associated with the development of a creep-fatigue
damage mechanism in order to assess the structural stability of composite and
nanocomposite structural elements and systems. Today in modern industry,
especially where it is critically important to ensure the strength and stiffness
of structural elements with minimal weight, the designers of airplanes and
airplane engines are using composite and nanocomposite materials [1].
However, existing imperfections in the methods for evaluating the strength
of these materials often lead to the fact that large safety factors are required
in the structural calculation methods. Therefore, to ensure the required safety
of the composite materials’ products, the structural engineer designers are
using larger margins of safety, which, in turns, reduces their efficiency. These
considerations fully apply to methods for evaluating the fatigue strength of
composites and nanocomposites. Under high temperature cyclic loading of
composite materials, the accumulation of damage can manifest itself in a change
in the integral properties of such materials. Various methods of non-destructive
testing can detect changes in the elastic modulus, electrical conductivity and
damping coefficient. Although the technology of new composite materials
is developing rapidly, their use in real structures is being hampered because
of the insufficient fatigue data required for design. The stress analysis under
variable thermal loads requires taking into account the anisotropy of the
so-called averaged properties of the composite. Unlike metals, composite
materials are substantially heterogeneous and anisotropic. Damage does not
accumulate in a localized form, and failure does not always occur because of
2 Creep-Fatigue Models of Composites and Nanocomposites

the propagation of a single macroscopic crack. Micro structural mechanisms

of damage accumulation, including fiber fracture and matrix fracture, fiber-
matrix splitting and delaminating sometimes occur independently. At low
levels of cyclic loading or in the initial part of the fatigue life, most types
of composites accumulate and diffuse the damage. These damages propagate
throughout the tension zone, and gradually reduce the strength and stiffness
of the composite structure. In the later stages of the fatigue life, the amount of
accumulated damage in a certain region of the composite element can be quite
large. This leads to the fact that the residual strength of the composite of that
region drops below the allowable stress level.
Well before a microstructural understanding of fatigue processes was
developed, engineers had developed empirical means of quantifying the
fatigue process and designs against it. Perhaps the most important concept
is the S-N diagram, where at any given constant cyclic stress amplitude, S,
applied to a specimen, the number of loading cycles Nf until the specimen
fails is counted. Millions of cycles might be required to cause failure at
lower loading levels, so the abscissas of such a diagram are usually plotted
logarithmically. Statistical variability is troublesome in fatigue testing,
because it is necessary to measure the lifetimes of perhaps twenty specimens
at each of the ten or so load levels to construct the S−N curve with statistical
confidence. It is generally impossible to apply a cyclic load to a specimen at
more than approximately 10 Hz (inertia in components of the testing machine
and heating of the specimen often become problematic at higher speeds) and
at that speed, it takes 11.6 days to reach 107 cycles of loading. Obtaining a
full S−N curve is obviously a tedious and expensive procedure. For instance,
a very substantial amount of testing is required to obtain a S−N curve for
the simple case of fully reversed loading, and it will usually be impractical
to determine whole families of curves for every combination of mean and
alternating stress (see Fig. 1.1) [2].
There are a number of strata gems for assessing the residual stress of
fatigue, one common one being the Goodman diagram (see Fig. 1.2) [3]. Here
is the graph with mean stress as the abscissa and alternating stress as the
ordinate, and a straight “lifeline” is constructed from σm on the σalt axis to the
ultimate tensile stress σf on the σm axis. Then for any given mean stress, the
fatigue life limit (the value of alternating stress at which fatigue failure never
occurs) can be read directly as the ordinate of the lifeline at that value of σm.
Alternatively, if the design application dictates a given ratio of σm to σalt, a line
is drawn from the origin with a slope equal to that ratio. Its intersection with
the “life line” then gives the effective endurance limit for that combination of
σf and σm.
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