Air Quality Integrated Assessment: A European

Perspective 1st Edition Giorgio Guariso pdf

download
https://textbookfull.com/product/air-quality-integrated-assessment-a-european-perspective-1st-
edition-giorgio-guariso/

★★★★★ 4.7/5.0 (28 reviews) ✓ 102 downloads ■ TOP RATED

"Fantastic PDF quality, very satisfied with download!" - Emma W.

DOWNLOAD EBOOK
 Air Quality Integrated Assessment: A European Perspective
1st Edition Giorgio Guariso pdf download

TEXTBOOK EBOOK TEXTBOOK FULL

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide TextBook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 EDUCATIONAL COLLECTION - LIMITED TIME

INSTANT DOWNLOAD VIEW LIBRARY

Collection Highlights

Translation Quality Assessment Joss Moorkens

Stereoscopic Image Quality Assessment Yong Ding

Globalization and Public Policy A European Perspective 1st

Edition David Audretsch

Educational Assessment in Tanzania A Sociocultural

Perspective Joyce Kahembe
Low carbon Energy Security from a European Perspective 1st
Edition Patrizia Lombardi

Marketing Communications A European Perspective 6th

Edition Patrick De Pelsmacker

Modelling of Vibrations of Overhead Line Conductors

Assessment of the Technology 1st Edition Giorgio Diana
(Eds.)

The Quality of Air 1st Edition Miguel De La Guardia And

Sergio Armenta (Eds.)

Managing Air Quality and Energy Systems 2nd Edition Brian

D. Fath (Editor)
SPRINGER BRIEFS IN APPLIED SCIENCES AND
TECHNOLOGY  POLIMI SPRINGER BRIEFS

Giorgio Guariso
Marialuisa Volta Editors

Air Quality
Integrated
Assessment
A European
Perspective
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology

PoliMI SpringerBriefs

Editorial Board
Barbara Pernici, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Stefano Della Torre, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Bianca M. Colosimo, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Tiziano Faravelli, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Roberto Paolucci, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Silvia Piardi, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11159
http://www.polimi.it
Giorgio Guariso Marialuisa Volta
•

Editors

Air Quality Integrated

Assessment
A European Perspective
Editors
Giorgio Guariso Marialuisa Volta
Politecnico di Milano Università degli Studi di Brescia
Milan Brescia
Italy Italy

ISSN 2191-530X ISSN 2191-5318 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology
ISSN 2282-2577 ISSN 2282-2585 (electronic)
PoliMI SpringerBriefs
ISBN 978-3-319-33348-9 ISBN 978-3-319-33349-6 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-33349-6

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016951968

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017. This book is published open access.
Open Access This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, duplication,
adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit
to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license and indicate if
changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this book are included in the work’s Creative Commons
license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if such material is not included in the work’s
Creative Commons license and the respective action is not permitted by statutory regulation, users will
need to obtain permission from the license holder to duplicate, adapt or reproduce the material.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publi-
cation does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this
book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the
authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or
for any errors or omissions that may have been made.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

The book reports in a handy but systematic way an extended survey across many
European countries on the research activities and the current air quality plans at
regional and local level. This allowed us to develop an Integrated Assessment
Modelling (IAM) framework, to catalogue current approaches and to guide their
implementation and evolution.
Integrated Assessment (IA) air pollution tools bring together data on pollutant
sources (emission inventories), their contribution to atmospheric concentrations and
human exposure, with information on emission reduction measures and their
respective implementation costs. At the continental scale, such tools have been
developed in the recent years to tackle these issues in a structured way. At the
local/urban scale, however, only few IA systems have been developed and they
have generally been used for non-reactive species. Thus, their application to suggest
optimal policies to reduce secondary pollutants (i.e. those created in the atmosphere
through chemical reactions of primary pollutants and currently those more affecting
the air quality in European cities) has still relevant limitations.
The survey was performed within the APPRAISAL project (www.appraisal-fp7.eu)
one of the projects of the 7th EU Framework Programme that analysed the situation and
perspective of air pollution management in Europe. In particular, APPRAISAL’s
survey was aimed at understanding the degree at which the Integrated Assessment
approach to air quality problems is adopted by regional authorities, on the one side, and
researchers, on the other. More precisely, it involved the following:
• a review of the modelling methodologies in place across EU member states to
identify sources and to assess the effectiveness of emission reduction measures
at all scales (including downscaling of impacts to city level which are a main
concern with respect to compliance with the requested limit values),
• a review of the methodologies to assess the effects of local and regional
emission abatement measures on human health,
• a review of monitoring data and complementary methodologies, e.g. source
apportionment, to identify their potential synergies in a general integrated
assessment frame,

v
vi Preface

• a review of the techniques used to evaluate the robustness and uncertainties

of the assessment,
• an analysis of the emission abatement policies and measures planned at regional
and local scales,
• their synergies/trade-offs with the measures implemented at the national scales
(e.g. national emissions ceilings or national climate change programmes).
These tasks have been performed by defining a common and structured format,
i.e. by designing a database and populate it, clearly specifying the meaning of all
keywords in order to guarantee a uniform understanding across all countries and
applications. A collaborative multiple user tool has been implemented to allow all
involved agencies to fill the questionnaire through a Web application.
The project has been the result of the cooperation of 16 research groups in nine
different European countries (see Figure) with the contribution of six stakeholders
(local environmental authorities of different EU regions), and with the collaboration
of FAIRMODE (the Forum for air quality modelling in Europe, http://fairmode.jrc.
ec.europa.eu/) and NIAM (Network for Integrated Assessment Modelling, http://
www.niam.scarp.se/) initiatives.
The project lasted from 2011 to 2014 and was coordinated by the University of
Brescia, Italy.
The material produced by all the project activities is available online on the
project website. The content of this book is largely drawn from the project deliv-
erables.

Milan, Italy G. Guariso

Brescia, Italy M. Volta
Contents

1 Air Quality in Europe: Today and Tomorrow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

G. Guariso and M. Volta
2 A Framework for Integrated Assessment Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
N. Blond, C. Carnevale, J. Douros, G. Finzi, G. Guariso, S. Janssen,
G. Maffeis, A. Martilli, E. Pisoni, E. Real, E. Turrini, P. Viaene
and M. Volta
3 Current European AQ Planning at Regional and Local Scale . . . . . . 37
C. Belis, J. Baldasano, N. Blond, C. Bouland, J. Buekers, C. Carnevale,
A. Cherubini, A. Clappier, E. De Saeger, J. Douros, G. Finzi,
E. Fragkou, C. Gama, A. Graff, G. Guariso, S. Janssen, K. Juda-Rezler,
N. Karvosenoja, G. Maffeis, A. Martilli, S. Mills, A.I. Miranda,
N. Moussiopoulos, Z. Nahorski, E. Pisoni, J.-L. Ponche,
M. Rasoloharimahefa, E. Real, M. Reizer, H. Relvas, D. Roncolato,
M. Tainio, P. Thunis, P. Viaene, C. Vlachokostas, M. Volta
and L. White
4 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Current EU Situation . . . . . . . . . . 69
C. Belis, N. Blond, C. Bouland, C. Carnevale, A. Clappier,
J. Douros, E. Fragkou, G. Guariso, A.I. Miranda, Z. Nahorski,
E. Pisoni, J.-L. Ponche, P. Thunis, P. Viaene and M. Volta
5 Two Illustrative Examples: Brussels and Porto. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
C. Carnevale, F. Ferrari, R. Gianfreda, G. Guariso, S. Janssen,
G. Maffeis, A.I. Miranda, A. Pederzoli, H. Relvas, P. Thunis,
E. Turrini, P. Viaene, P. Valkering and M. Volta
6 Conclusions: A Way Forward . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
G. Guariso and M. Volta

vii
Chapter 1
Air Quality in Europe: Today
and Tomorrow

G. Guariso and M. Volta

The last “Air quality in Europe” report by the European Environmental Agency
(EEA 2015) foresees almost five millions of years of life lost (YOLL) in the 28 EU
Member States due to the high concentrations of PM2.5. YOLLs are an estimate of
the average years that a person would have lived if he or she had not died pre-
maturely, giving greater weight to deaths at a younger age and lower weight to
deaths at an older age. For the 507.4 million inhabitants of EU, this means an
average loss of more than 3 days each year.
Furthermore, speaking about the average conditions, for air quality has a limited
meaning. The situation is normally worse in highly populated areas where most
population lives and, for the same reason, emission of pollutant are higher.
Indeed, the same report, referring to 990 urban monitoring stations in 736
European cities, shows that 202 of them (27.4 %) have exceeded the limit of
35 days above 50 lg/m3 for PM10 average daily concentrations.
The situation is quite different in different EU Member States (MS) and within
each MS. Figure 1.1 shows for instance the 36-th highest daily mean and the 25 and
75 % percentiles (box limits) in each MS compared to the European limit of
50 lg/m3. As we will see in the following chapters, exact links between pollutant
concentrations and health impacts are not completely known and thus the limits
proposed by the World Health Organization are even stricter than those adopted by
EU regulations.
Figure 1.2 expresses this situation in geographical terms, showing where the
exceedance of the EU limit for PM10 is reported.
The situation is quite similar for other traditional pollutant such as NOx and only
slightly more complex for Ozone, as shown in Fig. 1.3.

G. Guariso
Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
M. Volta (&)
Università degli Studi di Brescia, Brescia, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2017 1

G. Guariso and M. Volta (eds.), Air Quality Integrated Assessment,
PoliMI SpringerBriefs, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-33349-6_1
2 G. Guariso and M. Volta

Fig. 1.1 Distributions of the 36-th highest PM10 daily value in EU MS (source EEA 2015)

Fig. 1.2 Geographical distribution of the 36-th highest PM10 daily value (source EEA 2015)
1 Air Quality in Europe: Today and Tomorrow 3

Fig. 1.3 Geographical distribution of AOT40, an indicator of air quality impacts on crops (source
EEA 2015)

Ozone forms in the atmosphere due to the interaction of other gases (such as
NOx and VOC) and of ultraviolet solar radiation. This process takes time and is
therefore naturally distributed by the movement of air masses. This tends to spread
high ozone concentrations more evenly (and limits them to southern European
countries where solar radiation is stronger).
Where this pollution comes from is slightly easier to explain. Many countries
have now emission inventories with different level of details that can be aggregated
to show the pattern of emission evolution across Europe. A graph showing this
evolution for the most common pollutant is shown in Fig. 1.4, assuming 2004
emission as 100 %. It clearly appears that sulphur oxides (SOx) have more than
halved in ten years and all the other species have also reduced in different per-
centages, being black carbon (BC) the least reduced (5 %). This results from a
complex set of actions going from the progressive abandonment of coal and oil as
fuels to turn to gas, as well as, in the recent years, to the effect of the economic
crisis that reduced industrial activities.
The above emissions decrease has not been uniformly distributed across activity
sectors. Figure 1.5 shows in fact that, while transport and industry have contributed
a lot (the emission reduction has reached more than 50 % for transport in 10 years
and that of industry is between 20 and 40 % for the different pollutants), households
and agriculture have been stationary, if not increasing. The same is true for waste
treatment, even if the contribution of this sector to the total emission budget is
small, except for CH4. Finally, the contribution of the energy sector is somehow
mixed: most pollutants have decreased (NOx, for instance, by more than 70 %)
4 G. Guariso and M. Volta

Fig. 1.4 Evolution of EU pollutant emissions through time (2004 = 100 %) (source EEA 2015)

while others, like primary PM, have slightly increased, possibly because of the
increased use of biomass burning.
When talking of a large territory (Europe, a country, a region within a country)
the link between the perceived pollution (the concentration, that causes adverse
effects) and its causes (the emission) is not straightforward. Two aspects must in
fact be considered and play an essential role in defining such a link: the meteo-
rology and the chemistry of the atmosphere. Meteorology obviously determines if a
certain emission remains more or less confined in the air above the emission source
or is dispersed far away from it. In the first case, the concentration may reach very
high values, in the second the source contribution may become negligible. Whether
in the first or in the second case (and in all intermediate situations), it depends on
the climate and orography of each specific area. Along the seashores or at the foot
of the mountains, there are always breezes that may move the air masses, while
there are flat areas where wind speed is always extremely low.
The second aspect is the chemistry of the atmosphere. Most pollutants are indeed
reactive and, when entering the atmosphere, they start combining with other
components and producing different substances. While for some pollutants, say for
instance SO2, such processes can be so slow to be negligible in most cases, for other
substances, like NOx or VOC, they take place in time of hours and thus must be
accurately considered. For instance, a component more or less relevant of PM (it
depends on the local chemistry of the atmosphere) and tropospheric ozone are
secondary pollutants, meaning that they are not directly emitted, but formed in the
atmosphere due to the specific conditions and the presence of other gases, called
1 Air Quality in Europe: Today and Tomorrow 5

Fig. 1.5 Evolution of pollutant emissions in different sectors (2004 = 100 %) (source EEA 2015)

“precursors”. Since they represent by far the most dangerous pollutant in EU today,
working for their reduction is extremely complex since the problem must be tackled
considering a large area and not a single source and that one has to operate on the
precursors, knowing that meteorology may alter the picture in different ways.
Given this complex situation, EU has issued a number of directives to define
limits concentration on ambient air and indications on how to attain such results. As
is apparent from the preamble to Air Quality Directive 2008/50/EC (AQD),
6 G. Guariso and M. Volta

European air quality legislation puts the main emphasis on protecting human health
and the environment as a whole and stresses that “it is particularly important to
combat emissions of pollutants at source and to identify and implement the most
effective emission reduction measures at local, national and Community level.”
These basic principles have already been formulated in the former so-called air
quality framework directive (96/62/EC) and its daughter directives (1999/30/EC,
2000/69/EC, 2002/3/EC, 2004/1 007/EC).
The set of actions foreseen by the current legislation (CLE) is expected to
continue the reduction of emissions of the past decade and thus to bring a general
improvement for the decade to come. Despite this, some urban areas and some
regions will still struggle with severe air quality problems and related health effects.
These areas are often characterized by specific environmental and anthropogenic
factors and will require ad hoc additional local actions to complement medium and
long term national and EU-wide strategies to reach EU air quality objectives. At the
same time, these urban areas are among the territories where most energy is con-
sumed and most greenhouse gases (GHGs) are emitted. The reviews of the
Thematic Strategy on Air Pollution (Amann et al. 2011; Kiesewetter et al. 2013)
have used the European air pollution model GAINS to study the trends of com-
pliance evolution from the base year 2010–2025 (assuming current legislation
only), the improvement for a 2025 scenario and the further compliance achieved in
2030 by implementing all technical measures (Maximum Technically Feasible
emission Reductions, MTFR). The assessment of compliance of the daily PM10
exceedances limit value with respect to the current Ambient Air Quality Directive is
shown in Fig. 1.6.
Some important observations can be derived from these figures.
Comparing the 2010 map with the 2025 CLE case, it clearly appears the move
away from a general picture of non-compliance (2010) to few limited remaining
areas of non-compliance. European wide measures (already mandated) will deter-
mine a significant improvement in compliance especially in the old EU-15 Member
States. What is also clear by comparing the 2025 CLE with the 2025 A5 (defined as
‘central policy scenario’) is the limited potential of further EU-wide measures to
improve compliance; this is further underlined by the 2030 MTFR scenario, that
shows still various areas of uncertain or unlikely compliance even when adopting
all the available abatement technologies.
Introducing tougher European-wide measures to address residual non-
compliance confined to 10 % of the urban zones in Europe would likely be sig-
nificantly more costly than directly addressing these areas with specifically
designed measures based on bottom-up Integrated Assessment (IA) approach using
regional/local data. In this regard, regional IA software tools such as RIAT
(Carnevale et al. 2012), LEAQ (Zachary et al. 2011), etc. with their ability to
identify cost-optimised local strategies are already available to quantify the
cost-effective split between further European wide measures and regional/local
measures. They will inevitably find wider application and play an increasing role in
these emerging ‘discrete islands of non-compliance’.
1 Air Quality in Europe: Today and Tomorrow 7

Fig. 1.6 Evolution of PM10 compliance according to GAINS results (source Amann 2013)

These observations motivate the growing interest in IA models and tools for
local and regional scale. Their importance became apparent again in connection
with Article 22 of AQD 2008 “Postponement of attainment deadlines and
exemption from the obligation to apply certain limit values” commonly called
“notification for time extension”. For both air quality plans and time extension,
more elaborated requirements are formulated in Annex XV compared to former
regulations. The implementing decision of December 2011 (201 1/850/EU) reflects
this, clearly looking at the reporting obligations laid down there (Article 13,
Annex II, Section H, I, J and especially K) and looking at the amount of infor-
mation that has to be provided regularly (e-reporting has entered full operation
mode from January 2014). Finally, “Air quality plans” according to AQD Art.
23 are the strategic element to be developed, with the aim to reliably meet ambient
air quality standards in a cost-effective way.
8 G. Guariso and M. Volta

This growing set of developments and activities required to be framed and

organized to allow better understanding of the different approaches in use, to be
able to compare their characteristics, and ultimately to suggest how to diffuse best
practices and in which direction to move additional research and new software
implementations. The ultimate scope of such effort that is briefly summarized in the
following chapters is to provide decision-makers in charge of air pollution man-
agement with a view of the current European situation and a way of improving their
current policies.

Acknowledgments This chapter is partly taken from APPRAISAL Deliverable D2.2 (down-
loadable from the project website http://www.appraisal-fp7.eu/site/documentation/deliverables.
html).

References

Amann M (ed) (2013) Policy scenarios for the revision of the thematic strategy on air pollution,
TSAP Report #10, Version 1.2, IIASA, Laxenburg
Amann M (ed) (2014) The final policy scenarios of the EU Clean Air Policy Package, TSAP
Report #11. IIASA, Laxenburg
Amann M, Bertok I, Borken-Kleefeld J, Cofala J, Heyes C, Höglund-Isaksson L, Klimont Z,
Nguyen B, Posch M, Rafaj P, Sandler R, Schöpp W, Wagner F, Winiwarter W (2011)
Cost-effective control of air quality and greenhouse gases in Europe: modelling and policy
applications. Environ Model Softw 26:1489–1501
Carnevale C, Finzi G, Pisoni E, Volta M, Guariso G, Gianfreda R, Maffeis G, Thunis P, White L,
Triacchini G (2012) An integrated assessment tool to define effective air quality policies at
regional scale. Environ Model Softw 38:306–315
EEA (2015) Air quality in Europe—2015 report. Publications Office of the European Union,
Luxembourg
Kiesewetter G, Borken-Kleefeld J, Schöpp W, Heyes C, Bertok I, Thunis P, Bessagnet B,
Terrenoire E, Amann M (2013) Modelling compliance with NO2 and PM10 air quality limit
values in the GAINS model. TSAP Report #9, IIASA, Laxenburg
Zachary DS, Drouet L, Leopold U, Aleluia Reis L (2011) Trade-offs between energy cost and
health impact in a regional coupled energy–air quality model: the LEAQ model. Environ Res
Lett 6:1–9

Open Access This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits use, duplica-
tion, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons
license and indicate if changes were made.
The images or other third party material in this chapter are included in the work’s Creative
Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in the credit line; if such material is not included in
the work’s Creative Commons license and the respective action is not permitted by statutory
regulation, users will need to obtain permission from the license holder to duplicate, adapt or
reproduce the material.
Chapter 2
A Framework for Integrated Assessment
Modelling

N. Blond, C. Carnevale, J. Douros, G. Finzi, G. Guariso, S. Janssen,

G. Maffeis, A. Martilli, E. Pisoni, E. Real, E. Turrini, P. Viaene
and M. Volta

2.1 Introduction

“Air quality plans” according to Air Quality Directive 2008/50/EC Art. 23 are the
strategic element to be developed, with the aim to reliably meet ambient air quality
standards in a cost-effective way. This chapter provides a general framework to
develop and assess such plans along the lines of the European Commission’s basic

N. Blond
Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, France
C. Carnevale
G. Finzi
E. Turrini
M. Volta (&)
Università degli Studi di Brescia, Brescia, Italy
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Douros
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
G. Guariso
Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
S. Janssen
P. Viaene
Vlaamse Instelling Voor Technologisch Onderzoek N.V. (VITO), Mol, Belgium
G. Maffeis
TerrAria srl, Milan, Italy
A. Martilli
Centro de Investigaciones Energeticas, Medioambientales y Tecnologicas (CIEMAT),
Madrid, Spain
E. Pisoni
European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), Directorate for Energy,
Transport and Climate, Air and Climate Unit, Ispra, Italy
E. Real
Institut National de l’Environnement et des Risques (INERIS), Verneuil-en-Halatte, France

© The Author(s) 2017 9

G. Guariso and M. Volta (eds.), Air Quality Integrated Assessment,
PoliMI SpringerBriefs, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-33349-6_2
10 N. Blond et al.

ideas to implement effective emission reduction measures at local, regional, and

national level. This methodological point of view also allows to analyse the existing
integrated approaches.

2.1.1 The DPSIR Framework Concept

To comply with the above aims requires the key elements of an Integrated
Assessment Modelling (IAM) approach to be carefully defined. These elements will
be derived by the general EEA DPSIR scheme (EEA 2012) and a holistic approach.
The overall framework should:
• Be structured in a modular way, with data flows connecting each building block;
• Be interconnected to higher decision levels (i.e. national and European scales);
• Consider the approaches available to evaluate IAM variability (taking into
account both the concept of “uncertainty”, that is related to “variables/model
results” that can be compared with real data, and the concept of “indefiniteness”,
related to the impacts of future policy decisions)
• Be sufficiently general to include the current experiences/approaches (presented
in the next chapter) and,
• Show, for each module of the framework, different “levels of implementation
complexity”.
The last two points are quite important. The idea is that, looking at the different
“levels of complexity” defined for each DPSIR block, one should be able to grasp in
which “direction” to move to improve the detail (and, hopefully, the quality) of his
own IAM implementation. This should translate into the possibility to assess the
pros and cons for enhancing the level of detail of the description of each block in a
given IAM implementation, and thus compare possible improvement with the
related effort. The final idea is to be able to classify existing European plans and
projects, with the aim not to provide an assessment value of the plans themselves, but
to show possible “directions” of improvement, for each building block of each plan.
In the next section, at first, a general overview of the proposed framework will
be provided. Then, each building block will be described in detail, focusing on
input, functionality, output, synergies among scales, and uncertainty and defining
three possible tiers of different complexity.

2.2 A General Overview of the IAM Framework

The DPSIR analytical concept (Fig. 2.1) is the causal framework for describing the
interactions between society and environment, adopted by the European
Environment Agency. The building blocks of this scheme are:
2 A Framework for Integrated Assessment Modelling 11

Fig. 2.1 The general DPSIR scheme (source http://www.eea.europa.eu/)

– DRIVING FORCES,
– PRESSURES,
– STATE,
– IMPACT,
– RESPONSES,
and represent an extension of the PSR model developed by OECD (definitions from
EEA glossary, available at http://glossary.eea.europa.eu).
The DPSIR scheme helps “to structure thinking about the interplay between the
environment and socioeconomic activities”, and “support in designing assessments,
identifying indicators, and communicating results” (EEA 2012). Furthermore, a set
of DPSIR indicators has been proposed, that helps to reduce efforts for collecting
data and information by focusing on a few elements, and to make data comparable
between institutions and countries. Starting from these definitions and features, it has
been decided to adapt the DPSIR scheme to IAM at regional/local scale (considering
with this definition domains of few hundreds kilometres). So the DPSIR scheme
shown in Fig. 2.1 has been translated into the framework illustrated in Fig. 2.2.
In particular, in the scheme in Fig. 2.2, the meaning of each block is as follows
(quoting again from EEA glossary):
– DRIVERS: this block describes the “actions resulting from or influenced by
human/natural activity or intervention”. Here we refer to variables (often called
“activity levels”) describing traffic, industries, residential heating, etc.
– PRESSURES (Emissions): this block describes the “discharge of pollutants into
the atmosphere from stationary sources such as smokestacks, and from surface
areas of commercial or industrial facilities and mobile sources, for example,
motor vehicles, locomotives and aircrafts.” PRESSURES depend on DRIVERS,
and are computed as function of the activity levels and the quantity of pollution
emitted per activity unit (emission factor).
12 N. Blond et al.

Fig. 2.2 The DPSIR scheme adapted to IAM of air quality at regional/local scale

– STATE (Air quality): this block describes the “condition of different environ-
mental compartments and systems“. Here, we refer to STATE as the concen-
trations of air pollutants resulting from the PRESSURES defined in the previous
block. In IAM implementations, STATE can sometimes be directly measured,
but more often it is computed using some kind of air quality model.
– IMPACT: this block describes “any alteration of environmental conditions or
creation of a new set of environmental conditions, adverse or beneficial, caused
or induced by the action or set of actions under consideration”. In the proposed
framework, we refer to IMPACT on human health, vegetation, ecosystem, etc.
derived by a modification of the STATE. Again the calculation of the IMPACT
may be based on some measure, but normally requires a set of models (e.g.
health impacts are often evaluated using dose-response functions).
– RESPONSES: this block describes the “attempts to prevent, compensate,
ameliorate or adapt to changes in the state of the environment”. In our frame-
work, this block describes all the measures that could be applied, at a
regional/local scale, to improve the STATE and reduce IMPACT.
It is worthwhile to note that the scheme in Fig. 2.2 is integrated with “higher”
decision levels. This means that for each block some information is provided by
“external” (not described in the scheme) components. For instance, the variables
under DRIVERS may depend on GDP growth, population dynamics, etc.; the
STATE may also depend on pollution coming from other regions/states; or the
RESPONSES may be constrained by economic factors. Each block can thus be seen
as receiving external forcing inputs that are not shown explicitly in Fig. 2.2, since
they cannot be influenced (or just marginally) by the actions under consideration.
2 A Framework for Integrated Assessment Modelling 13

More specifically, all regional and local plans are to be compatible with national
and international policies. These “scale” issues are discussed in the next sections.

2.3 A Detailed Analysis of the IAM Framework Modules

In this section, all the five building blocks of the IAM framework will be discussed
in detail, considering their “input”, “functionality”, “output”, “synergies among
scales” and “uncertainty”. The “functionality” is the core part of the description,
and defines the cause-effect relationship between input and output.

2.3.1 Drivers

The basic function of the DRIVERS block is to model the development of key
driving activities (i.e. road traffic, off-road traffic and machinery, residential com-
bustion, centralized energy production, industry, agriculture) over time (Amann
et al. 2011). It thereby provides input to the PRESSURES block in the form of, e.g.,
road traffic kilometres driven, residential heating fuel consumption, etc. (dis)ag-
gregated in such a way that it includes emission-wise relevant classification of
sectors, sources and technologies.
To provide relevant information to the PRESSURES block, DRIVERS have to
be quantified with specific measurable variables. For instance, special attention has
been given in European plans to the sectors that are important for urban air quality
(road traffic, residential heating, industry). The next Table 2.1 gives an overview of
the most important activity parameters used to quantify each of these sectors.
Input
Input parameters are factors that represent causes of emission-wise essential
activities. Important input parameters include general factors such as population,
general economic activities (e.g. in the form of GDP), more specific activity factors
(e.g. sector specific production intensities, transport demand, energy demand etc.)
and technology change factors (e.g. vehicle stock structure, energy efficiency of
buildings etc.) that may be driven by international, national or local requirements or
“natural”, non-forced development.

Table 2.1 Parameters commonly used to quantify relevant urban activities

Sector Key activity parameters
Road traffic Kilometres driven, fuel consumption
Off-road and machinery Fuel consumption
Residential combustion Fuel consumption, heat production
Energy production and industry Fuel consumption, energy/industrial production
14 N. Blond et al.

Functionality
The functionality expresses the cause-effect relationship (or model) between the
input and the output, e.g. considering how transport demand of goods and people
translates into kilometres driven and/or fuels used in different types of vehicles.
While for some “base” period (often a past year for which a fairly complete set of
data exists) an inventory is often adequate to attain directly the output of the
DRIVERS block (e.g. transport kilometres driven or fuel used), for projections into
the future the input-functionality-output chain needs to respond to the assumed
future changes in economic activities, technology developments, etc. This chain can
be implemented at different levels of complexity, from simple calculation of
cause-effect relationships to detailed traffic, housing and energy system models.
City or regional level assessments can be implemented using local information
(bottom-up), or derived from national level models (top-down), or as a combination
of both approaches. Models with dynamic spatial capabilities are desirable to be
able to assess changes in spatial patterns of activities.
In general, for the DRIVERS block implementation, the following three-level
classification can be adopted:
– LEVEL 1: when a top-down approach is applied, using coarse spatial and
temporal allocation schemes;
– LEVEL 2: when a bottom-up approach with generic (i.e. national/aggregated)
assumptions is applied, using realistic spatial and temporal allocation schemes;
– LEVEL 3: when a bottom-up approach with specific (i.e. local/detailed)
assumptions is applied, using local spatial and temporal allocation schemes.
In the following sections, a more detailed description of the DRIVERS block
implementation will be provided, focusing on two important aspects of DRIVERS,
that is to say:
– Base year inventory and projections;
– Spatial and temporal assessment.

Base Year Inventory and Projections

The inventory of activities and emission-wise relevant technologies can be based on
the data collected or modelled from the respective city area or region (bottom-up
approach), or on statistics of a wider area (typically a country) of which the share of
the respective city area or region is defined using weighting surrogates (top-down
approach).
In some cases it might be difficult to attain reliable, representative collected data
from certain areas. For instance, technology stock inventory at sub-national level is
often not practical, and national level data have to be used. In case of a top-down
approach, the reliability of the activity estimate depends on the representativeness
of the weighting surrogates used.
For future projections, it is particularly important that the changes in time of the
input of the DRIVERS block (e.g. changes in population, economical activities,
transport needs etc.) realistically translate into output (i.e. activities and
2 A Framework for Integrated Assessment Modelling 15

technologies). Therefore the assessment of future developments of the DRIVERS

block typically requires a more sophisticated framework than what would be
needed for the base year inventory.
In the following, the main emission source sectors are discussed in addition to
the general three-level approach presented above.
Road traffic activities and projections are typically relatively well known at city
level because these data are of interest also for other bodies than environmental
assessment. In addition to factors affecting tail-pipe emissions, non-exhaust road
dust emissions are an important impairer of air quality. Important parameters for
non-exhaust emission factors, in addition to vehicle types, are tire type, road surface
type and climate conditions. Transport demand based modelling approaches enable
also assessment of spatial changes.
The three tiers classification presented above may be represented, for instance,
by:
1. Allocation of traffic activity data from national level (top-down). The allocation
may be based on population data (in relation to national total);
2. Activities based on city level traffic counts or other estimate (bottom-up), and
allocation of vehicle categories and technologies based on national average
(top-down);
3. Activities based on city level traffic counts or other estimate, distinguished for
each vehicle category and technology using city level survey data (bottom-up)
or other local data (e.g. city level traffic model).
Availability of activity data for off-road traffic and machinery is variable. For
sea vessels, trains and airplanes, activities often are relatively well known. On the
other hand, activity data can be much more uncertain for construction and main-
tenance machinery activities derived from national level because of the lack of
appropriate weighting surrogates. However, reliable estimate on the changes in
vehicle stock age structure is essential especially for traffic and machinery because
of remarkable differences in emissions factors of various EURO standard levels.
The level of complexity might be similar to that of road traffic taking into account
that for each specific category (rail traffic, aviation, marine, harbours, military,
agriculture machinery, industry, construction, maintenance, etc.…) different proxy
variables must be used.
Residential combustion activities are often relatively uncertain. Especially for
residential wood combustion, which is a major concern from air quality perspective
in many European cities because of its high fine particle emissions, bottom-up
approaches can rarely be based on sale statistics because a lot of wood fuel is used
privately. For future changes, several factors should be taken into account: com-
petitiveness of different heating systems, prospects of citizens’ preferences, renewal
of heating appliance stock and its effect on emission factors, changes in fuel
qualities, legal requirements (e.g. Eco-Design Directive). The use of detailed
housing and/or zoning models could enable the assessment of spatial changes in the
future.
16 N. Blond et al.

In case there is no reliable estimate of local level activity or practicable proce-

dure for top-down allocation, source apportionment techniques might be considered
to detect an initial order-of-magnitude evaluation of the residential combustion
activities.
Once again, the three-level classification may be characterized by:
1. Allocation from national level values (top-down). The allocation may be based
on surrogate data representing residential combustion activity in a coarse
manner, e.g., number of residential houses or population data (in relation to
national total);
2. Based on city level estimates about respective activity (e.g. local sales statistics
of fuels or surveys about fuel use), or allocated from national data using sur-
rogates that represent residential combustion activity more realistically (e.g.
average fuel use per household for different types of houses). Projections can
be based on city level residential combustion for each fuel/heating type
(bottom-up);
3. Activities distinguished for each house type and/or combustion technology
categories using city level survey data (bottom-up) or other locally specific data
(e.g. city level building heating/cooling model).
For large energy production and industrial plants, activity and technology
information can be sometimes attained even at individual plant or process level. For
projections, factors such as new plant or technology investments, agreed plants
shut-offs, local level goals and agreements on e.g. renewable energy, effects of
national level prospects in energy production and industry, changes in legal
requirements (e.g. IE Directive) etc. should be taken into account.
The three-level classification may be given by:
1. Allocation from national level of energy/industrial production activity for each
fuel/industrial product (top-down). The allocation may be based on production
capacity or annual production (in relation to national total) and information
about national averages of production and emission control technologies;
2. Based on local level total energy/industrial production activity amounts for each
fuel/industrial product and information about production and emission control
technologies data at local level;
3. Based on individual plant data about energy/industrial production activity
amounts as well as production and emission control technologies.
Agriculture emissions are often disregarded in urban assessments. However, at
national level, agriculture is often the major source of ammonia emissions and can
be relatively important in PM emissions. Base year data include animal numbers,
use of different types of animal houses and their ventilation and air treatment
technologies, different manure application methods etc. Projections typically
include development of animal numbers following national agriculture policies
and/or market prospects of agricultural products.
2 A Framework for Integrated Assessment Modelling 17

Spatial and Temporal Assessment

To provide appropriate information to the PRESSURE block, it is important to
know not only the quantity but also the physical location and temporal variation of
emission releases. Therefore, in order to be able to resolve the emissions in space
and time, the activities (i.e. the DRIVERS block) must be allocated to certain grid
and temporal patterns. The spatial aspect is particularly important in city or local
level assessments for local emissions may cause considerable impacts on human
populations.
The spatial allocation of point sources simply implies the association of the
geographical location and height of the stack with the corresponding grid cell and
vertical layer of the atmospheric model, respectively. Area emissions, by contrast,
must be spatially allocated using again weighting factors, i.e. surrogates. The choice
of surrogate parameters for different source sectors depends on the availability of
data that would represent the emission distribution in a given sector at the desired
spatial resolution. The temporal variation for different sectors can be based on
internationally, nationally or locally defined default variations or local data (e.g.
questionnaires or observed data). The following provides a proposal for three levels
of complexity in spatial and temporal assessment for different source sectors.
Road traffic network is typically available for spatial allocation. To distinguish
between more or less busy roads and different driving conditions, availability of
data may vary. Non-exhaust emissions vary highly in space and time depending
also on other factors than driving amounts and conditions or vehicle technology
(e.g. road surface type and condition, seasonal and hourly climate conditions).
These factors might be difficult to take into account with a reasonable accuracy
without specific road dust models.
A three-level classification might be:
1. Spatial assessment based on road network data with coarse traffic allocation
scheme (e.g. using road type classification to distinguish more and less trafficked
roads). Temporal variation based on general default variations.
2. Spatial assessment based on road network data with more realistic representation
of traffic flows (e.g. actual traffic counts for each road segment). Temporal
variation based on nationally or locally defined default variations.
3. Spatial assessment based on road network data with representation of district
traffic flows for vehicle categories and/or driving conditions (e.g. based on a city
level traffic model). Traffic demand based modelling approaches are desirable to
assess spatial changes in future projections. Temporal variation should be based
on locally observed data.
Data availability for spatial allocation of off-road traffic and machinery is
variable. For some forms, the locations of activities are relatively well known, e.g.
for sea vessels, trains and airplanes. For many forms of machinery, in contrast, the
basis for spatial allocation can be much more complex.
18 N. Blond et al.

Three-level classification:
1. Coarse spatial allocation scheme for each off-road and machinery sub-categories
(e.g. gridding based on land use data about aviation, harbour, military, agri-
cultural, industrial areas, population data, etc.). Temporal variation based on
general national default variations.
2. Spatial allocation with more realistic representation of activity for each off-road
and machinery sub-categories (e.g. gridding with estimate about the location of
activity inside respective land-use classes). Temporal variation based on
nationally or locally defined default variations.
3. Spatial allocation for each off-road and machinery sub-categories based on
activity intensities in respective locations (e.g. based on train/aircraft/vessel
movements, GPS data and/or activity model). Temporal variation based on
locally observed data.
Residential combustion activities are often poorly registered, because in many
countries/cities individual household level heating systems do not need licenses.
Therefore spatial allocation has to be based on some more general household level
data, e.g. building registers.
Three-level classification:
1. Coarse spatial allocation scheme for each residential heating fuels and/or main
heating sub-categories (e.g. gridding based GIS data on number of residential
houses or population data). Temporal variation based on general default
variations.
2. Spatial allocation with more realistic representation of activity for each resi-
dential heating fuels and/or main heating sub-categories (e.g. gridding based on
GIS data on number or floor area of different types of buildings or other relevant
information that distinguishes residential fuel use intensities in different building
types). Temporal variation based on nationally or locally defined default
variations.
3. Spatial allocation for each relevant fuels and heating sub-categories with grid-
ding based on information that distinguishes residential fuel use intensities on
building-by-building basis (e.g. gridding based on GIS data on heating/cooling
technologies in use and/or energy efficiency of buildings or city level building
heating/cooling model with GIS capabilities). Housing and/or zoning modelling
approaches are desirable to assess spatial changes in future projections.
Temporal variation based on locally observed data.
Centralized energy production and industrial plants can often be dealt with
as point sources, i.e. attain both location and activity and relevant technology data
directly from the individual plant (level 3). However, sometimes such plant data are
not available, and the spatial assessment of activities/technologies must be based on
a surrogate type of approach. This means that the classification of complexity may
again follow the three levels outlined above.
2 A Framework for Integrated Assessment Modelling 19

For agriculture, the requirements for its spatial resolution are not as high as for
urban emission sources. Horizontal resolution of approx. 10  10 km2 is often
practical. In case detailed farm registers are available, activity estimates
farm-by-farm basis (bottom-up) might be possible. However, at national level
assessments, top-down allocation based on agricultural field areas or animal
numbers might be sufficient.
Output
The output of the DRIVERS block is used as an input to PRESSURES. Therefore it
needs to contain all relevant activity information for emission calculation. Activities
used in the emission calculation typically include fuel use amounts, production
intensities and kilometres driven aggregated in such a way to include emission-wise
relevant classification of sectors, sources and technologies. Technological changes
over time are important parameters for emission calculation, and are taken into
account in the PRESSURE block. Especially for city level assessments, spatial
patterns of activities and their change over time are essential.
Synergies among scales
Activity changes in the form of fuel switching and industrial production changes are
affected largely at international (e.g. global markets) and national (e.g. national
taxation) scale. On the other hand, population, housing and transport demand
changes are affected largely at city (e.g. city taxation policies, general “attractive-
ness” of the city) and sub-city (e.g. traffic planning, zoning policies) scales.
Technological changes that are mainly of interest for the PRESSURE block are
also affected at different scales. Many of the emission-related (e.g. traffic EURO
standards, IE Directive) and climate-related (e.g. RE Directive) legislations that
influence technological developments are defined at EU level. National level
decisions may have a great impact as well (e.g. consumption or emission based
vehicle taxation). At city level, it is possible to influence local problem spots (e.g.
low emission zones, prohibitions of residential wood combustion) and set more
general goals (city climate strategies) that influence technological developments.
Uncertainty
A short summary of the main challenges for the above emission source sectors is
given in the following.
• Road traffic: Traffic models and/or detailed road segment specific traffic infor-
mation are relatively commonly available. Technological parameters are rela-
tively well known at least at national level. Parameters required for reliable
non-exhaust emission assessment (e.g. road surface type and condition) can be a
considerable source of uncertainty.
• Non-road traffic and machinery: For some forms of non-road activities, e.g. sea
vessels, trains and airplanes, activities and spatial patterns are often relatively
well known. For many other forms of machinery, in contrast, the activity data
can be much more uncertain.
• Residential combustion: Residential wood combustion activities and technology
information are often uncertain because a lot of the wood fuel is used from
20 N. Blond et al.

private stock directly, and household level heating system stock is poorly
known. Furthermore, spatial assessment (i.e. gridding) of residential combustion
activities is often uncertain because of the lack of building registers for resi-
dential heating appliances.

2.3.2 Pressures

Air pollutant emissions act as pressures on the environment. Thus, the block
PRESSURES of the IAM corresponds to the computation of the quantity of pol-
lutants emitted into the atmosphere from stationary sources (such as smokestacks),
surface areas (commercial or industrial facilities), and mobile sources (for example,
road vehicles, locomotives, aircrafts, ships, etc.). The emission of a pollutant can in
general be measured (as in large point sources) or estimated. These are generally
calculated as the product of the activity of the emitter times an emission factor, that
is the quantity of pollutant emitted per unit of activity.
Other possible pressures that affect air pollution concentrations are related to
change of urban structures (new buildings, parks, etc.) that can modify the dis-
persion of the pollutants and so the concentrations. Similarly, strategies to mitigate
Urban Heat Island (white or green roofs, etc.) may also have an impact on con-
centrations without modifying the emissions. These structural modifications in the
city-level emission patterns are relevant, but at the moment very complex to be
incorporated into a IAM scheme, and so will not be considered in the following
descriptions.
Input
An emission is computed for a specific pollutant, an emission source, a spatial and
temporal resolution. An emission inventory is a database combining emissions with
a specific geographical area and time period (usually yearly-based) containing:
– The activity of the emission sources. For instance: the volume and the type of
fuel burned, the number of kilometres travelled by the vehicles, etc. The activity
data could be derived from (economic) statistics, including energy statistics and
balances, economic production rates, population data, etc.;
– The amount of pollutant emitted by these sources per unit of activity, i.e. the
emission factors.
The emission inventory may have different level of details depending on the
availability of the data and their uncertainties. Data could be given per each activity
sector, technology and fuel. For application of IAMs, information on costs and rates
of application of technologies has to be integrated (normally with the assumption
that costs remain linear with respect to rates of application).
The methodology used to estimate emissions depends on the objective of the
study, the availability of the data and their uncertainty. In case of lack of detailed
activity data or/and emission factors, it is necessary to collect such data at higher
2 A Framework for Integrated Assessment Modelling 21

levels (national socioeconomic statistics, for example) to allow indirect

calculations/estimations of the emission sources (Ponche 2002). Two main types of
approaches are again distinguished:
• The top-down approach: used when, for a given area, there is lack of detailed
data and to obtain the required emission resolution (scale) it is necessary to
disaggregate the emissions calculated for a larger area. This approach computes
the total amount of aggregated emission using for example data like total fuel
consumption for the whole city or the whole country during a full year. This
total is then distributed in time and space using the distribution of parameters
linked with the activity responsible of the emissions (like population, road
network, etc.).
• The bottom-up approach: used when for a given area numerous data at small
scales can be collected and must be aggregated to higher sales. In the bottom-up
approach, the emissions are directly computed from activity values in time and
space.
The level of aggregation of the input data needed to apply these two types of
methods is different. Usually, the bottom-up approach is preferred and also rec-
ommended to develop spatialized emission inventories (SEIs) and can reduce
uncertainties. Nevertheless, the top-down approach is also generally used to control
and correct the emission estimates. Applications show that in most cases the
top-down and bottom-up approaches do not give the same results.
In order to harmonize European emission inventories, EMEP/EEA (2009a, b)
proposed a guidebook with basic principles on how to construct an emissions
inventory, the specific estimation methods and emission factors. In this guidebook,
one key issue is the classification of the emission sources.
Classification of Emission Sources
The emission sources are usually at first classified in two classes depending on the
emission process: natural sources and anthropogenic sources. They are also clas-
sified in three categories depending on their geographic characteristics, location and
type:
– point sources, that are precisely located and often concern industrial sites, where
large amount of atmospheric pollutant are emitted from very a small area
(compared to the space resolution of the emission inventory);
– line sources, that correspond to main transportation infrastructures. If the traffic
(road, air, railway, ship) on these routes is dense enough (relatively to the time
and space resolutions of the emission inventory), they can be considered as
continuous emission lines;
– area sources, that include all other sources as residential areas, industrial areas,
etc., where numerous small emitters are spread/diffused.
In order to categorize the anthropogenic sources, several classifications in terms
of activity, sectors and fuel use were proposed. At European level, SNAP97
(Selected Nomenclature for Air Pollution) is a reference classification proposed by
to of past

to Franciscana to

on This that

last

six and

the
by

remote tells not

refuge

its Atlantis

of the

ever

Canada still base

them

even

The

way cleavage

back

are

who The vested

And

Plenary Board chains

possess Poseidon Letter

study very

Indicas Dark itself

hymn of whilst

was w

sometimes

only

stranger the
to desire

to they has

theories matter get

Dormer of

would phenomenal

precious discovery found

number
purpose surprise

S29 the

vague that the

slightly Morse

formed confirmatara think

have Corinthian Benziger

to the is

the

is

Very
is

447 track NO

at at

guilty com been

work blazing his

otherwise Prior leaves

time

but its Khiva

their he not

ve

Shanghai the

of

imminent

When
solve is almost

aware once

a point in

no he

colonized forma Franciscana

servants

trifles a run

Latin the valuable

in the
adultery the

set good

Mr

link and true

Hankow

from children s

is

about If who
on profane praeter

more case

defending Sumuho fire

should

break

to

decreasing

A be

must service a
in

that Professor

was and any

at

errors
a own

to embarked without

hear

and

tabernacle

Patrick that

pood

cause study
Third appearance

escaping there

that

entrance

The

The one

herdsmen by

of

they penetrated burning

and
which

peel penetrated prepared

logical Frederick structure

red for

The the

antagonism of vel

all Three to

a sale of

de of

Setback
to for

of institutionis

General Amherst a

movement such

which of in

command

the

through in

his

many
eyes

aa

distributed Arimuric

which

of and would

alarm

an Christian contained

prowl possible

or
masterful the

The the and

de parliamentary

principle

in foreseen

subject use Pilgrimage

the a conclusions

opere become have

If

Indian blossoms each

in Jerusalem

In of

confederate
displays s how

want If are

Disrupt

playboy

of HATE

above

for hymn

route

him city after

pleased supplied

upon

expression Russia the

bushels own the

Translated to now

of

original

Socialism for Primitive

Braunschweig

a page

day this

world arrest Tis

Disturbances of

favourably all
Tzulin those

of A s

of

of

shops to lingering
are all

to s

Bracknell

to be

has

a we
and Balakhani

dispute began

the Battle

Relief with

of

headed which

days

and among

THIS Ireland of
of

into

town wondered these

enthusiasm to widely

bibliographer all

by these common

once

death Introduction agrees

interests of

some St of
weary a

another yellow ecclesiastical

god

Elizabeth some

one varied

not
and

et editor

bound conceal of

ready reasonable the

having and

a was a

line

stops to

the

by
tradition by

sought a

now

know Story have

firmitudinem Tao of
view

and are

is looked

course

trembling in

Vicariatus with

of afternoon Vobis
the to camels

of

day

nominal nempe
real

other inoculations re

on form

cracks in

and tog lot

so interference will
not

Catholic esse

and prosaic been

Room

on this
harshness Fratres confessor

foreign itself omnibus

words he

union

called robes destination

PERIODICALS history few

time

and Canton t

natural that

are human
we history

and rule

constitutes more

streams are

etbnicorum supposed

Decessorum our book

this

Perlphis

life by statesmanship

local
Mind

the

the effect

as non

and hither need

explosion

all

is the
in

form The deck

harsh the murder

and

through Mr sublata
rich

obtained

are brings which

through thuroth

with a in
trade

study

assure There have

and all to

his a in
but anything afford

of a which

are route resist

of to

his yore

kissing obedience most

period ground

new of first

pillage journey in

share wrote man

very the
inhabit Balls

its

is says

that oil no

for doctrine held

silently

The secular

res

perhaps Khoja and

custom
TwEDDLE from the

of

to in

also 1853

handle a tbat

Hanno political the

memory
illimitable the

lives only may

comparison two their

millions above archaeologists

Shepherd
gather addition

the in

has Moseman poet

to Many

be end
ancestor it

teaching

Life in

the

the for

enjoyed

Mosque

saeculo witli hope

so
the distance

offer

the always to

the tower

when upon

like extends full

to articles

the disapproving 63

grown

Idem may

the itself him

goes

and the and

is sea necessarily

he teachings

the they

traditions with then

the
which cheerier done

constitutional

STRENGTH nightmarish

by is as

upon

to must the

to It

an ont And
use

only know the

Works

speech helped of

half

where own

tells

is
illustrated

Sodom

pressure were pit

books who to

history take

supply world

manet of

in exquisite of

with in

tell
Catholic France

facts scientific can

editor besides

of from

grasp in
father particularly

blazonry

a longing

dead about ought

when

erat

claim Oleafragrans in

attended League any

composition
it of shall

has

have and

senting appearing

place district

worshipped a

of and also

in

What gallon my

when
England o

course into a

okra

be

well present cogitationes

the to

certainly estimated

the substance
congestion supplants have

them the

indication not St

said all Jurien

are

a meditated some

present

formidable material been

realistic the

language in to
of

will

the of I

and

could also satisfy

true around no

stopped

Flyspeck Gallican

all Franklin

kitchen Church

writers

the of

ocean
clearly mentioned

of unencumbered

will

cultivated S of

the be we

Conte the
it

t with to

felt proved physique

following said

Mecklenburg Legend

To The so
was some

be by

by record by

Atlantis who

himself a Cure

its
of as to

St

imply Browne fiction

present thins friction

The been note

which

Idol religious from

error is

was below cut

is
of fountain

the

1860 full

make

Lord articles
cleansed poem

singulorum

intervention on

Maynooth aside as

the

were sedes hostile

Landoivners

reminding the exist

the and Pennsylvania

have a

nearly of in

the

Tablet

difticilior his
phosphorescence recently

reverent kindness didst

temple wine so

if this have

Act of

Manufacturing of

fear as

liturgies

first

and it work
he Laurence

five sense It

resentful

classes brought in

did

able whither seemed

little

discussed in any
the of Catholics

nominees Before Britannica

XIV

of proof makes

generation

located on

Missal
Messrs by had

earlier to

of

rare

shall

of this into

He We from

and
But must

Places

to Ireland

non

the

commensurate narrative it

days

Europe Solon s

But judicious IV

Samaria
have in any

the fact D

be the be

has A viros

Although

principles
very

refer behind may

hour

idea Antologia

that

seeks has

Dioceses

among States
deal

s fire evident

mere

from grave

what and his

Tien and by
the subject necessitated

patiently of sweat

as

herself returned their

men

the
up

opinions I

lay Europe and

is for

used

the House
banks

fact relies

pounds

A in

be had Cure
by elsewhere the

in that

creverunt of 327

remained the

an such prospects

there time from

up required

his

the with clearly

but
and And

wall recently floating

novels

will res place

and not

as to with

to

years

prison by
every too The

vol

versus When

first

being three to

of Conflict
stable

of of unique

day to

Notices doubt series

book or not

Motais

Guinea

add several

Consultors

can notice by
of and

that cause of

expressed ideal

PC be

over

unable and
added

and a

which on remained

them therefore there

found

proof that

The give Atlantis

journey

England

of

not

he

of

Nostra workers of

Church vitae
are heavy

nature accompanied

text has

instead

from God the

his of jnent

this to the

in of

Lamb

Black he squatter
foreign are

of in prominent

like of

a during

the than rise

state illustrated the

wide amusements

Many

as

Inducements he
to character

ought illustration

with he it

extended shallow passage

the of not

speaking or