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Yearbook of Phraseology 1
2010
Yearbook of Phraseology 1
2010

Editor
Koenraad Kuiper

De Gruyter Mouton
ISBN 978-3-11-022261-6
e-ISBN 978-3-11-022262-3
ISSN 1868-632X
ISSN online 1868-6338

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;

detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.


c 2010 Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/New York
Printing: AZ Druck und Datentechnik GmbH, Kempten
∞ Printed on acid-free paper
Printed in Germany
www.degruyter.com
Managing Editor Editors

Koenraad Kuiper Harald Burger

Department of Linguistics Universität Zürich, Switzerland
University of Canterbury
Jean-Pierre Colson
Private Bag 4800
Université Catholique de Louvain,
Christchurch 8020
New Zealand Belgium
E-mail: Jarmo Korhonen
[email protected] University of Helsinki, Finland
Annette Sabban
Universität Hildesheim, Germany

Review Editor

Andreas Langlotz, Université de Lausanne, Switzerland

Editorial Board

František Čermak Salah Mejri

Univerzita Karlova v Praze, Paris VIII, France
Prague, Czech Republic
Wolfgang Mieder
Dmitrij Dobrovol’skij University of Vermont, USA
Universität Wien, Austria
Antonio Pamies-Betrán
Christiane Fellbaum Universidad de Granada, Spain
Princeton University, USA
Andrew Pawley
Natalia Filatkina Australian National University, Australia
Universität Trier, Germany
Elizabeth Piirainen
Csaba Földes Steinfurt, Germany
Panonische Universität,
Kathrin Steyer
Vesprem, Hungary
Institut für deutsche Sprache,
Sylviane Granger Mannheim, Germany
Université Catholique de Louvain,
Diana van Lancker-Sidtis
Belgium
New York University, USA
Annelies Häcki Buhofer
Alison Wray
Universität Basel, Switzerland
Cardiff University, UK
Erla Hallsteinsdóttir
Syddansk Universitet, Denmark
 Contents

Koenraad Kuiper
Editorial ix

Articles

Sabine Fiedler
Phraseology in a time of crisis: The language of bank
advertisements before and during the financial crisis of
2008 – 2010 1

Anita Naciscione
Visual representation of phraseological image 19

Natalia Filatkina and Monika Hanauska

Wissensstrukturierung und Wissensvermittlung durch
Routineformeln: Am Beispiel ausgewählter althochdeutscher Texte 45

Dmitrij Dobrovol’skij and Elisabeth Piirainen

Idioms: Motivation and etymology 73

Günter Schmale
Ist ein idiomatischer Ausdruck immer expressiv? Korpusbasierte
und fragebogengestützte Beobachtungen zu einer verbreiteten
Prämisse 97

Erla Hallsteinsdóttir and Ken Farø

Interlinguale Phraseologie 125
viii Contents

Anna Idström
Inari Saami idioms of time 159

Comment

František Čermák
Fifteen commandments of a phraseologist 179

Book reviews

Christiane Fellbaum (ed.): Idioms and collocations: Corpus-based

linguistic and lexicographic studies. (Elena Dnestrovskaya) 183

Wolfgang Mieder: “Yes we can”: Barack Obama’s proverbial

rhetoric. (Sabine Fiedler) 190

Thomas Kotschi, Ulrich Detges and Colette Cortès: Wörterbuch

französischer Nominalprädikate: Funktionsverbgefüge und feste
Syntagmen der Form <être + Präposition + Nomen>. (Annette
Sabban) 194

Stefaniya Ptashnyk: Phraseologische Modifikationen und ihre

Funktionen im Text: Eine Studie am Beispiel der deutschsprachigen
Presse. (Martina Häcker) 198

Alison Wray: Formulaic language: Pushing the boundaries. (Sixta

Quassdorf) 203
 Editorial

Welcome to the Yearbook of Phraseology

KOENRAAD KUIPER

Welcome to theYearbook of Phraseology, or, as the indigenous people of the islands

of New Zealand would say formulaically, ‘Haere mai, Haere mae, Haere mai’.
Why should we welcome this Yearbook? Why indeed should it see the light
of day at all? The world is full of academic periodicals dealing with exotica
of thousands of kinds. High aims were set for the Yearbook when it was pro-
posed to the publishers. We said, “The YoP will be the pre-eminent periodi-
cal publication in phraseology with a high reputation among scholars in the
field. It will publish only articles which make a significant contribution to the
field. It will facilitate dialogue between Continental and English-speaking schol-
ars in the field of phraseology and build a comprehensive understanding of the
many facets of phraseology and thus establish the field on the global scale.” On
the one hand, these are high-sounding words and easily said. But on the other
hand, there is no periodical publishing on all areas of phraseology exclusively.
In fact, the field of phraseology is remarkably little known outside of northern
Europe. While it exists at the crossroads of a number of disciplines it is certainly
as central to linguistics as morphology and lexical semantics which deal with
the properties of one word lexical items.
How does the Yearbook conceive of phraseology. In the proposal to the
publisher we said, “Phraseology is the study of the phrasal lexicon of both native
speakers and languages, and the study of the usage of phrasal lexemes. Phrasal
lexemes are distinguished from other lexemes by having syntactic structure
rather than word structure. As lexemes, they can be studied for both their formal
properties and their usage properties.
The study of the phrasal lexicon of speakers is manifested in studies of
the psycholinguistics of such items including their acquisition, production and
perception. Where study is related to the phrasal lexicon of a language it supports
areas such as the lexicography of idioms and restricted collocations, proverb
studies and corpus linguistic investigations. The usage of phrasal lexemes leads,
for example, to studies in formulaic varieties of speech and stylistics.”
x Koenraad Kuiper

So the Yearbook has set out on an ambitious journey. In doing so it has

needed friends. The sole scholarly society dealing with phraseology, the Euro-
pean Society of Phraseology has been its sponsor and without the active support
of the management committee and advisory board as well as the membership
of the Society this volume would not be in front of you. The publishers, Mouton
de Gruyter, were prepared to accept the Society’s proposal and have been most
supportive. Members of the Editorial Board have been prepared to review and
have done so promptly and carefully. In this first issue it is important to thank
all these people.
However, the production of a Yearbook of phraseology is only a half way
point. If the work represented in the Yearbook now and in the future is to make
a significant contribution to the discipline of phraseology and its related disci-
plines it must also be read and disseminated. How successful that second phase
will be is up to the scholarly community of those with an interest in phraseology.
 Phraseology in a time of crisis:
The language of bank advertisements before
and during the financial crisis of 2008 – 2010

SABINE FIEDLER1

Abstract

This paper compares the phraseology of bank advertisements before and during
the financial crisis of 2008–2010. A statistical analysis of the content of bank
ads in newspapers from 2000 and 2009 shows how the banks’ use of phrase-
ology mirrors changes in people’s attitudes in a time of economic turbulence.
It seems that banks and their subsidiaries are reviewing their strategies and
adapting their advertising campaigns to meet the requirements of the current
climate. Rather than positioning themselves as sources of easy money, banks
are reverting to images of honesty and sobriety. At a time when people’s houses
are being repossessed, slogans such as “If your bank can’t keep up, leave them
behind” (Abbey International) are being replaced with no-nonsense slogans
such as “Your savings bank. Come rain or shine” (HSBC).

Keywords: phraseological unit; advertising; banks; financial service institutions.

1. Introduction

Many economists consider the financial crisis 2008–2010 to be the worst since
the Great Depression of the 1930s. It contributed to the failure of key businesses
and declines in consumer wealth worldwide. The trigger of the crisis was the
bursting of the US housing bubble. The long-term trend of rising house prices
had encouraged people to use their homes as cash machines. Using them as
security, they had borrowed money to buy other things. Furthermore, people
with low – or even no – income, who would normally not qualify for mort-
gages, had been encouraged to borrow money to achieve their dream of home
ownership. Banks were lending recklessly and tempted people with very low
mortgage rates for the first two or three years. This so-called sub-prime lending
2 Sabine Fiedler

amounted to organised fraud. Bankers (and other agents along the “value chain”)
had no concept of social responsibility and did not care for the financial viabil-
ity of the person responsible for paying off the loan. They had strong incentives
to make aggressive loans and to create risky new products. Bonus culture en-
couraged short-termism and risk taking. When prices began declining in 2006
and mortgage rates rose, sub-prime mortgage holders were deluged with debts.
They left their speculatively purchased homes as their mortgage balance sheet
exceeded the value of their home. When Lehman Brothers declared bankruptcy
in 2008 and other large financial institutions admitted that they were about to
collapse, governments in several countries prepared rescue packages and banks
were “bailed out” with taxpayers’ money.
Although it was often argued that the regulatory system was at least as much
to blame, because it failed to preserve the integrity of financial service firms
or to protect the consumer (O’Driscoll 2009), the majority of people believed
that the banks bore the bulk of the responsibility for the crisis, as surveys show
(cf. MacWhirter 2008; Brandweek 2010). Wall Street banks had accumulated
record profits before the crash creating opaque financial instruments that al-
lowed them to dump their risk onto the wider economy. Bankers were mainly
associated with questionable financial products, predatory lending practices,
mortgage frauds and unbridled greed. The financial crisis led to a crisis of
confidence in banks.
This paper compares the phraseology of bank advertisements before and
during the financial crisis. The point of departure for dealing with this topic was
my personal impression that in my collection of ads employing phraseological
units (PUs) in the field of financial service advertisements the tone had suddenly
changed in 2008/2009. Rather than positioning themselves as sources of easy
money, banks were promoting an image of honesty and sobriety. I decided to test
this hypothesis by undertaking a systematic analysis of British and American
print advertisements.

2. Advertising

2.1. Functions and influence

Advertising is usually considered a genre, a type of cultural and social communi-
cation (MacRury 2009: 23). It is “a paid, non-personal communication about an
organization and its products or services that is transmitted to a target audience
through mass media, such as television, radio, newspapers, magazines, direct
mail, outdoor displays, or mass-transit vehicles” (Lee and Johnson 2005: 3). The
 Phraseology in a time of crisis 3

functions of advertising include information (about the features of the product,

service or idea and its location of sale), persuasion (of consumers to buy a spe-
cific brand or to adopt a certain attitude towards a product or a company) and
reminding (customers of a product so that they keep buying it instead of the
competitor’s brand) (Lee and Johnson 2005: 11).
Surveys demonstrate that advertisements do influence people’s attitudes (cf.
Bertrand et al. 2010; Mylonakis 2008). For example, the Nielsen IAG Financial
Brand Confidence Study, which was conducted in March 2009 as a national
online survey of 5,500 US respondents, shows that banks that advertise have
greater consumer confidence.2 People were asked about the factors that would
increase confidence in the safety and soundness of their financial institution and
they cited:

– Seeing regular advertising for that institution (25%)

– Receiving regular mail or email offers from that institution (25%)
– Regularly seeing internet offers/advertising from that institution (21%)
– Reading positive stories in the press about that institution (44%).

When asked about their own banks, insurance companies and investment firms,
55% of respondents who said they had seen more advertising for their financial
institution reported having “complete confidence” in the financial health and
soundness of their financial company and only 18% said they had “little or
no confidence” in their company. However, among those who said they had
seen less advertising, only 18% had “complete confidence” in their financial
company and 45% said they had “little or no confidence” in their company.
Richard Khaleel, an executive of Nielsen IAG’s Financial Practice, concludes
that during economic crises “out of sight” may not only mean “out of mind”,
but even “out of business”.3

2.2. Advertising as presentation of self

Goffman shows how human behaviour in public situations is socially constructed
(cf., for example, Goffman 1959, 1963, 1971). He portrays all the actions and
activities that we do throughout the day as strategic encounters in which people
attempt to sell a particular self-image. Goffman (1959) uses the imagery of the
theatre. Social interaction is a drama. People use a process that he calls “the
presentation of self” to give a certain impression in the minds of others. People
perform the role(s) that are expected of them in a particular social situation and
choose their stage, props, costumes in front of a specific audience. In order to
keep their coherence and win credibility the actors are consistent in appearance
4 Sabine Fiedler

(i.e. the items that reveal the performer’s status) and manner (i.e. the role the
performer expects to play). Their aim is to be believed. Credibility is manifested
in verbal and non-verbal signifiers. We have a repertoire and vocabulary of
manageable fronts which we adjust to different settings. The social fronts are
institutionalised – others base expectations on us in our roles as, for example, a
university teacher, car dealer, bank manager, etc.
As Goffman explains, the self moves between the front stage of publicity
and back stage of privacy. In the back stage the front stage performances are
prepared, which is why this space is more authentic and less social. Neverthe-
less, even in these private moments and spaces of social life some traces of
ritual remain. Goffman describes different processes that are involved with the
constitution of the self. The techniques of “impression management” include
the concealment of errors, concealment of the process of the performance (only
the final product is shown) and concealment of dirty work. These techniques are
means of self-control to handle and avoid embarrassment.
Goffman’s approach can also be applied to macro-sociological entities, such
as organisations in which certain values define role-based interaction and drive
organisational performance. We expect them, as well as the individual actor,
to be ideally virtuous. The performers may consciously guide the audience for
their own ends and usually foster impressions that reflect well upon themselves.
They try to present a positive picture of themselves if possible or to rescue what
they can in situations when the self is profoundly threatened.
Advertising can be seen as presentation of self in Goffman’s sense. It is
volitional and considered. Companies spend a great deal of money promoting
an attractive “corporate self” in order to encourage people to trust and respond
positively towards the company.

3. Phraseology

Phraseological units are lexicalized multiword items. Because of their connota-

tive features they may fulfil various pragmatic functions in discourse. It is due to
these features, along with their ready recognizability and the seemingly endless
opportunities for creative application, that phraseological units are so often em-
ployed as part of the persuasive tactics of advertising. Their functions and use in
advertisements have been described in a large number of studies about different
languages (cf., for example, Bürli-Storz 1980; Mieder 2005; Vesalainen 2001;
Balsliemke 2001; Sabban 1998; Burger 2003).
It is generally agreed that phraseology is culturally marked (Sabban 2007).
Proverbs, catch-phrases, formulae and other types of PUs have always been a
 Phraseology in a time of crisis 5

reflection of their time and place; they mirror people’s ideas, experience and
values as well as important social events. This is true for the time-honoured
proverbs of the past. A classical example are the many proverbs on the position
of women that exist in many languages and cultures (e.g. A woman’s place is in
the home; Lange Haare, kurzer Verstand; A mulher e a mula, o pau as cura).
They are part of our collective memory, but in European cultures they are mainly
used in an ironic or humorous sense today because their contents reflect beliefs
and attitudes of the past that contradict our modern reality. The burning issues,
cultural products and outstanding personalities of the modern era will, similarly,
leave their phraseological tracks in our languages. Tear down this wall, Life is
like a box of chocolates, and Yes, we can are only three examples of many that
might be mentioned in this context.4
The war on Iraq, to mention an event in our present era, brought the following
expressions into being or, at least, made them popular:

shock and awe

the axis of evil
friendly fire (which was already used in the Gulf War of 1991)
freedom fries5
the mother of all battles
weapons of mass destruction.

The fact that they are used figuratively in various domains now and that they are
employed and modified in advertising can be seen as evidence of their currency.

(1) Weapon of mass seduction (car advertisement Volvo) (The Courier-Mail

14 March 2008)

(2) The Mother of all Broadband (Virgin Media) (Daily Mirror 3 Dec 2008)

Kuiper (2009: 157–176) has shown that social perturbations can manifest them-
selves in phraseological changes within a speech community. He found that
during the Cultural Revolution in China the formulaic inventory underwent a
number of significant changes. Taking these results into consideration, in the
following section, I will examine the use of phraseology in bank advertisements
before and during the financial crisis. The analysis will focus on the kinds of
pragmatic messages that PUs convey to readers.
6 Sabine Fiedler

4. Phraseological units in financial service ads

4.1. General remarks

Phraseology in bank advertisements is of general interest to phraseology re-
search from at least two perspectives.6 Firstly, as in advertising in general, PUs
(i.e. proverbs, sayings, catch-phrases, quotations and other types of prefabri-
cated speech) work as eye catchers. They attract the reader’s attention as they
strike them as something familiar and because of their images and spoken char-
acter (cf. Fiedler 2007). They are often employed in creative ways to enhance
expressiveness or to evoke comical effects.

(3) Money doesn’t grow on trees. But it does in our branches (Savings &
Loans) (Adelaide, March 2008)

(4) Avoid paying inheritance tax.Where there’s aWill, there’s a way. (Irongate)
(The Daily Telegraph 7 Oct 2000)

Especially popular in bank ads is the proverb Don’t put all your eggs in one bas-
ket. The well-known sentence that – in its financial interpretation – admonishes
us not to risk all our money in one investment instead of spreading it out among
several because we may ruin ourselves if we do is mainly found in the form of
a provocative negation:

(5) All your eggs in one basket can now be a good thing . . . (The cooperative
bank) (The Guardian Weekly 6 Aug 2009)

(6) Don’t Crack Over Your Money. Now you really CAN put all your eggs in
one basket. (Greater Rome Bank) (Rome News Tribune 20 July 2008)

Ambiguity is produced deliberately when elements of collocations that have

the status of terms in banking (cut the closing costs, fix a mortgage) are taken
literally.

(7) We’ll cut the closing costs. You cut the (pictures of grass, flowers, and a
hedge) (New York, August 2007)

(8) Wish you could fix your current great mortgage rate? (HSBC) (The Daily
Telegraph 25 June 2009; the picture shows a house that is literally secured
like a tent by means of pegs).
 Phraseology in a time of crisis 7

Secondly, banks and insurance companies often make use of catchy slogans in
their advertising campaigns, such as The Citi Never Sleeps (Citibank).7 These
can gain currency and become winged words (catch phrases) and in this way a
part of the phrasicon themselves.8

4.2. The use of phraseological units before the crisis

The messages expressed in bank ads before the crisis were mainly “Don’t be
satisfied with ordinary profits”, “You are special”, “You can easily gain more”,
“Don’t be patient. Become active”. Compare the following examples:

(9) Easy money (Abbey National) (The Daily Telegraph 11 Nov 2000)

(10) Active Assets? Or Property Couch Potatoes? (Active Asset Account) (The
Daily Telegraph 4 Nov 2000)

(11) Defy convention (Cahoot) (The Daily Telegraph 16 Nov 2000)

(12) Stop at the top. For high tax-free income every month look no further than
the No.1 sector performer [. . . ] (Perpetual) (The Daily Telegraph 2 Dec
2000)

(13) Make it happen. Standard solutions are not the best. (The Royal Bank of
Scotland) (The Daily Telegraph 1 Nov 2000)

We learn from bank advertisements before the crisis that they are not for people
with narrow arguments (14), that a bank can make you happy and more hopeful
(15). Banking is associated with gambling, as phrases such as lucky winner
(National Savings; The Daily Telegraph 17 Nov 2000) imply. Other ads have
people say When it comes to my savings, size does matter (Intelligent Finance,
The Daily Telegraph 4 Nov 2000)

(14) (Charles Schulz has Snoopy say in a speech bubble:) You can’t discuss
something with someone whose arguments are too narrow (Alliance Le-
icester) (The Daily Telegraph 2 Dec 2000; Snoopy refers to Woodstock’s
narrow speech bubble with chicken scratch marks. The ad goes on: We
have a good deal to talk about)

(15) Uplifting thoughts #32 Henderson Global Players wins 1999 Best Overseas
Fund Manager (The Daily Telegraph 6 Nov 2000)
8 Sabine Fiedler

4.3. The use of phraseological units during the crisis

The negative influence of financial service ads on people prior to the crisis has
frequently been a focus of criticism. In an article in the New York Times on
15 August 2008, “Home Equity Frenzy Was a Bank Ad Come True”, Louise
Story takes the catchy advertising slogan “Live Richly”, which was created in
1999 for Citicorp, as a starting point for her argument that advertising “urged
people to lighten up about money”. As Elizabeth Warren, a professor at Har-
vard Law School who has studied consumer debt and bankruptcy, says, “finan-
cial companies used advertising to foster the idea that it is good, even smart,
to borrow money”. Advertisements changed the language of home loans and
with it Americans’ attitudes towards debt.9 It became socially acceptable for
everyone to accumulate debt. The article was followed by more than 50 com-
ments, in which people mainly agreed with the author. Among other things,
they wrote that it is also due to advertising campaigns that “keeping up with
the Joneses”, “live for today, the hell with tomorrow”, the “Me, Now” men-
tality as well as “Buy now, pay later” have become leifmotifs of the present
generation.
As described in section 1, having now become a focus of adverse attention,
banks face an image crisis.They have to convey positive and reassuring messages
in order to re-establish trust, restore the relationships with their customers and
to fight their discredited self. Increased advertising is one way to be heard. My
examination of the English-speaking press reveals that the majority of banks and
their agencies try to combat their crisis of confidence through advertising. They
adapt the contents of their messages to the current mood. They are, however,
responding in different ways. The strategic foci of bank advertisements created
in response to the crisis can be classified into the following types:

(A) Focus on values such as security, solidity and reliability

Bankers aim to reassure customers that their institutions are well capitalized
so that existing as well as future customers’ money is safe. They focus their
long-standing tradition.

(16) We offer strength and stability. (PNC) (The Washington Post Sunday
16 Aug 2009)

(17) Safe, sound and growing (Rabobank) (The Tribune 9 Sept 2009)

(18) Markets change. Our search for value hasn’t. (Franklin Templeton Invest-
ments) (Time Magazine 23/2009)
 Phraseology in a time of crisis 9

In 2008, for example, the investment firm T. Rowe Price ran an ad campaign
with the headline “Confidence”. A T. Rowe Price spokesman, Steve Norwitz,
explained: “(. . .) we wanted to reassure investors that T. Rowe Price, with its
long history, has been through this kind of market turmoil before; and we have
the experience and expertise to be able to take advantage of opportunities and
manage portfolios effectively in the midst of chaos. (. . .) and we are playing off
that brand positioning with this ad.”

(B) Focus on close contact with customers (“We put you first”)
Today banks emphasize their links to the local community. They show real
bankers with real names addressing their customers.

(19) Louis Dhanaraj, Banking Center Manager: We don’t want customers to

lose their houses. (Bank of America) (Money & Main Street 8/2009)

Some banks and financial institutions published open letters or manifestos to

reassure customers in times of uncertainty (e.g. A letter to customers of the Royal
Bank of Scotland Group published in The Independent on 1 Aug 2009 and The
Declaration of Financial Independence signed by INGDirect published on the
Internet in November 2009). This strategy includes the aspect of transparency
and clarity. Customers have to understand the products a bank offers.

(20) (. . .) we created our Clarity Commitment – a simple, one-page loan sum-

mary written in plain language (Bank of America) (Money & Main Street
8/2009)

(C) Focus on present needs

Several banks and financial institutions use the crisis to stress that they have
understood what is necessary in the present situation. This mainly refers to cash
flow.

(21) We’re giving state capitols what they need most – capital (J.P. Morgan
Chase & Co.) (USA Today 1 Sept 2009)

Ads are designed to evoke positive feelings by showing people who received
loans to open up businesses.

(22) “City National helped me build my dream” (Pink Magazine, Los Angeles
Sept 2009)
10 Sabine Fiedler

(D) Focus on ecological campaigns

Several banks are trying to be seen as “going green”. For example, HSBC intro-
duced the initiative “Green Sale”. They offer a range of financial products and
promise to donate some of the money to environmental charities and funds. In
Germany, Deutsche Bank is in the process of modernizing its headquarters in
Frankfurt/Main. The offices will be renamed “Greentowers” because the bank
plans to create an ecologically sustainable building as an active contribution to
climate protection. The insurance company Générali offers car insurance at re-
duced rates for clean vehicles, and the Royal Bank of Scotland provides loans for
firms that create a healthy economy, e.g. recycling plants. On CNN, in a Crédit
Agricole commercial, we hear Sean Connery say: Back to common sense. It’s
time for green banking (5 Feb 2010).

My comparative study is based on bank advertisements in The Daily Telegraph

that were published from October through December 2000 and those that ap-
peared from May through October 2009. The corpus includes 300 ads for each
group. The analysis revealed that the ads of 2009 expressed values such as “se-
curity/solidity”, “tradition” and “customer-orientation” to a higher degree than
those published before the crisis (cf. Figure 1). This result was basically con-
firmed by the data obtained from a comparison between financial service ads
found inTime Magazine in 2000/2001 and 2008/2009 (cf. Figure 2), although the
absolute number of ads run by financial companies in this magazine is relatively
low (23 for the period 2000/01 and 18 for 2008/09).

Figure 1. Contents of bank ads in The Daily Telegraph

 Phraseology in a time of crisis 11

Figure 2. Contents of bank ads in Time Magazine

Let us now have a closer look at how these differences are reflected in the use
of phraseology. The PUs used in my corpus of financial service ads confirm the
trends described above. PUs expressing sobriety and safety are found more often
in ads published now. Banks have become comfort zones (Bradford & Bingley;
The Daily Telegraph 29 June 2009), and peace of mind seems to be the dominant
phrase (see Figure 3):

(23) Peace of mind with the flexibility to change your mind (Bank of America)
(Time Magazine 9/2009)

Other advertisements now include proverbs and phrases that make us aware that
there are good and bad times in life.

(24) A wise plan. . . rain or shine (Principal) (Time Magazine 14, 2009)

(25) Life happens. Be ready (Principal) (Time Magazine 27, 2008)

Proverbial phrases that are related to gambling and irresponsible recklessness

are negated:

(26) Insuring deposits up to ‘100,000’ without anyone losing a ‘cent’ (FDIC,

Time Magazine 1, 2008; showing a 100,000-dollar bill and a Lincoln
one-cent coin)
12 Sabine Fiedler

Figure 3. (Time Magazine 23/2009)

(27) heads you win . . . tails you win (first direct) (The Daily Telegraph 20 May
2009; the three dots each time are followed by a picture of a one-cent coin)

An expression that has become popular in the crisis and the Presidential election
campaign 2008 is Main Street (Mieder 2009). It refers metonymically to the
interests of everyday working-class people and small business owners and is
often contrasted with Wall Street. An information brochure for bank customers
received the title Money & Main St. Its subtitle reads: How economic headlines
are affecting everyday Americans. The insurance company New York Life uses
the phrase to stress their commitment to their customers:

(28) We’re Main Street Not Wall Street NewYork Life (Time Magazine 16/2008)

The following tables list PUs found in financial service ads inThe Daily Telegraph
and Time Magazine before and during the crisis:
 Phraseology in a time of crisis 13

2000/2001
uplifting thoughts
lucky winner
size does(n’t) matter
easy money
narrow argument
couch potato
banking on the hoof
small, medium or large?
scale new heights
stop at the top
defy convention
make it happen
Is water wet?

2008/2009
peace of mind
(we help people to) save and meet their financial goals
(come) rain or shine
comfort zone
let the storm pass by
make peace with (your mind/your money)
Main Street (not Wall Street)
(a bank you can) bank on
we make money with you, not off you
safe haven
with both feet firmly on the ground
(your financial world is) out of control.You need some-
one to depend on
go through tough times
plain English
we call a spade a spade

The phrasicon of the English language contains very large resources so that users
can choose and have enough units at their disposal to present themselves as they
wish. In addition, there are expressions which were coined or popularized in the
financial crisis 2008–2010. In English, these are phrases and slogans such as bad
bank, foul debts, Chapter 11, scrappage scheme, Cash for Clunkers, Turn Rust
14 Sabine Fiedler

into Lust. They have also entered other languages, either as loan translations or
in English. A German TV quiz show recently included the following question:

Die aktuelle Finanzkrise wurde ausgelöst von:

A: passiven Depots B: phlegmatischen Fonds
C: lethargischen Zinsen D: faulen Krediten10

Time will tell if expressions like these will stay in the language or soon fade out.
The tables support the results shown in Figures 1 and 2. The differences
between “good times marketing” and “crisis marketing” can also be seen in the
use of phraseology. The situation should, however, not be depicted in black and
white. For example, phrases such as I will take my clients seriously (J.P. Morgan
in the Time Magazine on 14 Feb 2000) and With age comes wisdom. With advice
comes wealth (Rabo Robeca Bank in the Time Magazine on 1 May 2001) are
also found in the 2000/2001 corpus, and the modified proverb Now you can put
all your eggs in one basket (see Section 4.1.) was published in ads of several
institutions in 2008 and 2009. In the Daily Telegraph on 8 May 2009 it appeared
only few pages after a report on the consequences of the financial crisis.
The advertisement is a semiotically complex genre. Its effects rely on the
connection between image and language. As we have seen in some of the exam-
ples above, the function of visual elements can go beyond mere illustration. In
(26) and (27), images constitute the text. They are part of the message and must
be “translated” into verbal elements. Play on words can be found in (7) and (8),
where parts of the collocations are represented by pictures to activate their literal
meanings. These few examples suffice to illustrate how the interaction between
visual and verbal elements can be exploited to gain attention and involvement
of the audience (cf. Naciscione 2001; Stöckl 2004). This, however, would be
a subject for another article. With regard to the topic of this paper, icons and
vignettes are worth mentioning, as their use is different in advertisements before
and during the crises. In the past we could find images such as mountain tops and
broken chains, symbolizing high rates and freedom or independence. The new
icons are the safe (representing security), the lighthouse (giving orientation) and
the life belt (promising rescue). Symbols like these are part of the social setting
projecting the front in Goffman’s sense.

5. Conclusion

A comparative analysis of advertisements run by banks and financial institu-

tions in 2000/2001 and 2008/2009 shows changes in the content of slogans and
 Phraseology in a time of crisis 15

other phraseological units. Proverbs and phrases expressing risk, adventure and
non-conformity were dominant in ads prior to the crisis. Crisis-sensitive adver-
tisements in 2008/2009 place the customer at the centre. Old-fashioned banking
virtues of stability, confidence in financial services, convenience as well as so-
lidity and tradition of institutions are emphasised as the cornerstones of a new
value system; innovative strategies, such as “green banking” are devised to show
that banks are ready for the future.
Given the findings of this study, we predict that once the financial crisis is
over, banks will once again change the content of their advertisements to exploit
the mood of the times. There are already some signs of this, now, one and a half
years after Lehman’s collapse. Many banks have recovered more quickly than
expected and risk-taking and aggressive securities trading are mounting a come-
back. As Richard Bove, an analyst at Rochdale Securities wrote, “People come
to Wall Street to make money” (The Los Angeles Times. Business September 14,
2009).

University of Leipzig

Notes

Correspondence address: [email protected]

1. I would like to thank Kon Kuiper for very helpful comments on an earlier draft of
this article. It would not exist without his support.
2. Cf. http://en-us.nielsen.com/main/news/news releases/2009/march/advertising builds
(accessed 25 May 2010).
3. The connection between exposure to advertisements and attitude has been shown by
tests in social psychology (cf. Perloff 2003: 59–61).
4. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall! was the famous challenge from US President
Ronald Reagan to the Soviet leader to destroy the Berlin Wall in his speech on 12 June
1987. My momma always said: Life is like a box of chocolates. You never know what
you’re gonna get. is a memorable line from the film Forrest Gump (1994). Yes we
can! was the slogan used by Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential campaign.
5. Word of the year 2003. Dent (2005: 157) describes it as “an alternative term for
‘French fries’, chosen by some Americans as a critique of the French protest against
the invasion of Iraq”.
6. A third aspect worth being considered might be the existence of a number of slogans
that were created by financial experts and that are associated with the banking sector,
such as stock market rules (e.g. Never catch a falling knife; Sell in May and go away.
But remember to be back in September).
16 Sabine Fiedler

7. Cf., for example, the following taglines: The world’s local bank (HSBC), The com-
pany you keep (New York Life), The way up (City National Bank), Value from Ideas
(Santander), Precise in a world that isn’t (SPDR), Count on more (UMB), Don’t take
chances. Take charge (American Express).
8. I could give an in-joke from my own family as an example. When the bank BfG
received a new identity as the financial service provider SEB (Skandinaviska Enskilda
Banken) in 2001, this process was supported by a large-scale advertising campaign
on TV featuring Peter Ustinov. The well-known actor stressed the bank’s new image
saying in English, “More than a bank”. Up to the present day, when our family is in
the garden and one of us is about to sit on our bench there is a good chance of hearing
this phrase. (The funny thing about it is the fact that ‘bank’ is a mistranslation of the
German word ‘Bank’ here, a frequent blunder of German learners of English.)
9. “Second mortgages”, which had an unappealing ring, were called “home equity
(loans)”, which has a connotation of ownership and fairness.
10. “Quiz mit Jörg Pilawa” on 16 Sept 2009. It can be compared with “Who wants to
be a millionaire?” Translation: The present financial crisis was caused by A: passive
deposits, B: phlegmatic funds; C: lethargic interests, D: foul debts (The German
word faul can also mean lazy).

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 Visual representation of phraseological image1

ANITA NACISCIONE

Abstract

Visual representation of a phraseological image is of stylistic and cognitive in-

terest because it brings out the creative aspects of the verbal and the visual
in multimodal discourse. A cognitive approach to the instantial stylistic use of
phraseological units2 (PUs) focuses on how they are perceived, understood, and
interpreted. In a visual representation, the process of creating a mental image
relies on close ties between the visual and the verbal, and knowledge of the
political, socio-cultural, and semiotic implications. Visual representation per-
forms a semantic and stylistic function; it enhances and interprets the image
of a metaphorical PU and creates new meaning. It stretches the imagination
and sustains figurative thought. Thus, phraseological metaphor exists not only
in thought and language; it also exists in visual representation and its perception.

Keywords: phraseological metaphor; cognitive stylistic approach; visual

representation; multimodal discourse; visual allusion.

1. Introduction

Visualisation is involved in metaphor recognition. Aristotle noted that metaphor

can bring an image before our very eyes (1991: 247). In other words, metaphor
makes an image mentally visible. In cognitive psychology the image is generally
viewed as a mental representation, as “a picture in the head”. Perception of an
image, whether lexical or phraseological, is a cognitive process that creates a
mental picture in the imagination, a kind of visualisation in the mind’s eye, which
may be subjective. For instance, we would each visualise the base metaphor3 of
the PU to skate on thin ice4 in our own way. However, an illustration presents a
personal angle of vision (see Figure 1).
20 Anita Naciscione

Figure 1. To skate on thin ice

Visual representation of an image serves to create a new guided mode of percep-

tion which we are led to accept since seeing is persuasive. A cognitive approach
to language use concentrates on meaning and its development (Geeraerts 2006).
In this paper I am concerned with visual aspects of metaphorical thought rep-
resentation and with the creative use of phraseological metaphor in verbal and
visual discourse.5 The paper explores the benefits of a cognitive approach to
visual representation of instantial stylistic use6 and focuses on perception and
comprehension of the verbal and the visual.
This paper draws on the basic findings of cognitive science, which has estab-
lished metaphor as a figure of both thought and language. The use of figurative
language has been recognised as part of human cognition both in literary texts
and everyday speech (Lakoff and Johnson 2003 [1980]; Gibbs 1999 [1994],
1995, 2005; Steen 1994, 2009 [2007]; Katz 1998 et al.). The cognitive approach
has served as a basis for the development of cognitive stylistics (Lakoff and
Turner 1989; Gibbs 1995, 1999, 2002, 2008; Semino and Culpeper 2002; Steen
2002a, 2002b; Stockwell 2002; Gavins and Steen 2003 et al.).
Metaphors occur not only in thought and language, but also in pictures
(Forceville 1991, 1994, 1996, 2008). In visual representation, metaphor forms
part of the conceptual metaphor UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING, “what en-
ables you to see is metaphorically what enables you to understand” (Lakoff and
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