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Advances in Composites Manufacturing
and Process Design
Related titles
Manufacturing Techniques for Polymer Matrix Composites (PMCs),
(ISBN 978-0-85709-067-6)
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Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites
Science and Engineering: Number 56

Advances in Composites
Manufacturing and
Process Design

Edited by

Philippe Boisse

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Contents

List of contributors xi
Preface xv
Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering xix

Part One Advances in composite manufacturing processes 1

1 Braiding processes for composites manufacture 3
B. Arold, A. Gessler, C. Metzner, K. Birkefeld
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Braiding process 3
1.3 Braiding automation and process industrialization 10
1.4 Characteristics of braided CFRP 14
1.5 Braiding process simulations 20
1.6 Future trends 24
References 25

2 Knitting processes for composites manufacture 27

G. Dusserre, G. Bernhart
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Knitting process description 27
2.3 Permeability of knitted reinforcements 30
2.4 Mechanical properties of knitted fabrics: Experiment and
modeling 32
2.5 Liquid molded composites reinforced with glass fiber knitted
fabrics 42
2.6 Conclusion 50
Acknowledgments 50
References 50

3 Weaving processes for composites manufacture 55

F. Boussu, C. Dufour, F. Veyet, M. Lefebvre
3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 Observation and analysis of the weaving process 56
3.3 Optimization of the weaving process to 3D warp interlock fabrics 61
3.4 Fibre degradation during the 3D warp interlock weaving 64
3.5 3D warp interlock fabrics adapted to thermoforming process 69
3.6 Conclusion 74
Acknowledgments 74
References 74
vi Contents

4 Fibre placement processes for composites manufacture 79

A. Crosky, C. Grant, D. Kelly, X. Legrand, G. Pearce
4.1 Introduction 79
4.2 Industry drivers for fibre placement technology 79
4.3 Fibre placement techniques 80
4.4 Definition of reinforcement and fibre trajectories 86
4.5 Industry uptake and future trends 90
References 91

5 Draping processes for composites manufacture 93

K. Potter, C. Ward
5.1 Introduction 93
5.2 Historical perspective 93
5.3 Fundamental deformation modes of composites reinforcements 94
5.4 Practical application of reinforcement deformation modes in
draping processes 98
5.5 Development of drape simulation 102
5.6 Current status of drape processes and simulation 104
5.7 Automating the drape process 106
5.8 Future needs in drape processes and simulation 107
References 108

6 Thermoplastic composites manufacturing by thermoforming 111

R. Akkerman, S.P. Haanappel
6.1 Introduction 111
6.2 Fabric-reinforced laminates 113
6.3 Unidirectional reinforcements 117
6.4 The next steps 126
Acknowledgements 128
References 128

7 Three-dimensional composite manufacturing processes 131

B. Wendland, S. Ramaswamy, J. Schäfer, T. Gries
7.1 Braiding 131
7.2 3D weaving 134
7.3 Nonwovens 139
References 144

8 Chemical vapor deposition/infiltration processes for ceramic

composites 147
G.L. Vignoles
8.1 Introduction 147
8.2 Basic principle of CVI 147
8.3 CVI chemistry 149
8.4 CVI variations 158
Contents vii

8.5 Materials produced by CVI in combination with other techniques 162

8.6 Summary and outlook 163
References 163

9 Machining and drilling processes in composites manufacture:

Damage and material integrity 177
R. Zitoune, H. Bougherara
9.1 Introduction 177
9.2 Methodology 179
9.3 Results and discussion 182
9.4 Conclusion and future developments 191
References 193

10 Repairing composites 197

F. Collombet, Y.-H. Grunevald, L. Crouzeix, B. Douchin, R. Zitoune,
Y. Davila, A. Cerisier, R. The´venin
10.1 Introduction 197
10.2 State of the field in aeronautics 198
10.3 State of the field from a “black metal approach” to
a “global vision” 204
10.4 Description of the MITE toolbox 207
10.5 Low-cost tools for large repair structures, prototypes, or one-off
productions of repair patches 215
10.6 Standard approach versus optimized patch 219
Acknowledgements 226
References 226

Part Two Mechanical behaviour of reinforcements and

numerical simulation of processes in composites
manufacturing 229
11 Mechanical properties of textile reinforcements for composites 231
J.W.S Hearle
11.1 Introduction 231
11.2 Fibre properties 232
11.3 Yarn structure and properties 234
11.4 Structure and properties of 2D woven fabrics 235
11.5 Woven fabric forms in composites 242
11.6 Structure and properties of other fabrics 246
11.7 Challenges for the future 248
11.8 Sources of information 249
Acknowledgement 249
References 250
viii Contents

12 Mechanical behaviour of non-crimp fabric (NCF) preforms

in composite materials manufacturing 253
S. Bel
12.1 Introduction 253
12.2 NCF preforms 253
12.3 NCF stitching deformation 255
12.4 Simulation of the NCF stitching 257
12.5 Local stitching deformation of sewn NCF preforms 260
12.6 Simulation of the assembly seam deformation 264
12.7 Conclusion 267
Acknowledgements 267
References 267

13 Epoxy/amine reactive systems for composites materials and their

thermomechanical properties 269
A. Tcharkhtchi, F. Nony, S. Khelladi, J. Fitoussi, S. Farzaneh
13.1 Introduction 269
13.2 Reactive epoxy/amine systems 270
13.3 Epoxy/amine systems 278
13.4 Thermomechanical behavior of epoxy/amine systems 279
References 292

14 Finite element analysis of composite forming at macroscopic

and mesoscopic scale 297
P. Boisse, N. Naouar, A. Charmetant
14.1 Introduction 297
14.2 Specificities of composite material during forming 298
14.3 Continuous approach for 3-D composite forming process
analysis 299
14.4 Simulation at the mesoscopic scale based on X-ray computed
tomography analysis 305
14.5 Conclusions 311
References 312

15 Numerical simulation of flow processes in composites

manufacturing 317
C.H. Park
15.1 Introduction 317
15.2 Process models 317
15.3 Resin flow analysis in the macroscopic scale 321
15.4 Resin flow analysis in the mesoscopic or microscopic scale 359
15.5 Conclusion and perspectives 370
References 371
Contents ix

16 Pultrusion processes for composite manufacture 379

I. Baran
16.1 Introduction 379
16.2 Thermochemical modeling 382
16.3 Thermomechanical modeling 385
16.4 Material characterization 392
16.5 Application example 395
16.6 Case studies: Industrial pultruded products 400
16.7 Conclusions 408
References 410

17 Modeling of chemical vapor infiltration processes 415

G.L. Vignoles
17.1 Introduction 415
17.2 Process analysis and modeling strategy 415
17.3 Analytical and simplified models 418
17.4 Reactor-scale models 420
17.5 Description of the porous media: Pore-scale modeling and
up-scaling 425
17.6 I-CVI of C/C composites 431
17.7 I-CVI of CMCs 437
17.8 Variations of CVI 440
17.9 Summary and outlook 446
References 446

Index 459
This page intentionally left blank
List of contributors

R. Akkerman University of Twente & TPRC, Enschede, The Netherlands

B. Arold Airbus Group Innovations, Munich, Germany

I. Baran University of Twente, Enschede, The Netherlands

S. Bel Technische Universität M€

unchen, Garching bei. M€unchen, Germany, and
Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France

G. Bernhart Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France

K. Birkefeld University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany

P. Boisse Université de Lyon, Lyon, France

H. Bougherara Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada

F. Boussu ENSAITdGEMTEX Laboratory, France

A. Cerisier Institut Clément Ader (ICA), Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France

A. Charmetant Université de Lyon, Lyon, France

F. Collombet Institut Clément Ader (ICA), Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France

A. Crosky UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia

L. Crouzeix Institut Clément Ader (ICA), Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France

Y. Davila Institut Clément Ader (ICA), Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France

B. Douchin Institut Clément Ader (ICA), Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France

C. Dufour ENSAITdGEMTEX Laboratory, France

G. Dusserre Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France

xii List of contributors

S. Farzaneh Arts et Métiers ParisTech, Paris, France

J. Fitoussi Arts et Métiers ParisTech, Paris, France

A. Gessler Airbus Group Innovations, Munich, Germany

C. Grant Composites Consultant, Sandy, UT, USA

T. Gries Institut f€
ur Textiltechnik, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

Y.-H. Grunevald Composites Expertise & Solutions, Castanet-Tolosan France

S.P. Haanappel University of Twente & TPRC, Enschede, The Netherlands

J.W.S. Hearle University of Manchester, Manchester, UK

D. Kelly UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia

S. Khelladi Arts et Métiers ParisTech, Paris, France

M. Lefebvre HERAKLESdSAFRAN, Le Hayan, France

X. Legrand Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Arts et Industries Textiles (ENSAIT),

Roubaix, France

C. Metzner Airbus Group Innovations, Munich, Germany

N. Naouar Université de Lyon, Lyon, France

F. Nony CEA le Ripault, Monts, France

C.H. Park Mines Douai, Douai, France

G. Pearce UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia

K. Potter University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

S. Ramaswamy Institut f€
ur Textiltechnik, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen,
Germany

J. Schäfer Institut f€
ur Textiltechnik, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen, Germany

A. Tcharkhtchi Arts et Métiers ParisTech, Paris, France

R. Thévenin Structure Conformance, Airbus Group, Toulouse, France

List of contributors xiii

F. Veyet ENSAITdGEMTEX Laboratory, Roubaix, France

G.L. Vignoles University of Bordeaux, Pessac, France

C. Ward University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

B. Wendland Institut f€
ur Textiltechnik, RWTH Aachen University, Aachen,
Germany

R. Zitoune Institut Clément Ader (ICA), Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France

This page intentionally left blank
Preface

Composite materials allow the manufacturing of structures with high mechanical

properties with reduced mass. Consequently, they are a possible way to reduce energy
consumption in the transportation industries. Their development is important in par-
ticular for civil planes. The structures of the most recent long-range transport aircraft
are made of composite materials. In the automotive industries, many projects aim to
use composite materials in future cars. In civil engineering, composite materials are
used to repair and reinforce buildings.
A composite material is the association of a fibrous reinforcement and of a matrix.
The fibers can be short or continuous. The structures strongly loaded need continuous
fibers. The fibers withstand loadings. The matrix aims to prevent the motion between
fibers and, consequently, to constitute a solid. There are many kinds of fibers and
matrices. They can be associated with many manufacturing methods. Finally, the
resulting composite materials are numerous.
The first part of this book presents new advances in composites manufacturing and
process design:
Braiding is a versatile and cost-efficient process for the production of fiber pre-
forms for composites. The range of shapes with different characteristics is very wide.
The material waste can be reduced to a minimum, which is even more important when
expensive carbon yarns are used.
Knitting processes are efficient ways to manufacture automatically net-shape
preforms of technical fibers. 3D preforms can be knitted with one or several types
of fiber, with various local knitting patterns and, thus, various local thicknesses
and properties.
Weaving processes can be adapted to manufacture composite preforms. These tex-
tile structures are near-to-shape designed and produced on adapted processes. Loom
adaptations have been made to achieve the production of 3D warp interlock fabrics.
These textile structures have been revealed to be particularly adapted to the dry form-
ing process.
Fiber placement involves the laying down of reinforcing fibers along predefined
trajectories in the component. The goal of fiber placement is to maximize the perfor-
mance of a particular part by utilizing the highly directional strength of fiber
reinforcement.
Drape processes are required to cover a doubly curved tool surface with sheets of
reinforcement or prepreg. They are both manual and semiautomated manufacturing pro-
cesses. They are based on the very specific deformation behavior of textile materials.
Thermoforming or hot press forming is a fast manufacturing process of thermoplastic
composite laminates. The forming stage can be executed rapidly with preconsolidated
xvi Preface

thermoplastic composite laminates, as only heating is required to transform the material

from a strong and stiff to an easily formable state and subsequent cooling to achieve
the reverse transformation.
The advantages of 3D fabrics are high delamination and crack propagation resis-
tance, which leads to good impact and fatigue properties. Overbraiding and 3D
braiding technology offer diverse opportunities to manufacture near net-shape
preforms.
The chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) process is used to fabricate the interphases
and matrices of CMCs. This process involves complex physicochemical phenomena
such as the transport of precursor, carrier, and by-product gases in the reactor and
inside a fibrous preform, chemical reactions, and the structural evolution of the
preform.
Machining operations on composite material are necessary. The heterogeneity and
anisotropy of these materials makes their machining difficult. The effect of these pro-
cesses using conventional and nonconventional machining on the nature of the dam-
age generated as well as on the mechanical behavior of composite parts made of
carbon/epoxy is investigated.
The best damage tolerance of composite solution has been shown but also the
necessity to define optimized repair solutions. A global vision of repair is proposed
through a case study.
The second part of the book introduces the mechanical properties of reinforcements
and matrices and the simulations of manufacturing processes.
A digital representation of 2D woven fabric structure is based on the forms of cross-
over in different repeat units. Six modes of deformation are considered: in-plane, two
tensile and shear, out-of-plane, two bending, and twist. Energy minimization is used to
model these properties.
Noncrimp fabrics arose from the challenge to create reinforcements that combine
unidirectional fibers with integrity, ease of handling, and drape of textile fabrics. From
this challenge, several noncrimp textile structures were created with different
manufacturing processes and different bonding solutions.
Epoxy/amines systems are studied during their synthesis and once they are syn-
thesized. The polyepoxies have an exceptional place among the thermosets because
of their wide range of applications, especially in manufacturing of composites-
based polymers. They are the result of the reactions between epoxy resins and
hardeners.
FE analyses of composite reinforcement forming are presented at macroscopic and
mesoscopic scales. Simulations of 3D interlock fabric deformations are based on a
hyperelastic model. A simulation at mescoscale of the deformation of a textile com-
posite reinforcement is presented. The FE model is obtained from X-ray computed
tomography of the fabric in order to be close to the real geometry.
Numerical modeling and simulation approaches for the resin flow analysis in textile
composites manufacturing processes are presented. According to the computational
scale, which can be classified by textile microstructure, different governing equations
for the resin flow are suggested.
Preface xvii

Numerical modeling strategies are presented for the pultrusion of thermosetting

composite profiles. The focus is particularly on the forming die and postdie region
in which the multiphysics take place.
Finally, works developed for CVI modeling are presented, ranging from simple
analytical estimates to multiscale, multiphysics detailed numerical modeling.
Philippe Boisse
This page intentionally left blank
Woodhead Publishing Series
in Composites Science and
Engineering

1 Thermoplastic aromatic polymer composites

F. N. Cogswell
2 Design and manufacture of composite structures
G. C. Eckold
3 Handbook of polymer composites for engineers
Edited by L. C. Hollaway
4 Optimisation of composite structures design
A. Miravete
5 Short-fibre polymer composites
Edited by S. K. De and J. R. White
6 Flow-induced alignment in composite materials
Edited by T. D. Papthanasiou and D. C. Guell
7 Thermoset resins for composites
Compiled by Technolex
8 Microstructural characterisation of fibre-reinforced composites
Edited by J. Summerscales
9 Composite materials
F. L. Matthews and R. D. Rawlings
10 3-D textile reinforcements in composite materials
Edited by A. Miravete
11 Pultrusion for engineers
Edited by T. Starr
12 Impact behaviour of fibre-reinforced composite materials and structures
Edited by S. R. Reid and G. Zhou
13 Finite element modelling of composite materials and structures
F. L. Matthews, G. A. O. Davies, D. Hitchings and C. Soutis
14 Mechanical testing of advanced fibre composites
Edited by G. M. Hodgkinson
15 Integrated design and manufacture using fibre-reinforced polymeric composites
Edited by M. J. Owen and I. A. Jones
16 Fatigue in composites
Edited by B. Harris
17 Green composites
Edited by C. Baillie
18 Multi-scale modelling of composite material systems
Edited by C. Soutis and P. W. R. Beaumont
19 Lightweight ballistic composites
Edited by A. Bhatnagar
xx Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering

20 Polymer nanocomposites
Y-W. Mai and Z-Z. Yu
21 Properties and performance of natural-fibre composite
Edited by K. Pickering
22 Ageing of composites
Edited by R. Martin
23 Tribology of natural fiber polymer composites
N. Chand and M. Fahim
24 Wood-polymer composites
Edited by K. O. Niska and M. Sain
25 Delamination behaviour of composites
Edited by S. Sridharan
26 Science and engineering of short fibre reinforced polymer composites
S-Y. Fu, B. Lauke and Y-M. Mai
27 Failure analysis and fractography of polymer composites
E. S. Greenhalgh
28 Management, recycling and reuse of waste composites
Edited by V. Goodship
29 Materials, design and manufacturing for lightweight vehicles
Edited by P. K. Mallick
30 Fatigue life prediction of composites and composite structures
Edited by A. P. Vassilopoulos
31 Physical properties and applications of polymer nanocomposites
Edited by S. C. Tjong and Y-W. Mai
32 Creep and fatigue in polymer matrix composites
Edited by R. M. Guedes
33 Interface engineering of natural fibre composites for maximum performance
Edited by N. E. Zafeiropoulos
34 Polymer-carbon nanotube composites
Edited by T. McNally and P. P€otschke
35 Non-crimp fabric composites: Manufacturing, properties and applications
Edited by S. V. Lomov
36 Composite reinforcements for optimum performance
Edited by P. Boisse
37 Polymer matrix composites and technology
R. Wang, S. Zeng and Y. Zeng
38 Composite joints and connections
Edited by P. Camanho and L. Tong
39 Machining technology for composite materials
Edited by H. Hocheng
40 Failure mechanisms in polymer matrix composites
Edited by P. Robinson, E. S. Greenhalgh and S. Pinho
41 Advances in polymer nanocomposites: Types and applications
Edited by F. Gao
42 Manufacturing techniques for polymer matrix composites (PMCs)
Edited by S. Advani and K-T. Hsiao
43 Non-destructive evaluation (NDE) of polymer matrix composites: Techniques and applications
Edited by V. M. Karbhari
44 Environmentally friendly polymer nanocomposites: Types, processing and properties
S. S. Ray
45 Advances in ceramic matrix composites
Edited by I. M. Low
46 Ceramic nanocomposites
Edited by R. Banerjee and I. Manna
Woodhead Publishing Series in Composites Science and Engineering xxi

47 Natural fibre composites: Materials, processes and properties

Edited by A. Hodzic and R. Shanks
48 Residual stresses in composite materials
Edited by M. Shokrieh
49 Health and environmental safety of nanomaterials: Polymer nanocomposites and other materials
containing nanoparticles
Edited by J. Njuguna, K. Pielichowski and H. Zhu
50 Polymer composites in the aerospace industry
Edited by P. E. Irving and C. Soutis
51 Biofiber reinforcement in composite materials
Edited by O. Faruk and M. Sain
52 Fatigue and fracture of adhesively-bonded composite joints: Behaviour, simulation and modelling
Edited by A. P. Vassilopoulos
53 Fatigue of textile composites
Edited by V. Carvelli and S. V. Lomov
54 Wood composites
Edited by M. P. Ansell
55 Toughening mechanisms in composite materials
Edited by Q. Qin and J. Ye
56 Advances in composites manufacturing and process design
Edited by P. Boisse
57 Structural Integrity and Durability of Advanced Composites: Innovative modelling methods and
intelligent design
Edited by P.W.R. Beaumont, C. Soutis and A. Hodzic
58 Recent Advances in Smart Self-healing Polymers and Composites
Edited by G. Li and H. Meng
59 Manufacturing of Nanocomposites with Engineering Plastics
Edited by V. Mittal
60 Fillers and Reinforcements for Advanced Nanocomposites
Edited by Y. Dong, R. Umer and A. Kin-Tak Lau
This page intentionally left blank
Part One

Advances in composite
manufacturing processes
This page intentionally left blank
Braiding processes for composites
manufacture 1
B. Arold1, A. Gessler1, C. Metzner1, K. Birkefeld2
1
Airbus Group Innovations, Munich, Germany; 2University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany

1.1 Introduction
Braiding is one of the most versatile and cost-efficient processes for the production of
fiber preforms for composites. It is versatile in terms of its huge variability of produc-
ible types of textiles with different characteristics, and also because of its very wide
range of shapes, being produced directly or by subsequent cutting and draping. And
braiding is cost-efficient not only in consequence of its layup speed, but also because
the material waste can be reduced to a minimum, which is even more important when
expensive carbon yarns are used.
Big automobile companies as well as aircraft manufacturers are using carbon com-
posite parts based on the braided preforms. These applications give evidence of the
general mass-market capability of the technology. That usually does not mean produc-
tion costs are as low as the replaced metal parts, but cost-efficient enough for an eco-
nomic trade-off between cost and weight (fuel consumption) for commercial products.
Yet there are still many open questions, which make the application of braids delicate.
Precisely because braiding is extremely versatile, it is rather difficult to find a way
toward a common qualification of the material. Lacking a comprehensive calculation
model for complex shapes and also a full understanding of the material characteristics
of the different textile types, the qualification of products is still made at the part level
instead of on the basis of a general material qualification.
Many research projects at universities and industrial sites around the world are
dealing with these problems. This chapter will share with you a part of the constantly
evolving knowledge about braiding technology, being fully aware that the given pic-
ture can be neither comprehensive nor completely up to date.

1.2 Braiding process

1.2.1 Principle
In woven fabrics, the warp runs at 0° along the textile and the weft at 90° perpendicular
to it. In braids, the yarns build binding patterns quite similar to woven fabrics, but they
run at a desired angle in both directions like a helix around the tube. The yarn angle
depends on the relative speed of the bobbins and the take up. A smaller angle is the
result of a faster take-up speed (Figure 1.1).

Advances in Composites Manufacturing and Process Design. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-78242-307-2.00001-4

© 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
4 Advances in Composites Manufacturing and Process Design

Figure 1.1 Comparison of

weave and tubular braid.

Prefabricated hoses are the simplest to use, but to take real advantage of braids, the
so-called overbraiding of shape-defining mandrels is the means of choice. Pushed
along the middle axis of a braiding machine, the mandrels become covered by a
dry fiber preform, one layer each time. The mandrels have to fulfill a series of func-
tions depending on the shape and on the further processing of the preform:
– The material must be pressure-resistant to prevent a deformation of the edges by the yarn
forces and to withstand intermediate compaction processes.
– Bending and torsion stiffness of the mandrel are important to ensure a sufficient accuracy of
the preform, especially for extremely elongated parts.
– A low thermal expansion coefficient is also essential for long mandrels, if they are to be used
for curing high-temperature resins. Sufficient heat resistance is self-evident.
– At the same time, the mandrel should be expandable in thickness to apply pressure from
inside during curing in an RTM mold.
– Sometimes, if the shape of the final part does not allow a direct demolding, soluble core
materials are needed.
– Finally, the mandrels should be lightweight for easy handling and transport and, of course,
low cost because they cause a considerable share of the NRC in serial production.

1.2.2 Variants of braids

Braids may consist of a single-fiber type or of a mixture of fibers. A combination of
fibers with different colors, for instance, is sometimes used to achieve a nice charac-
teristic design of the part surface. For special applications, it may be useful to combine
reinforcement fibers with high stiffness (carbon) with some of extreme toughness
(aramid), to create a material with a certain residual stability after catastrophic impact
damage. Apart from this somewhat exotic approach, most of the fiber preforms for
technical applications consist only of a single type of reinforcement fiber in all direc-
tions, or of a combination of the reinforcement fiber and a so-called support yarn as
shown in Figure 1.2.
Biaxial braids—Biaxial braids made of rovings or prestabilized spread tows are the
common standard materials produced on circular braiders for composite preforming.
The textiles show a more or less wavy surface texture in combination with the typical
fiber undulation known from woven fabrics. The total thickness of one biaxial braid
layer is twice the yarn height, and the manifestation of the waviness depends mainly
Braiding processes for composites manufacture 5

Reinforcement Reinforcement Reinforcement

fibers in ± fibers in ± fibers in ± and
0° filler-yarns
Support yarns

0°
0° 0°

90°
90° 90°

Unidirectional braid Biaxial braid Triaxial braid

Figure 1.2 Braided textile styles: unidirectional, biaxial, and triaxial braids.

on the “a to b” ratio (as shown in Figure 1.2) or, in other words, on the spreadability of
the yarn. As a result of the waviness, biaxial braids may have some disadvantages for
high-performance applications:
– Higher preform compressibility in the thickness direction;
– Lower stiffness and strength in tension and compression;
– Inhomogeneous fiber content and risk of resin accumulations;
– Difficulty in reaching fiber volume percentages higher than 50%.

Despite this, some applications may benefit from other features deriving from the tex-
ture of the textile. First, there is a better interlock between the layers, leading to
slightly higher interlaminar shear strength and damage tolerance. Second, the gaps
between yarns and layers provide resin channels that allow faster infiltration or the
use of resin systems with higher viscosity. In addition, the production of biaxial braids
is very cost-effective in terms of layup speed. It pushes the fiber throughput to the
optimum of the particular braiding machine and it produces a symmetrical textile layer
with fibers in plus and minus direction in only one machine path.
Triaxial braids—Feeding units for “standing ends” allow the production of braids
with additional fibers running along the axis of the preform. These yarns are evenly
distributed around the mandrel and directly integrated in the braided layer. At first
glance, standing ends offer a cost-effective way to create stiffness in the longitudinal
direction of the part, but there are some significant drawbacks to consider:
– The layup of the yarns are not completely straight, which reduces their efficiency.
– The total number of the standing ends is limited to the number of horn gears.
– Under optimal circumstances, the standing ends can cover around 50% of the part surface
(see Figure 1.2).
– The standing ends cause significant additional fiber undulation and waviness in the textile.

Consequently, triaxial braids are not the best option for high-performance applica-
tions, where high part stiffness is required; whereas they are a rather good choice
for efficient lightweight energy absorbers (Bottome, 2005).
6 Advances in Composites Manufacturing and Process Design

Figure 1.3 Production of an

UD braid.

Unidirectional braids—UD braids (Earle et al., 1991; Gessler and Maidl, 2009)
offer a way to reduce the drawbacks of biaxial and triaxial braids deriving from fiber
undulation. To produce these braids, you only have to equip the bobbins of one mov-
ing direction with the reinforcement yarn, as shown in Figure 1.3. The others carry a
thin so-called support yarn, which helps to keep the reinforcement yarns in place but
reduce their undulation to a minimum.
Section 1.4.1 describes the effect of the method on the material properties, and a
comparison of the fiber undulation can be seen in Figure 1.13.
The selection of the best support yarn is still a matter of investigation and will, most
likely, also continue to be in the future, because the choice is always linked with the
resin system used.
Two disadvantages of UD braids should not be ignored. First of all, the productivity
is cut in half, because you can only produce one single (e.g., the +) yarn direction in
one machine path, and you have to produce the—direction by pulling the mandrel
backwards or by using an additional braider. Second, your stacking is no longer sym-
metrical within itself and you have to be careful of the layer sequence.

1.2.3 Typical machine setup

Today, the most commonly used machine configuration is a combination of a standard
braider (horn gears on the machine front and bobbin carriers pointing in the direction
of the machine axis) or radial braider (bobbin carriers pointing to the center of the
machine) (Gessler, 2011) with some kind of mandrel handling device. Industrial
robots are ideal for working with mandrels up to a length of about 2 m
(Figure 1.4). For longer parts, cooperating robots on both sides of the braider are
recommended. Especially when the number of carryover parts is quite low, and for
parts with high variety and complexity, this combination offers an easy way to control
the whole process either by “teach-in” or by offline programming.
Braiding processes for composites manufacture 7

Figure 1.4 Radial braider

combined with an
industrial robot.

If the part shape is of lower complexity, for example, straight or of nearly constant
curvature, conveyer systems (Figure 1.5; see also Figure 1.10) can be a cheaper alter-
native than industrial robots. Both motorized rolls or belts, and moving clamps, are in
use to push the mandrels through the machine.
Braiders are specialized for the manufacturing of fiber layers under a certain angle
between about 20° and 70°. But composite parts are also commonly comprised of
layers in 90° and 0°. Additional machines and devices like winders for 90°, feeders
for 0°, and pick and place units for local thickenings are needed to produce these fiber
orientations. A detailed description is given in Section 1.3.

1.2.4 Braiding process window

Though the braiding process is quite adaptable, there are certain inherent limitations
that cannot be disregarded. Some are related to the process itself, some to the material
used, some to the geometry of the part, and some others are linked to the specific needs
and standards for material characteristics and uniformity (Table 1.1).
The most obstructive limitation derives from the fact that the quantity of yarns
cannot be changed during the process. Because the number of yarns, the yarn width,
the layup angle, and the circumference of the mandrel are linked by a geometrical
correlation (Rosenbaum, 1991), there is only one exact solution to obtain a coverage
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