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 $19.95
($22.95 Canada) |

The World ofWonder series has

been examining the realms of history,
science, nature, and technology for
almost ten years. During that time, it
has been the recipient of many
awards, including the Distinguished
Achievement Award from the
Association of Educational
Publishers in 2002 and 2006.
me DYTtuloleiicrem oy Opeviioed gerlitive
~Syndicate, World of Wonder appears
in more than 100 newspapers
worldwide and is loved by millions a
readers —young and old.
CHICAGO PUBLIC LIBRARY
THOMAS HUGHES
400 SOUTH STATE STREET
CHICAGO, ILLINOIS 60605
 Plants
Assiicals
A special collection from the World of Wonder series
A special collection from the World of Wonder series

Sanger, California —
 Copyright © 2008 by Laurie Triefeldt. All rights reserved. No part of this book
may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means including
information storage and retrieval systems without permission in writing from the
publisher, except by a reviewer, who may quote brief passages in a review.

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First printing

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Triefeldt, Laurie, 1960-

World of wonder. Plants and animals / by Laurie Triefeldt.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-1-884956-72-0 (hardcover)
ISBN-10: 1-884956-72-6 (hardcover)
1. Animals. 2. Plants. I. Title.
QL45.2.T75 2008
570—dc22
2007024896
For Coco Bean
‘
 ROYL4Y?7?70784

CHICAGO PUBLIC LIBRARY

THOMAS HUGHES CHILDRENS LIBRARY
400S.STATEST. 60605

Contents
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Burrowers
ANIMAL HOMES
The elf owl is
about 51/2 inches
Animals that dig (burrow) holes to long. It is one of
make a home are called burrowers. the world’s small-
Some, like prairie dogs and ants, dig in est owls. Found in
the earth, making elaborate tunnels Real estate agents often quote the mantra “location, location, desert lowlands
and rooms. Others, like the wood- and canyons, this
pecker burrow into trees. Ocean
location” as the most important thing to consider when choosing a
nocturnal bird
creatures, like the sea urchin, home. The saying holds true, even in the animal world. Where an nests in wood-
dig out homes in the sand. animal lives can be very important to survival and (like people) they pecker holes in
need homes that protect them from the elements and predators. Many the saguaro
Groundhogs
cactus as well as
are also animals are talented architects and build their homes, others borrow or the cavities of oak
known as share dwellings, some find homes in the natural habitat around them. and pine trees.
woodchucks.
i Unlike their
cousin the Garden spider’s web
prairie dog, It is not unusual to spot an orb web in the garden or stretched across a pathway.
groundhogs Here is how those intricate webs get there. Everybody knows that birds build
prefer to nests in trees. But did you know they
live alone. also burrow into them? The elf owl
carves its nest into cactuses and
many woodpeckers make their homes
inside tree trunks. The tropical hornbill
literally walls herself into a tree trunk
Groundhogs live two to four feet home while incubating her eggs.
underground in dens or burrows
that consist of several tunnels’and
Vi ‘2 And not all bird nests are made of
grasses. Some birds like the ovenbird
The spider spins Air currents help More and more The spider waits
rooms. They like to build summer a Y-shaped frame the spider send threads are added for its dinner to fly of Central and South America build
dens near sunny open fields and between two threads over long for strength. into the web. clay nests.
where the food supply is plentiful. objects. distances. Birds are not the only animals that
Winter dens are often near dry live in trees. Insects and many other
wooded areas. Sometimes they will animals take advantage of the shelter
dig a burrow under a barn or shed.
Weaverbird’s nest
trees provide.
You can spot a groundhog den by There are more than 125 species of weaverbirds. Most live in the grasslands and
looking for the pile of dirt that often marshes of Africa. The male bird builds the nest and hopes to find a mate. If more Squirrels
marks the main entrance. than a week passes and the nest fails to attract a mate, the nest is abandoned generally build
and the male builds a new one. Nest building techniques improve more than one
An ant colony or with experience. nest, so that they
city has many rooms can move easily
and tunnels. Each if a nest is
chamber has a pur- damaged or
pose, a room for eggs, threatened. A
a room for larvae and summer nest is
for pupae in cocoons. called a drey and
Some ants live in is padded with
inside dead trees. MN leaves, grasses,
Your house can also The weaverbird The building Resembling the chewed bark and
be a home for ants. chooses a strong material is mostly weave of a other materials.
forked branch blades of grass basket, the nest
Trapdoor spiders as the nest and or strips of takes shape. Raccoon
There are about foundation. palm fronds.
20 species. of Many mammals use decaying trees
trapdoor spiders. Soldier crabs excavates in the sand for homes. Foxes, wolves, coyotes,
They live in burrows ‘Soldier crabs are named for their habit of moving in large groups at one time. raccoons, even bears will make dens
with trapdoor They live in mangroves, beaches and estuaries. When disturbed they burrow in uprooted and dead trees.
entrances. These into the sand.
spiders hunt at
night, waiting for
| prey to approach. Sculptors
Wasps have a talent for sculpting their
houses. Many make paper nests from
Underwater houses chewed-up wood. Others build nests
from mud or live in burrows.
Many animals that live in the water also [ec Geen ae eae.
build homes there. The tropical “well- Soldier crabs Small bits of sand As the crab As the crab digs
digger’ jawfish digs a tunnel in the Mud daubers are
build sand houses are pushed out- works, a dome deeper, a ceiling IBN\ES
ocean floor and lines it with stones and \\\yy a type of wasp
with air bubbles. ward and upward. is created. is formed.
pebbles. Many other fish build under
that build long
water nests and some air breathing tube shaped nests
creatures like the water spider and the Building a beaver lodge out of clay or mud.
beaver prefer water homes. The female wasp
Beavers will often work together as a family to build the perfect home. During collects the mud
construction of their ideal residence they will dig a temporary shelter under the and carries it to
Water spiders bank of a pond or river. Beavers like to build in deep water. If the water is not
make silk nests her building site.
deep enough, they will build a dam to raise the water level of their neighborhood
underwater that before beginning working on the lodge.
they fill with air Paper wasps
bubbles. The make paper
air-filled bell
pulp by
is anchored chewing wood
underwater by and mixing it
spider threads. with saliva. The

Pe
Water spiders female wasp
leave the nest then builds a
only to catch food paper nest of
or get more air for Beavers have Clumsy on land, Once the When the
very sharp chisel- the beaver lets structure is beaver’s tunnel tiny cells.
the bell. They are
shaped teeth, the current of the three or four feet is above water
native to Europe
perfect for felling water help carry (0.9 to 1.2 m) high level he will The potter
and Asia.
trees. The beaver his supplies. and ten or twelve excavate a wasp builds a
gnaws the trees Working slowly, feet (3 to 3.6 m) feeding chamber clay nest that
and branches into taking time to eat across, the and above that a looks like a pot
manageable sizes and relax, the beaver chews a sleeping chamber. and fills it with
The stickleback is a freshwater fish and floats or beaver creates a tunnel through the The finished food, then she
that constructs a nest that looks like a drags the material tangle of debris mound of sticks, lodge is safe and lays an egg
lot like a bird’s nest. The male secretes to a chosen and little by little a creating an weatherproof, and seals
a glue-like substance which is used to building site. lodge begins to underwater perfect for raising the nest.
cement leaves and roots into a nest. take shape. entrance. a family.
 a

Giant anteater
Myrmecophaga
tridactyla

Bradypus
tridactylus

Anteaters, armadillos and sloths

are members of the Edentata group Anteaters, armadillos and sloths
have very low metabolic rates
of animals. Edentates share an and body temperatures,
characteristic of the ancient
evolutionary connection of having Xenarthra order of animals.

few or no teeth. Endentata means

“the toothless ones.”
The nine-banded armadillo is the most common of armadillos, but the
only one found in North America. Armadillos grow to about 2 feet (61 cm)
long and weigh around 15 pounds (6.8 kg). One of the most amazing
Nine-banded armadillo
things about this species is. that it almost always gives birth to identical
Dasypus novemcinctus quadruplets (four), either all male or all female.

Anteaters, armadillos & sloths

There are four species of anteaters. There are 20 species of armadillos. There are five species of sloths.
They are native to southern Mexico and They can be found in South America They are found in the tropical rainforests
northern South America. and in some southern U.S. states. of Central and South America.
The giant anteater (sometimes called the ant bear) Hidden in the trees, the three-toed sloth can easily
is the largest of anteaters. It can grow to be more be mistaken for a branch. The animal moves so slowly
than 6 feet (1.8 m) in length, with tails measuring up as to be almost undetectable. It may take 30 seconds
to 3 feet (0.9 m) long. It is found in tropical Central for it to move a leg just a few inches. Sloths even
and South America, but hunting and habitat loss has sneeze slowly!
damaged populations and the species is threatened. Enlargement of a
It walks on the sides of its feet to protect sharp sloth hair showing
claws; the result is a strange, shuffling gait. corrugated ridges
Silky
anteater
Cyclopes Isr

eerie AS Giant armadillo Sloth moth

The silky Priodontes Bradipodicola
anteater is about maximus hahneli
the size of a squirrel
and grows to about Armadillos are named for the Spanish word
Algae, moths and
20 inches (50 cm) “armado,” which means “one that is armed.” This is
other insects make a
long. It has a because armadillos have hinged, bony plates that
home in the rough
prehensile tail that form strong, flexible bands which protect their bodies.
coat of the sloth.
can wrap around This heavy skin should cause an armadillo to sink in
tree limbs. water, but they have a special ability to blow up their
intestines with air for added buoyancy — they can Two-toed
swim if they have to. Armadillos have long, sharp sloth
Anteaters are the only members of the scientific
claws, ideal for digging and burrowing. They mainly Choloepus
order Endentata to be completely toothless. As their
hoffmanni
name suggests, anteaters love to eat ants, but they eat insects, earthworms and spiders, but will eat
also like termites and will sometimes eat soft fruit. plants and sometimes small vertibrates, like snakes. Sloths are extremely slow-moving creatures that spend
They have long snouts and sticky tongues, perfect Many species are nocturnal and only come out at most of their lives hanging upside down. They move so
for trapping and devouring insects. They will feed night. They have poor eyesight, but an excellent slowly that most predators do not see them. Sloths live
and then move on, taking care not to destroy a sense of smell. in the rainforest canopy and only come down to the
nest that could feed them again later. ground to defecate (once every week or so). While on
It is considered a pest by many landowners the ground, they are quite awkward and helpless.
Anteaters are generally solitary creatures. The because its burrowing can damage
mother will give birth to one offspring a year and Sloths have almost no tails or ears and their noses are
crops and undermine buildings. flat. Depending on the species, they have two or three
will carry the baby on her back. But armadillos also benefit people toes on their front feet, with long, hooked claws that
Aardvarks, pangolins and by eating harmful insects and grubs. wrap around branches. Because they have spent so
echidnas can be confused with
anteaters. Despite similarities,
BE
Py ) In South America, some people
eat armadillos. -
much of their evolutionary lives upside down, their
hair grows in the opposite direction from other furry
they are not related. The three- mammals.
banded Their shaggy, coarse hair is home to a plant and an
armadillo is the insect. The plant is a microscopic algae that grows in
only armadillo
the grooves of the sloth’s corrugated hair. This gives
that rolls into
the animal a greenish color and is an excellent
a ball when
threatened.
camouflage against enemies. The insect is a tiny
Most moth that weaves its way in and out of the fur, eating
armadillos will the algae.
; } run away Sloths feed on leaves, buds and young twigs. Their low
The giant anteater can flick or dig a hole metabolism (the process of turning food into energy)
its 2-foot-long (60 cm) tongue to hide in. means they do not eat much compared to animals of a
in and out 150 times per minute. eo eat
similar size.
One giant anteater can eat up to
30,000 insects in a day.
 Did you know: Bat guano
The hammer-headed (waste droppings) is a rich fertilizer,
bat is a type of fruit bat. prized by farmers in many countries.

Kinds of bats Funny faces

Bats belong to the Bats have unusual faces. Many have
Chiroptera order. odd noses, some long, others short,
Chiroptera comes and some have extra folds of skin
from the Greek words around the nostrils. Their ears can be
meaning “hand” and 4 quite strange, too, coming in a variety
“wing.” Scientists of shapes and sizes.
divide bats into
two groups — There are more than 900 species of bats, 40 of which live in North
megabats America. They are the only mammal that can fly. Bats come in many
(megachiroptera) shapes and sizes. The largest, called the flying fox, has a wingspan of
and microbats ; ee : ‘ ;
(microchiroptera). up to 5 feet, while the kitti’s hog-nosed bat, native to Thailand is
Megabats are about the size of a bumble bee. Sometimes feared in Western
also known as cultures, the bat is a symbol of long life and happiness in
fruit or flying fox Flying foxes eat Vampire bats eat
bats. Megabats Japan. Many bats provide a valuable service to people
mostly fruit and about 1 tablespoon
generally have by eating large quantities of destructive insects. live in Africa of blood a day.
big eyes and and Asia.
excellent eye- Anatomy 101
sight. Most do not
use echolocation to find Most bats have fur or hair and they come in a variety of
food. They rely on fruit and colors. Some people think their bodies look very mouselike.
nectar for food. Because
Bats digest food more quickly than many animals. This
megabats are not found in the
Americas, they are sometimes A bat’s hands helps them maintain an ideal flying weight. Second
called Old World bats. Microbats Srelaien ie Thumb “finger
are smaller and eat mostly insects. wings. Lon
They have big ears, but small eyes pee cari poveeu There are about Leaf-nosed bats
and rely on echolocation to find food. strong and 70 species of have large ears and
elastic wings. horseshoe bats. a ‘leaf’ on their
Home sweet home There is a claw
They live in noses. The
on the thumb
groups and California leaf-nosed
Most bats like to live in dark places, generally roost bat is currently listed
like caves, tree or rock crevices and that is used in caves. as a candidate
sometimes in buildings. Fruit bats like for climbing, , species on the list of
to live in trees, hanging from the gripping ™ threatened native
branches. Where a bat lives is called and ; wildlife in Arizona.
a roost. They tend to live in large grooming.
colonies of thousands or millions of
bats. Bats are nocturnal, which
means they sleep most of the day.
Bats that eat insects and
smaller animals often use
Fourth
their tail membrane to help
Calcar finger
catch and hold prey.
Tail Third
What do they eat? Tail Foot with
finger Slit-faced bats are Hoary bats are
membrane five toes also known as the largest in
Depending on the species, the bat hollow-faced bats. North America,
diet can be very diverse. Seventy
They live in the with a wingspan
Winter solutions percent of bats prefer insects and
tropics and are of about
can eat half their weight in mosqui-
Bats that live in colder climates will toes and moths in one night. The
found in Africa and 16 inches.
hibernate or migrate in winter. Many in Malaysia and They live alone
tropics are home to a number of
North American bats hibernate in Indonesia. They in trees and
bats that eat plants, pollen and usually roost in migrate
caves, surviving on stored fat. nectar. These vegan bats pollinate
Hibernation is a state of deep sleep. caves, tree in winter.
the plants and help new growth by
The bat’s heart rate slows and its hollows
spreading seeds in their guano
body temperature drops. Some bats and
(excrement). It is estimated that
migrate to warmer climates and buildings.
more than 500 plants depend on
plentiful food supplies. Tropical bats bats for pollination. Some bats eat
do not need to hibernate, because
fish, frogs, lizards, rodents and
the climate is warm all year round,
small birds. Danger in
but they have been known to migrate
in search of new food sources. Bats There are three bat species that
drink blood. The common vampire the night
are strong, skilled flyers and with a
bat favors the blood of cattle and Bat wings are so thin that blood flowing
good wind have been known to reach Hawks and
other domestic livestock, while the through the veins can be sometimes be seen.
speeds of up to 60 mph. owls are the
hairy-legged and white-winged The knees of a bat face backwards, making
main predators
Baby bats vampires feed on the blood of walking difficult.
of bats. Snakes
birds. Bats ears are constantly twitching, even
Pregnant bats leave their regular will also prey on bats. (7
when the bat is sleeping.
roosts and join a special nursing Sound and seeing Opossums, raccoons
colony, where they give birth and and skunks will eat bats
raise their young. They usually give Bats are not blind and many have excellent eyesight. Many bats (mostly insect that have fallen to
eaters) use sound to find food. (This is why they have such big ears). The bat the ground.
birth once a year and generally have
one baby at a time, but some, like the emits a high-pitched sound from the nose or mouth. As the sound bounces off Cooper’s
objects, the bat is able to determine exactly where the object is, even when it is hawk
hoary and red bat can
moving. This is called echolocation. (Some dolphins also use this method to find
have as many as
food.) Modern radar equipment is based on the same principle. Most of the
four babies at 4 Saving the bat SS
a time. f= sounds that bats make are so high that the human ear cannot hear them.
Scientists who study bat sound use devices that can measure ultrasounds. Bat populations have suffered
A baby bat is —
greatly at the hands of humans. Almost
called a pup. \ Sonic fishing 40 percent of North American bats are
Newborns are
A fisher bat flies towards the water, emitting high-pitched sounds (see the solid line). threatened or endangered. Their roosts
large compared
with other mammal When a fish breaks the surface, it reflects back the bat sound, creating an echo. and natural habitats are destroyed to
Beeping again, the bat uses its curved talons to hook the fish. While biting into its make way for new homes and build-
babies. They are born bald and with
their eyes closed. Most bats nurse for prey the bat remains silent. ings. Pesticides find their way into the
food chain and they are poisoned.
about six to eight weeks before ven-
turing into the outdoors for food. If a Some people kill bats because they
bat survives the challenges of grow- think they are scary and dangerous,
others because the bats eat their crops
ing up, it can live a long life. Some
and are thought to be pests. And in
species live more than 30 years.
some places, people eat fruit bats.
 4

BEARS
Big brown bears Big and furry lifestyles
Big brown bears are found in the Bears are intelligent animals with
west of North America and parts a strong sense of curiosity and an
of Asia and Europe. The Alaskan amazing sense of smell. Bears are
brown bear (also known as the generally solitary animals that get
Kodiak bear) is the largest of together only to mate. When two
bears. The grizzly bear is found There are seven species of bears, eight if you include the great panda: Big brown bears do meet, they generally
mostly in Alaska and western respond aggressively and often
bears, American black bears, Asiatic black bears, polar bears, sun bears, sloth bears, will fight savagely, sometimes to
Canada. The brown bear of Asia the death. Bears tolerate others
and Europe was sometimes used spectacled bears and the great pandas. Zoologists argue over whether the panda only when food is very plentiful.
in a vicious entertainment called belongs to the bear family, to its own unique family or the raccoon family. Recent Dinner time
bearbaiting, where the bear is tied
up and forced to defend itself research suggests that the giant panda is a member of the bear family. Bears have been classified as
against dogs. carnivores (animals that eat
Sloth bear Sloth bears hunt Spectacled bear Sun bear meat), but most bears will eat
American black bears mostly at night and whatever is available. Only polar
Spectacled bears feed The fur of the sun bear is
The American black bear is eat birds’ eggs, bears live on a mostly meat diet.
mostly on plants, but they short and some people
common throughout forests of grubs, insects, Most bears also eat fruit, nuts,
also eat fruit, nuts, honey, say it feels like velvet.
North America. The island white plants and honey. honey, grasses, leaves, insects
small animals and insects.
bear, or Kermode’s bear, which and fish. Bears will travel long
is found along the coast of British
During the day, They sometimes build distances in search of food. An
Columbia, has white fur and
they sleep in treehouses or platforms, il average bear’s hunting ground
claws. The blue bear, or glacier
: Shallow caves Or —_where they like to eat ee is about 10 to 12 square miles
under shrubs. y
bear, lives in the mountains of (26-31 square kilometers). Polar
southeastern Alaska and has fur B bears have been found on iced
te
that sometimes looks bluish. drifts, more than 200 miles (320k)
from land.
Asiatic black bears Napping the winter away
The Asiatic black bear is also
known as the Himalayan or Many bears spend the winter in
moon bear. It is slightly smaller sleep. Scientists disagree on
than its American cousins. Asiatic whether bears enter true hiberna-
black bear has a reputation for tion or if they are just dozing.
being very fierce and aggressive. Black and brown bears that live
in colder climates will find or build
Giant panda a den to sleep in for the winter.
The giant panda lives in the / | Tropical bears like the sun bear
mountains of Asia and is in and sloth bear do not need to
great danger of extinction due sleep in the winter. Polar bears live
to habitat loss. in a very cold place, but unless
they are pregnant, remain active
Polar bears throughout the year.
Polar bears live in the North Pole, 3 Baby bears
mostly in areas that border the
Arctic Ocean. They are sometimes | American black and brown bears
referred to as the ice bear, sea are born in January or February.
bear, white bear or walking bear. Asiatic A female usually has two cubs, but
The Inuit people call the polar bamboo and P=aaa}, bear is can have just one, or as many as
bear nanook, and have hunted it four. Newborns are very tiny and
for centuries.
they need’td eat aye some-
great deal of it times weigh 1/2 to 1 pound (0.23 to 0.5
they eat hunted for k). A month later the cubs have fur
Sun bears as 85 po its fur and and open their eyes. They leave
Sun bears, also called Malayan the den in the spring and spend
bones.
bears, are the smallest species of the summer playing and eating
bear. Sun bears live in the Malay and by the fall a cub can easily
Peninsula, Borneo, Burma, have put on 40 pounds (18k). It
Indochina, Sumatra and Thailand. generally takes one to two years
for a cub to reach full maturity.
Sloth bears
The sloth bear is sometimes Caution and wisdom
called the Indian bear because it Bears are very powerful and can
lives in the jungles of India and (5 to 10 km) per hour. ; move with dangerous speed and
Sri Lanka. It has also been nick- Polar bears travel 7 Ave great agility. Do not feed bears!
named the honey bear because it extensively in searchiof * More and more often, bears are
likes honey so much. Unless they food and have been } found at campsites, in back yards
are in danger, sloth bears move known to travel and at dumping grounds — places
very slowly. 75 miles : where people have left food. A
(120 km) female bear protecting her cubs
Spectacled bears can be especially aggressive.
The spectacled bear is the only Teddy bears
bear found in the Southern
Teddy bears became popular in
Hemisphere and the only bear
the early 1900s and there are
native to South America. It lives in
several stories about their origin.
the mountain forests of Bolivia,
Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and The English claim: The teddy
Venezuela. It is named for the bear is based on the nickname
large light-colored circles of fur of King Edward VII.
around its eyes, which look like The American version: In 1902,
glasses or spectacles. Hunting American President Theodore Roosevelt
and habitat destruction has made black bear refused to shoot a bear cub on a
this bear quite rare. It is estimated that black bears hunting trip. Stuffed bears (known
Grizzly bear as “Teddy’s bears.”) began to
outnumber brown bears in
Grizzlies have huge curved claws that are ideal North America 10 to 1. Black show up on store shelves.
Shapes and sizes of bears for digging and as weapons. Grizzlies can reach bears are excellent tree The German tradition:
speeds of up to 30 mph (48km), but they can't climbers and when running, Margarete Steiff showed her toy
Average adult height and weight of species.
maintain that speed for very long. can reach speeds of up to bears at a trade fair in 1903. Steiff
25 mph (40k). bears are still collected today.

Alaskan
brown bear
Polar bear
Length: 8 ft. (2.4m)
American
black bear
Asiatic black bear
Length: 5 ft.(1.5m)
CF LK OR om
Sloth bear
Length: 5 ft.(1.5m)
Giant panda = Spectacled bear = Sun bear
Length: 5 ft. (1.5m) Length: 5 ft. (1.5m) Length: 3 ft.
Length: 9 feet (2.7 m) Weight: 1,000 Ibs. Length: 5 ft. (1.5m) Weight: 250 Ibs. Weight: 250 Ibs. Weight: 250 Ibs. — Weight: 250 lbs. (1.5m)
Weight: 500 pounds (230 k) (454k) Weight: 300 Ibs. (140k) (113k) (113k) (113k) (113k) Weight: 100 Ibs.
(45k)
All in the family Fun things to do
Beetles are insects and belong You can test a beetle’s sense of smell
to the order of Coleoptera. by building a maze. (Scarab beetles
Coleoptera is the largest of insect work best.) Construct the maze with
orders — about 40 percent of tape and heavy bristol board or card-
the world’s insects are beetles. Cucumber board. The walls only need to be about
beetle half an inch high. Place your beetle at
Scientists (or zoologists) who study
one end and some meat (dog or cat
insects are called entomologists.
food works well) at the other end.
Specialists who study only beetles
Cover the maze with some clear plastic
are called coleopterists.
wrap and watch what happens!
Coleoptera are distinguished by hard
forewings and thin, folded hindwings. There are more than 300,000 species of beetle. They come
They range greatly in size and have
mouth parts that enable them to chew. in all shapes and sizes and live just about everywhere. —— se

Some kinds of beetles

Fes &®
aK Weevils (Curculionidae) |
ees
| rail
/ are the largest family of
beetles, consisting of more
than 40,000 species. Also
known as billbugs or snout
beetles, weevils are Pet beetles
considered a pest. Weevils Nicrophornae Silphinae
You can learn a lot about insects by
have long snouts and are Carrion beetles Frog Eastern
watching them. Beetles can be kept in a
dull in color, except for the beetle beetle hercules
jar with some sand or soil at the bottom.
brightly colored tropical
Add layers of oatmeal-or bran. Many
species.
beetles like mealworms. They may be
Leaf beetles hard to find, but add a layer of them if
(Chrysomelidae) are you can locate any. Supply moisture
another agricultural pest. with a fresh piece of apple or carrot
Particularly, the Colorado every day. A crumbled paper towel
potato beetle is well known makes a good place for the beetle to
for its destruction of potato hide under. Experiment with what they
crops. Some leaf beetles Long-horned Leaf Dung Golden eat by giving them tiny bits of fruit, meat,
Colorado play dead when disturbed beetle beetle beetle tortoise beetle cheese or bread. You should return your
potato oy threatened. There are at insects to the wild after a few days.
beetle NOTE: Beetles shown are not drawn to scale (EL)
least 25,000 species in this
beetle family. EEE
Anatomy 101 The circle of life
Ground beetles ETS
(Carabidae) are usually
nocturnal, meaning they
sleep during the day. If you
Like all insects, beetles have six legs
and three body parts: the head, thorax
and abdomen.
Beetles have a complex life cycle in
which they undergo a complete meta-
morphosis. Metamorphosis means
ae
turn over a rock, you just Lid with
Thorax Abdomen “change of body form and appear-
might discover one. holes for air
ance.” When beetle eggs hatch, larvae
Because ground beetles Head Paper
(grubs) are born. The larvae grow and towel Beetle
eat other insects, they are shed their skin (molt) several times
Calosoma sometimes used for pest
before turning into a pupa. The pupa
(ground control. Theré are about may appear dormant, but the insect’s
Carrot or
beetle) 20,000 species. apple —
body is experiencing great changes
Most beetles have two pairs of wings
Scarabs (Scarabaeidae) inside. Muscles, nerves and tissue are Mealworms
— hard (often colorful) forewings
have clublike antennae. dissolved and new ones are formed.
called elytra and delicate, transparent Oatmeal
They are the beetles often When the change is complete, an
hindwings that are kept folded under or bran
depicted in ancient adult beetle emerges.
the forewings until needed for flight.
Egyptian art. Dung beetles
(Most, but not all, beetles can fly.) Ladybug metamorphosis
and tumblebugs eat and Sand or soil
Beetles use their antennae for touch
reproduce in the waste of The larva is born, after eating
and smell. Most beetles have excellent
herbivores. June-bugs and and molting for about a week,
Japanese beetles are
eyesight and can see color and Favorite feelers
Japanese it changes into a pupa.
motion. Although some beetles have Beetle antennae are as varied as
beetle garden pests that wreak
long legs and others short legs, all the species itself. Below are some
havoc on plants by
have legs that consist of five segments examples of beetle antennae.
chewing large holes in
with claws on the end.
leaves. There are more
than 20,000 kinds of The elytra act
Elytra like body armor
scarab beetles.
for the beetle. “About 15 to 20 §
Click beetles (Elateridae) Elytra have no eggs are laid.
are also called fire veins and are
\ beetles. Click beetles are opaque (not
k known for the clicking transparent).
sound they make.
Predacious diving Some beetles
beetles (Dytiscidae) live Sa taste and Day 37
in fresh water and feed hear with
Predacious
divi on snails, tadpoles and The pupa breaks open and
Wing their feet. an adult ladybug is born.
ving
beetle
small fish.
Ladybugs (Coccinellidae)
The good, the bad and the ugly

d
itd
are also known as lady- Beastly beetles
birds and ladybeetles. The huge mandibles,
Beneficial beetles Bad beetles
Adults have round Some beetles are or jaws, of the stag
Beetles play an
ok bodies and are often important role in the considered pests beetle are meant to
red, orange or yellow because they feed intimidate predators.
with black spots.
environment. Like other
insects, they provide Southern on crops, trees or
Pe Gardeners like ladybugs stored food.
because they eat aphids an important source of pine
Ladybug and other insect pests. food for many animals. _ beetle
Scarabs and some
Fireflies (Lampyridae) are other types of beetles are

ESA
CLL
GIL
oye
sometimes called lightning pollinators, while dung
bugs, and there are about beetles reuse the dung of
\ » 1,900 species in the firefly herbivores, therefore
family. removing millions of tons
Checkered
Firefly ; - of waste. Giant stag beetle
beetle
 L=
Fastest animal on Earth stretches, shooting the cheetah’s back legs push streams out behind, a minute. Often, the
A cheetah’s supple spine with its long and legs to full extension. sequentially instead of acting like a rudder to cat needs to rest after
is the secret to its speed. muscular hind legs. When the front legs touch together. This means that help it turn. The cheetah bringing down prey. The
Coiling and uncoiling like The cat inhales huge the ground, the spine half the time, a running is the fastest land animal cheetah hunts in daylight,
a spring, it catapults the amounts of air, arching curls again, ready to cheetah has all four feet over short distances — when other big cats are
cheetah forward. After its back and pulling its propel the legs into off the ground at once. running up to 70 mph, sleeping. Vultures and
creeping close to the prey, feet together. Then, the another stride. Unlike During a chase, a with an average chase of hyenas will often steal a
the cheetah springs out spring-like spine slower animals, the cheetah’s long tail 560 feet lasting less than cheetah’s catch.

Powerful predators of family Felidae Tiger

B Ig
Length 7-10 feet
Weight _ 160-700 Ibs.
Litter size 3-4 average
Life span Up to15 years
Status Critically
endangered

Jaguar Tigers are the largest felines. to the Arctic Ocean, roaming
Length 5-7 feet Hunting alone, the tiger will the snowbound forests in
Weight 150-260 Ibs.
t stalk its prey. Tigers live in Siberia. Siberian tigers are
Litter size 1-4 average the forests and grasslands of the largest tigers, up to 10
Lifespan 12-16 years Asia. They can range from feet in length and weighing
tropical areas in the Far East more than 700 pounds.
Status Near threatened

The Jaguar inspires respect

and fear. Its name means Snow Leopard
“a beast that kills its prey Length 7 feet
with one bound.” The cat Weight 85-165 Ibs.
was chosen as a central navigating easily. Most big part of the day, Litter size 2-3 average
theme in myth, legend and cats kill with a throat or neck will lie partly Lifespan _15-18 years
religion in Latin America. bite, but the jaguar bites the submerged in Status Endangered
It is the largest cat in the skull between the ears. Like water. One myth says
Western hemisphere, and other big cats, they hunt the cat’s spotted coat was A gray and white dappled coat
for indigenous peoples by following trails until made when the jaguar Snow leopards are rare and are in decline
allows the Snow Leopard to blend into its
symbolized immense power. encountering prey. They dabbed mud on its body because their fur is in demand. Sometimes
mountain habitat. Oily, dense, wooly fur
Dominant in the forest, it then stalk and rush, or wait with its paws. Like leopards, Asian medical practitioners use the snow
protects it from harsh weather. Hunting
uses strength and cunning in ambush, leaping on the melanistic or black jaguars wild sheep and goats, it is agile, and an leopards’ bones, more now because the
to overcome prey, by unsuspecting. Jaguars swim are common. excellent leaper. Moving along ridges, preferred tiger bones are scarce.
climbing, swimming and well and during the hottest bluffs, and cliffs, it follows migrating prey.

Puma Technically a little cat, this large

Cheetah flencth 7-9 feet animal has a number of names,
Length 4-5 feet - including cougar, mountain lion,
Weight 86-143 Ibs. Weight. 135-160 Ibs. panther, and catamount (cat of
Litter size 3-5 average Litter size 2-3 average —_the mountains). Habitat ranges
Life span 2-14 years Life span Up to15 years from mountains to deserts.
Status/Asian Critically Status/Florida Endangered There are claims of vertical
endangered jumps up to 15 feet, aided by a
Status/ Vulnerable thick tail to balance. When
hunting, this solitary cat moves
Adult cheetahs are solitary Incredible speed gives it the through its range until hearing
hunters. They do not have advantage when chasing prey. Creeping as close as
the muscle power to drag prey on open land. It also - possible, it charges, bounding
large prey like the leopard. makes up for the lack of and killing. It can snap an elk’s
Despite this disadvantage, canine teeth which allow .. neck with one pull and can
the cheetah has a skill no other cats to bring down sprint as fast as 40 mph, but
other cat has: Speed. large animals. When a has little stamina. It must catch
cheetah takes prey, it eats its prey in a few bounds or
where it killed. give up.

Leopard
Length 5-7 feet Life span 12-17 years Length 5-7 feet
Weight —_60-200 lbs. Status Various Weight 330-500 Ibs.
Litter size 1-4 average Litter size 3-4 average
Life span 15-20 years
Grace, stealth and power define the leopard. This patient feline
Status/Asiatic Endangered
stalker will slink from patch to patch, creeping close to prey, then
Status/Others Vulnerable
burst out to snare it. After a kill, it moves up a tree with the
carcass in tow, pulling it 20-30 feet high. Some are melanistic —
producing a black fur background and even darker spots. Lionesses kill more often than male lions,
This condition has inspired the name : : catching most of the prey. They also
“black panther.” establish the range and stability of the pride.
LEOpy Usually, a pride is a closed group of related
adult females, who stay together for life. They
hunt together with coordinated tactics. Cubs
ad
keDh are protected and raised communally, nursed
by any lioness with milk. Males of the pride
force transient males and grown male cubs
out. During a hunt, the pride forms a V-shape.
Some charge, forcing victims into the waiting
jaws of the other lions. After the kill, the pride
gorges, then sleeps for hours.
 Variety is the spice of life It is easy to
overlook
another
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is all about the huge variety important
benefit of
of life and environments on Earth and the unique relationships
biodiversity —
Pacific dogwood between them. Biodiversity is vital to the survival of our planet. its beauty.
North America
How we manage and protect the biodiversity of Earth impacts Pohutukawa
New Zealand
the health of the planet and, ultimately, the health of people.
THE TREE OF LIFE SAD, BUT TRUE
Ae hex. ; Before 1800, the Historical
Biodiversity is not just about the Nori Aincrican range of the As human population continues to
number and variety of species Passenger passenger grow and the demand for land and
inhabiting the Earth. It is also Pigeon numbered natural resources increases, the
concerned with where the species in the billions. But stresses on nature also grow.
live — environments and ecosystems, Habitat loss, over-harvesting, climate
habitat loss and over
such as rain forests, oceans, wetlands hunting caused its change, pollution and the introduction
and deserts. Genetic diversity is another extinction. The last pigeon of non-native species to new areas
level of biodiversity. It looks at the world died in 1914. are resulting in the extinction and
of genetics within all living organisms. endangerment of many species.
These three levels of biodiversity — It is estimated that extinctions are
genes, species and ecosystems — are occurring 100 to 1,000 times faster
interlocked and each can influence than they would naturally (without
another. If one level is damaged, the damaging human activities).
effects can spread through other levels.
Scientists have identified about The Alliance for Zero Extinction
1.75 million species. About a million of (AZE) has identified 595 global sites
these are insects. But there are probably that represent the last refuge of one or
millions upon millions more species yet more of the most highly endangered
to be discovered. species. These are the world’s most
It is estimated threatened hot spots. The pie chart
Mollusks: Includes oysters, that 3 species below shows a breakdown of critically
There are more
mussels, clams, snails, slugs, become extinct threatened species by taxonomy.
than 6 billion
limpets, squids, cuttlefish and every hour.
people on Earth,
Efforts to Countries with the most AZE sites
pe euses and this number ppm
4% grows by 90 millio conserve Mexico 63 Cuba 18
Chordates: Includes all every year. genes, species Colombia 48 United States 18
mammals, birds, amphibians, and habitats have Brazil 39 Venezuela 18
slowed, not stopped, Peru 31 India 16
reptiles and vertebrate fish
3%, BIG BENEFITS the loss of biodiversity. Indonesia 29 | Madagascar 18
China 23 Honduras 14
The health and diversity of genes,
Viruses: Parasitic, In the U.S., nearly 4,500 species Ecuador 19 Philippines = 11
self-replicating, nucleic acid species and ecosystems have a huge are threatened with extinction. Australia 18 Guatemala 9
entities : impact on the lives of people. We
(Forty-three kinds of birds and
1% depend on the complex web of nature
39 species of mammals are already
for our health, environment and
Nematodes: Round, tapered, ‘ economies. extinct.) In Canada, 487 plant and Conifers 23
thin worms (not segmented) animal species are threatened. 3%
1% Plants take carbon dioxide out of the (Thirteen species have become
air and put oxygen into it. Plants, trees, extinct.) Reptiles 15
Bacteria: Refers to simple, Mamnials 131
: F animals and micro-organisms act like 2%
unicellular organisms Half of the planet’s rain 17%
filters to keep soil and water clean. In
WS North America alone, insects pollinate a ae en sil
Other YOU ARE crops worth $6 billion to $12 billion. Cggng an aged ure ee
7% HERE! Humans cultivate or harvest more than largely eee: Sah vee y
(Somewhere) 7,000 species of wild plants. More than ate special becalise al least 5076
(maybe more) of the world’s
two-thirds of prescription drugs in the
biodiverisity exists in these wet,
U.S. are made with the chemicals from Per ealihabiats
plants and fungi. More than 4 billion P
people around the world use plants to The Nile perch, released
make traditional medicines. All the into Lake Victoria in Africa for
BauOpods: things you need and use every day food and sports fishing, has
noe come from raw materials made been a disaster. The perch is
GIsacea se possible by the Earth’s diversity. well on its way to eating all of
ieee P the native species.
centipedes,
millipedes and
% spiders
’ 61%

Birds 217 Amphibians 408

27% 51%
Land plants:
Includes mosses, MAKE A DIFFERENCE
ferns and seed plants
15% If we want to save and preserve the
Earth’s biodiversity, we have to
Protoctists: Neither
change how we think about the world
animals, plants, fungi or
around us. It’s easy to get involved
prokaryotes. Comprised of
and join a group or community
eukaryotic microorganisms
dedicated to saving our planet.
5% Let’s try to restore damaged
Fungi: Includes mildew, habitats, reduce pollution, respect
\molds, mushrooms, plant —— ae endangered-species laws and
rusts and slime molds conserve our natural resources.
Of the 950,000 species of insects,
4% almost half are beetles.
8

A typical insect has three parts to its Grasshoppers Beetles

body and three pairs of legs. Insects Grasshoppers, Coleoptera have
do not have backbones. They are roaches and their hard forewings and
supported by a sort of skeleton on relatives Orthoptera thin, folded hind-
the outside of their bodies. have chewing mouth wings. They range
parts and live on land. in size from small
Antennae wings jointed They have leathery to large and have
compound forewings and folded chewing mouth
fanlike hindwings parts.
The word bug can be used to describe any creepy crawler, but “true bugs” (some lack wings).
are a specific species. Insects make up the largest group of animals in the Roach

*
world. More than 900,000 species have been identified and it is likely that
many more will be discovered. Insects have been classified into 25 groups.
The beetle order alone includes 250,000 species.

head __ thorax abdomen Flies Bees, wasps and ants »

Flies and their rela- Hymenoptera are mostly social insects that live Grasshopper
Fireflies or lightning
Insects have developed a variety in colonies. They often have two pairs of thin, bugs are not really
tives Diptera have
of mouth parts. They have adapted small antennae, transparent wings and are the only type of Lice flies or bugs, but
for chewing, sucking, piercing and insects with stingers. Anaplura are small, beetles.
large eyes, two
sucking and lapping. wings and sucking flat, wingless para-
mouth parts. There
The cells are used Honey bees make sites with piercing
to store honey and wax and shape it into and sucking mouth
Butterflies and moths are so many types
pollen. The bees honeycombs.
of flies in the world parts. Their legs have
Butterflies and moths are amazing in their make honey from
that scientists have claws that cling toa
variety of size, shape and color. They are nectar and >
trouble. keeping \ warmblooded host.
known as Lepidoptera, from the Greek words pollen. They
for scale and wing, because their wings are track of them. It is
eat the honey 4
covered with thousands of overlapping scales. estimated that there
in winter.
There are approximately 170,000 species of are up to 100,000.
Lepidoptera in the world. About one-tenth of
Common housefly
these are butterflies and the rest are moths.
Water
scavenger
beetles feed on
decaying matter at
the bottom of pends
and rivers.

! Pollen baskets on the honey adult egg adult

Butterfly Moth antennae hind legs are made up of +=stored emerging
antennae are pointed at many short, stiff hairs. in cell from cell
the ends, not
Not insects
knobbed like a Ants Wasps Many creepy
There are more than Wasps eat mainly crawling animals
10,000 kinds of ants. spiders, insects and are confused with
Butterflies Ants eat both plants other small animals. insects. Spiders
have a long, and animals and are Many make paper have only two body
hollow tube famous for their nests from chewed divisions and eight
called a ability to carry up wood; others build legs. Crustaceans
proboscis 50 times their body their nests from mud mostly live in water
which they A fly finds and have at least larva pupa
food by scent weight. An ant colony or live in burrows.
use to sip or city has many 10 legs. Centipedes
nectar. When the and tastes with its and millipedes have Japanese beetles
feet. Digestive rooms and tunnels.
proboscis is not Some ants live in the many segments to are garden pests
being used, it juices are spread on their bodies; that wreak havoc
the food, then ground, others inside
stays coiled. dead trees.. Your centipedes have on plants by
dabbed up with a long antennae and chewing large
admiral house can also be
3.1-3.4 inches
spongelike mouth. millipedes have holes in leaves.
home to ants.
(7.9-8.6 cm) short antennae.
Lives in hardwood
Mosquitoes Ants use their anten-
forests and on These pests have nae to taste, smell, Keeping bugs
mountain slopes. been the bane of man touch and hear.
proboscis You can learn a lot
for centuries. Adult Hornets, like all
about insects by
females live 30 days wasps, are generally watching them. ~~
In less than a month the monarch goes or more; the male peaceful, but they are
through four stages of life: egg, caterpillar, Beetles can be kept
lives only 7-10 days. easily excited near
pupa and adult. These changes are known
in a jar with a little
Both females and their nests and will
as metamorphosis. sand or soil at the
males drink nectar, attack an enemy that
bottom. Experiment
caterpillar or larva but only females bite Ants eat by putting gets too close.
with what they eat
and drink blood. chewed food in a Thousands of hornets
by giving them tiny Ladybugs are
Drinking blood is pouch where the can live in one
required in order to bits of fruit, meat, also known as
liquid is squeezed out huge nest. Yellow cheese or bread. ladybirds.
lay eggs. The and swallowed. They |= jacket Stick insects make Gardeners love
mosquito finds its spit out the solid left- @p==
victim, or host, by good pets, and these beetles
overs. The queen is y some people keep
sensing the warm because they eat
the only ant that lays ant farms. You aphids, which
moist air around eggs. Worker ants should return your damage garden
the body. ° look after the queen insects to the wild plants.
In the center of the
and feed her. Cicada killers are after a few days.
very large, solitary
proboscis are two very | Ant city
slender tubes. Saliva
wasps. They attack Dragonflies
and use cicadas
flows through one tube (Odonata) have long
(the large insects that
into the bite. Blood is slender bodies with
sucked into the mouth
buzz loudly froma,
Adult two pairs of long,
through the other.
j treetops) as food ..
monarch equal-sized
butterfly wings.
Cicada killer -
GP a,
Opes J
The adult monarch feeds on the nectar of Aya WN Ld =

flowers, its favorite being the milkweed. Wie i

Monarchs are the only insects that fly south
for the winter. Some travel almost 2,000 miles
before reaching their destination.
 pel
What are cacti?
Cactus plants (pl. cactuses
or Cacti) belong to a larger Cacti growth forms Cacti grow in one of 10 basic shapes.
group of plants called
succulents. Succulents have
undergone adaptations in
order to live in arid regions
of the world, and can be
found — from British
Columbia to Patagonia — Columnar Columnar Columnar Columnar Globular Globular Segmented Segmented _ Leaf cactus
in deserts, coastal regions, Stout Reclining Stout, Stout, Cylindric Spherical Flat stems leaf cactus
jungles, mountains and branching branching at
prairies. above the base Classifying cacti
It is thought that cacti
REMARKABLE SURVIVORS OF ARID REGIONS

CACTUSE
Using a method of
evolved from small, leafy classification called the
jungle trees. Fossils of cacti International Code of
are rare because arid Botanical Nomenclature,
Climates are poor regions scientists who study plants
for fossil formation. (botanists) name cacti
according to rules, which
include:
1. There is only one correct,
valid name for a plant type.
“yee

Thorny issues Cactus spines have evolved into a remarkable variety of shapes, colors and sizes. 2. If two species are recog-
North nized where formerly only

* 4
America Here’s a look at the shapes of most cactus spines:
one was recognized, the
@ Desert
original name only applies to
Central”; one of the two species.
America ~~ 3. The earliest published
ad
/
name of a plant has priority
over any name given later.
Needle-like Radial Radial Conical Stout Bristly, Comb- Stout,
South Wi { and spines with spines — spines spines hair-like like flat banded 4. Every plant name is tied
America to a particular specimen,
protruding nocentral with with spines spines spines central hooked
spike central curved spine center which a botanist designates
spike center spine typical of what he thinks is a
spine new species.
Southern %
Range -----~ How cacti are grouped
The prickly pear The Christmas There is much disagreement
(left) is of the genus cactus flowers over the classification of
Opuntia. It has many in early winter. plants and animals.
pads that look like Plant breeders According to most scientists,
Surviving extremes pancakes. The plant have cultivated cacti are classified as follows
has sweet, edible red it to have (this list does not include
Cacti can survive extremes fruit that is often J smaller groupings):
different
of heat and cold. Time has Sai collected and sold y flower Kingdom Plants
modified their typical leafy in produce colors. Division Magnoliophyta
plant shapes. Cacti evolved markets.
thick stems, which they “Covered seeds”
use to conserve water. Class Dicotyledonae
Photosynthesis takes “Two seed leaves”
place in the stems instead Order Caryophyllales
of leaves. Cacti also have “Thorny, fleshy stemmed plants”
spines, hairs, spikes or
bristles. These highly Family Cactaceae
“The cactus”
modified leaves provide
protection for the fleshy
plant. They also shade Cactus habitats
and cool the plant. Cacti grow in the following
Cacti collect water in a types of arid regions:
variety of ways. Absorbing True deserts
roots lie just below the soil Cacti in these areas grow
surface and spread over a Cacti of the genus Echinocactus @ This Christmas cactus
are barrel-shaped and grow very (above) is of the genus in very dry climates, with
wide area to take advantage irregular rainfall of less than
of light rains. Often, spines slowly. Some have stout spines that Zygocactus. These cacti
are very attractive in color. The one are epiphytic (they grow 3.9 inches (100 cm) per
angle toward the ground and year. Soil is typically high
act as drip-tips for fog, dew at right is the horse crippler cactus. on tree branches and
Its spines are very hard and can other plants) and are leaf- in rock, low in humus
and rain, which the roots (decomposed animal and
then collect. Most cacti have injure a horse if stepped on. type, with jointed stems.
plant matter) and lacks
water-storage tissue with fertility.
sturdy walls that prevent
the plant from collapsing Cacti of the genus Mammilaria Desert grasslands
(below) are small; the largest are no These areas typically
in severe dryness.
more than 4 inches (10.16 cm) wide. border true deserts. Sparse
To slow evaporation, the vegetation may accompany
They are usually called pincushion
stomata, or air passages, of cacti, depending on
or thimble cacti. Their flowers are
most cacti are sunken below elevation. Well-drained soil
brilliantly colored, and often bloom in a
the surface of the plant, and higher humus content
ring at the top.
reducing water-vapor loss by make these regions
up to 70 percent. Stomata Saguaro are different from true deserts.
can close completely in high one of the Chaparrals
heat, preventing air and largest cacti, Low areas of almost
water vapor from escaping. reaching up to continuous bushes, small
The downside of these 60 feet (18 m) trees and shrubs cover
adaptations is that most high. They are deeper soil in the chaparral.
cacti grow very slowly. They members of the Usually, these areas receive
are unable to compete genus Cereus. higher rainfall during the
with faster-growing leafy All Cereus are winter and have drier
piants in a moist environ- columnar, ribbed summers.
ment. Many flower sparsely and tall. The fruit of
the saguaro is Sub-tropical forests
or rarely, or don’t reproduce
These are the humid,
as quickly as other plants. used by the
Tohono O’odham warm regions of Central
Some are so specialized
and South America. Shade,
that dwindling habitats Indians to make a
heavy syrup. higher rainfall and fertile
threaten their survival.
soils mark these regions.
10

Camel basics Bactrian Camels

Camels are cud-chewing Native to the steppes of eastern
mammals of the family Asia, the Bactrian camel has
Camelidae. They belong two humps on its back.
to the order Artiodactyla. About Bactrian camels are over 7 feet
10 million years ago a common (2 meters) tall and weigh more
camel ancestor, the camelid, than 1600 pounds (725 kg.)
migrated to Asia from north Like the dromedary, they can
America, where they became survive desert heat and sand
extinct about 2 million years and have wide, padded feet and
ago. Some also travelled south, thick leathery pads on their
becoming llamas, alpaca and knees and chest. Their ears are
guanaco, which did not develop lined with protective hairs, and
humps, but are camel relatives. they have bushy eyebrows plus
Research has shown that in the two rows of very long eyelashes.
embryonic stage, dromedary Thick fur and under wool keep
camels have a small second them warm at night and protect
hump that does not develop their skin against daytime heat.
further. It is thought that the They are stocky and hardy and
camelid probably looked like range from northern Iran to Tibet.
today’s wild Bactrian camels. When loaded with cargo they
Camels are herbivores and move at about 2.5 miles an hour.
eat grass, leaves, and It is thought that Bactrians were
grains. They can drink up to domesticated around 2500 BC,
32 gallons (120 liters) of water in the northern near east.
at one time. Today, there are Wild herds were described by
two distinct species: Nikolai Przhevalsky, a Russian
* Camelus dromedarius geographer and explorer, during
lives in North Africa and the late 19th century.
the Middle East. Also Some scientists believe that the
called Dromedaries, or Bactrian camel can be divided
Arabian camels, all are into different subspecies. A wild
domesticated — beginning herd living within a part of the
about 5,000 years ago. Gashun Gobi region of the
Today, there are no wild Gobi Desert is different from
Camels were once hugely and their manure was
Camelus dromedarius. domesticated herds behaviorally
important to the economics used for fuel after being
* Camelus bactrianus lives in and genetically. There are
of the Arabian, Gobi and dried. The camel was a
eastern Asia. Nearly all of the status symbol and form of possibly three genetic groups
Saharan deserts. The “Silk
Bactrian camels alive today are wealth. Today, reliance different from domesticated
Road” was travelled by way
domesticated. In 2002, a small, camels, but, with few wild camels
of camels, and great numbers on the camel has
wild, migratory herd of about to study, it is uncertain what
of explorers, merchants and diminished, and even its
where they are animals of
950 animals in northwest China natural diversity within the camel
their goods relied on camels meat is considered less
leisure and raised as a hobby.
and Mongolia were placed on appealing than lamb or beef.
population would have been.
for transport. Until recent In large areas of the Sahara,
the critically endangered species Camel herds have been Another difference in this sub-
times, camels were used in
list. They have been classified as and across north Africa, the species is the ability to drink and
caravans, as transportation, greatly reduced in Arabia,
Camelus bactrianus ferus and camel is still a vital necessity metabolize slushy saltwater.
and for meat and milk. Camel except in Saudi Arabia and
are genetically different from the for human survival. Domesticated camels will not
wool was used for clothes, the United Arab Emirates,
domesticated Bactrians. drink salt water.
Camels can survive on very Dromedaries
little or no water for long periods running. With a rider, they can
Camelus dromedarius, or They are believed to have when crossing hot desert
of time. They can eat salty maintain a rate of 8 or 9 miles
Arabian camel, has a single been domesticated in Arabia sands. Camels can close their
vegetation as well as thorny per hour for several hours. A
hump and short hair. They between 4000 and 2000 BC. nostrils against flying sand, and
plants living in the desert. food reserve of fatty tissue is
reach about 6.5 feet (2 meters) Arabian camels have two toes their eyes are protected by long
Their urine is highly concen- eyelashes. Arabian camels use carried in the form of a hump
high and 9.75 feet (3 meters) on each foot and thick sole
trated. After finding water, both legs on one side of the on the back.
long.and can weigh up to pads — which protect the foot
camels can drink enormous
1600 pounds (725 kg.) body in parallel motion when
quantities. They can endure
temperature extremes, both
hot and cold, and heat is BIG EYES
quickly lost because all of the Two rows of long eyelashes TWO HUMPS SHAGGY COAT
camel’s fat is located in the protect the camel’s eyes. Bactrians have Bactrians have
hump on the back. HAIRY EARS two humps more fur than
Dense fur Dromedaries
keeps sand out
of the ears.
HUMP
The hump is a
food reserve.
When a camel is
undernourished
it will flop
to one side.

GROOVED
MUZZLE
The dromedary has -
KNEE PADS grooves running from
Dense pads nostril to mouth for
called capturing moisture.
callosities
protect the
camel’s BROAD
knees and FEET
LONG
chest from Long bones in
LEGS
hot sand. the feet allow TIPPY TOES
Camels run
camels to Camels differ
using both
run fast. from other
legs on the
same side of ungulates in
the body that they stand
on the next-to-
last jointsof
the toes.
The basics How the Venus’ Flytrap captures and digests an insect meal
Carnivorous plants are rare > Flower
plants that grow worldwide. They
live in bogs, marshes and swamps
and have the same needs as all
plants — sunlight, nutrients and
water. They make food by photo-
synthesis. But carnivorous plants
differ in one aspect: their habitat Step one Step two Step three Step four Step five Step six
does not provide them with enough
nitrogen, a soil and airborne An insect is The insect When the insect After 8 to 10 The leaf After its third
nutrient essential for growth. This attracted tothe brushes against stops wiggling, days, the soft reopens, and meal, the leaf
group of plants has adapted to the sweet-smelling two of the the closed leaf parts of the the undigested, turns brown, [
deficiency by evolving ways to trap, liquid on the trigger hairson oozes aspecial insect dissolve _ hard fly parts then black. [
kill and digest small insects and flytrap leaf, the inside of the fluid that begins _ into the fluid, fall away. Each _Later, it dies, [|
animals and then absorb nitrogen having no leaf. It snaps to breakdown which is trap can work and a new leaf
from their bodies. suspicion of shut, capturing _ the body. absorbed back _ only three sprouts from
Closed trap
its fate. the insect. into the leaf. times. the plant.
Carnivorous plants fall into two Each trap is red on the
categories: active or passive inside and secretes a
trappers. The active trappers have sweet nectar. It can
moving parts that hold an insect as consume three meals
it is killed and digested. Passive before dying.
trappers do not move, but have
equally lethal methods of
preventing an insect from escape.

Carnivorous groups
Carnivorous plants are grouped
into 7 genera (groups of like plants
or animals). Here’s how scientists Area
have organized them: that
GENUS Common digests
NAME
Carnivores in the bog, Dead leaf
Dionaea Venus’ flytrap
Drosera Sundews marsh and swamp
Cephalotus West Australian
pitcher plant Venus’ flytrap
Nepenthes Tropical Phyllode
The well-known Venus’ flytrap lives in bogs in North Carolina. It (flattened Rhizomes
pitcher plants grows from a special root system called a rhizome, and clusters sometimes
leaf stalk)
Sarracenia American of leaves form low to the ground. In spring, flower stalks and send out
pitcher plants special traps grow from the plant to enable it to capture insects. runners.
Two trigger hairs must be touched before traps can spring shut Midrib New plants
Pinguicula Butterworts
around an unwary insect. It only takes about two-fifths of a hinge Rhizomes can develop
Utricularia Bladderworts second for them to close. at the tip.
Two lobes

Passive trappers Active trappers

Butterworts Pitcher plants Waterwheels Bladderworts Sundews
Pitcher plants come in many sizes and Whorl Peat Bladderworts are found all Spatulate-leaf
shapes. They have special leaves that form around the world in quiet sundew
hollow tubes or jug-like structures capable of swamps, bogs and ponds. b Ope Sticky hairs
holding rainwater. These special leaves are Like waterwheels, they yo
OKO cover the leaf.
the traps. Most have clever features that lack roots, and they
imprison insects until they become produce long flower stalks
exhausted and fall into the water that rise above the surface
in the base of the jug-like leaf. There of the water. The bladder-
wort traps insects in tiny air Thread-leaf
they drown, and enzymes are secreted sundew
into the rainwater to digest them. sacs, or bladders. Each
bladder is about a fifth of °° Leaves can
Scientists divide the tropical pitcher
an inch long. At the loose
move
plants into two groups: highland (3,000-
10,000 feet) and lowland (0-3,000 feet)
end are trigger hairs
arranged around a tiny “> Round-leaf
depending on what elevation they grow at. %& sundew
trapdoor. The trapdoor
opens inward. To capture
an insect, the bladder uses
Butterworts grow in marshes, suction — an unsuspecting The sundews are found
bogs or swamps. Most have insect brushes a trigger in Europe, Australia, and
thick, fleshy, pale green hair, causing the bladder to the United States. The
leaves that grow in a cluster. Waterwheels are aquatic expand, the trapdoor to
Trumpet pitchers leaves are varied in
Flowers rise above the plants found in Australia, open, and water and insect
The hood is an insect lure and alsoa \ shape, but each is
cluster on thin stems, in Africa, Europe, India and are sucked in. Digestive covered in hairs. Each
rain roof. Flowers are produced on a Japan. The plant is small
springor early summer. enzymes immediately hair carries a glistening
separate stalk. Trumpets can reach and it floats in still ponds and
The leaves are about half set to work. drop of glue-like liquid
up to 3 feet tall in some species. swamps just below the
an inch long and have two that shimmers to entice
kinds of glands. The first kind water’s surface. It measures insects. Once an insect
produces a sticky; oily liquid Phial pitcher 4 to 12 inches long and has lands, it becomes entan-
that feels buttery. A musty Some tropical pitchers tiny, transparent leaves. gled in the hairs. Often
odor attracts insects to it. grow on vines that wind Along the thin stem, leaf the whole leaf will wrap
When the insects arrive and through trees. whorls are arranged like the around the insect to
touch the leaf, they are held spokes of a bicycle wheel. engulf it. Then the hairs
fast by the sticky liquid. The The whorls have eight
secret digestive juices.
edges of the leaf then roll Marsh pitcher bunches of leaves each.
upward, forming a bowl-like The simplest The trapping mechanism is
shape. Then the second pitcher plant. It the leaf. Each one is about a
set of glands secrete the produces sweet- quarter of an inch long, and
digestive enzymes into the smelling nectar. can trap only tiny water
bowl, killing the insect and The tubes are set insects, larvae or microscop-
digesting its nutrients. After at an angle, pre- ic plankton. The leaves
a few days, the dried-up venting rainwater have two lobes, trigger hairs
remains of the insect fall from overfilling inside the lobes, and bris- Trigger
away from the now-flattened the pitchers. tles. When food enters the hair
leaf. trap, the lobes snap shut.
12

The domestic cat

Ancestors Why does he do that?
Cats are descended from a Even though it has long been tamed, the
carnivorous, weasel-like domestic cat still has many of the basic
animal called Miacis that instincts of its wild cousins. Cats born in
lived about 50 million years All cats, from big to small, and wild to tame, belong to the animal family Felidae. the wild or abandoned will revert back to a
ago. This animal was also wild state and are called feral cats. The
the ancestor of dogs, bears,
The domestic cat has become a popular pet around the world. With a reputation
life of a feral cat is generally very short,
raccoons, civets, weasels for being aloof and mysterious, cats are pretty and playful companions. because domestic cats are not ideally
and skunks.
Anatomy 101: Inside and out suited to life on their own any more.

The skeleton of a cat A cat’s spine is relatively flexible, which helps it to Why do cats purr? Purring is caused by
consists of about 250 bones; run with great speeds up to 30 miles (48k) an hour air vibrating in the larynx (voice box) in a
10 percent of those are and allows it to squeeze through small spots. space called the glottis. Cats purr mostly
located in the tail.
when they are happy, but they also purr
A cat’s tail is when sick or in pain. It may be that purring
an extension when they are sick is a way for the cat to
of its spine. comfort itself.
Miacis
The tail helps Why do cats rub up against people?
Paleocene period
a cat keep When a cat rubs against people and
(65 million to 55 million
its balance. inanimate objects it releases scents that
years ago)
The surface mark the spot and the person as its own
The first cats appeared of a cat’s and part of its territory.
about 10 million years after tongue is
the Miacis. (That's ten or Why do cats hunt and stalk? When
covered in small cats hunt, stalk and play with toys or prey
twenty million years before backward pointing
the dog.) There were two they are responding to a basic instinct.
knobs called Domestic cats, like their wild cousins, are
early branches of cat: papillae. The
hoplophoneus and dinictis. Cats are born to be predators.
papillae cause the
The saber-toothed tiger digitgrade, they Why do cats arch and fluff up their fur?
tongue to have a
was a member of the walk on their toes. When a Cat is frightened or angry it will
rough texture which
hoplophoneus group, which aids in grooming J arch its back and its fur will bristle. This
died out about 12,000 years and in removing Metatarsals makes the cat look bigger and more
intimidating and may serve to scare
&
ago. The dinictis branch of meat from prey.
the family is more adaptable away another animal.
than its cousin and is the Why do cats get so active at night?
closer ancestor to today’s Cats are excellent hunters and their acute
domestic cat. Sense and sensibility Clawing your way to the top
night eyesight makes evening hunting
A cat's senses are developed for hunting. Their Cats have retractable claws. When not more productive.
Domestication highly developed sense of smell is not as powerful as in use the claw is pulled in and held under the
Exactly when and where a dog’s, but much better than a human’s. Cats can skin by ligaments. Retracting the claws helps the Getting older
cats were first tamed and hear over long distances and at a much higher cat keep them sharp. One reason that cats scratch Cat’s age Human equivalent
domesticated is frequency (65kHz) than humans (22kHz). Cats don’t stationary objects is to maintain and sharpen 6 months
<| unknown. see as well as people, but their eyesight is attuned to their claws.
catching movement and adapting to dim light.
Cats served a
A cat’s whiskers serve as a sort of antennae.
useful purpose

night eves DOOO®D®

in ancient times
it by killing a
variety of pests, Cats have a layer of cells behind their retina called
such as rodents, the tapetum. These reflector cells mirror small
insects and quantities of light, allowing a cat to see in very dim
i snakes. By about light. The pupils of a cat’s eyes close to tiny slits in
1500 B.C., cats bright sunlight and open wide in the dark.
had become
==) sacred to the
©€> Egyptians and to
harm one was
punishable by death. The 21 years
Egyptian goddess of love
and fertility Bast (or Bastet)
was represented as a 11th or
woman with the head of a 12th century,
’ The well-fed
cat. Archeologists have dis- bronze,
cat does not seem
covered huge Egyptian cat Islamic
to care very much
incense
cemeteries with thousands
Wall painting in a prey is :toy burner in the
of cat mummies. Many cat all or a rea
Egypt ict shape of
mummies were accompa- mouse.
nied by mummified rats and
ee
man and his cat a Cat.
hunting birds.
mice, so that the cat could
hunt in the next world.
It is believed that Greek and
Phoenician traders brought Name that breed: Test your knowledge
cats to Europe and the Below are sore pictures of different breeds. Can you identify the breed? Scoring
Middle East around 1000 A book on cat breeds from the library might help you, and so may the hints under each picture.
B.C. In Rome, the cat Give yourself 1 point for every cat
became a symbol of liberty identified correctly .
and was thought of as a 1-2 You need to improve your cat ~
guardian spirit. breed identification skills
During the Middle Ages in 3-5 You're pretty good at this
Europe, cats were linked 6-8 Very impressive
with witchcraft and became 9-10 Awesome! AA++
a symbol of evil. Hundreds
of cats were killed during Most popular of This catha Most popular Its short, Intelligent and
this time. This may have long haired cat short, wavy hair. of the short bluish-gray fur ancient breed c Answers
contributed to the spread of breeds. haired cats. is unique. from Turkey. Persian
the plague or Black Death in Devon Rex
the mid-14th century which Siamese
killed millions of people and
Russian Blue
was Carried by rat fleas.
Turkish Angora
Cats regained their status
as cute, but deadly, rodent Burmese
exterminators in the Scottish Fold
17th century. The domestic wT. hi Somali
cat arrived in North America This muscular cat This kitty might This cat has a This large cat Blue eyed beauty’ . Maine Coon
DRC
COR
OO
with explorers and colonists. has golden eyes. look good in a kilt. bushy fox-like tail. looks a little bit like with white paws
10. Birman
a raccoon. from Burma.
 Conifers:
Plant basics Cones
Scientists who study and classify plants Cones are the seed-bearing
are called botanists. One way they parts of a conifer. They are
classify plants is into two categories: male or female and both
vascular and nonvascular. The types usually grow on the
nonvascular plants do not have same plant.
specialized tissues that transport water
and nutrients between parts of the Cross-
plant. Some nonvascular plants are Morinda spruce section of
algae and mosses. The vascular plants Grand fir This tree is native
have special transport systems within This tree grows primarily in to the Western
their tissues. They include most of the British Columbia, western Himalayas. It
land plants. Among the terrestrial Washington and Oregon, grows to be more
(land) plants there are three groups and in the Rocky than 30 feet tall
that can be organized based upon Mountains. Firs have and has the
how they reproduce: smooth, leathery needles, largest needles
Ferns The simplest group of vascular unlike the sharp, spiky of any spruce.
land plants. ones of the spruces.
Gymnosperms are vascular plants Fir cones grow upward
with simple seed-producing structures, from the branch, and the
tree holds them until the Scale
the most familiar being cones. They Two seeds
do not flower. scales peel off and blow
away in the wind. form inside
Angiosperms are complex flowering each scale.
plants that produce seeds enclosed
within an ovary.
Reproduction
What about the conifers?
1. Airborne pollen
Conifers are sometimes called floats from male to
evergreens, because most have female cones.
adapted to their climate by holding on
to their needles throughout the year.
But some evergreens like the larch
and the dawn redwood shed their
needles in winter. Monterey cypress
The cypress, along with juniper
and cedar trees, have tiny, Monkey puzzle
California: land of the Giants overlapping scales instead of This tree, also
Biggest trees the more familiar needles of called the Chile
the pines, firs and spruces. pine, has been
The sequoia grows to be the bigges In junipers, they are also on the Earth
conifer. Living at elevations of 6,500 spiky. The cones of all since the
feet, it is one of the fastest growing cypresses have 6 to 12 thick, dinosaurs. It | Ovule
trees in the world, with bark as thick disc-like scales. _ grows on the | 2. Pollen enters
as 4 feet. Sequoias have survived for border between | ovules. The ovules
2,000 to 3,000 years. Some of the Young cones Bs Chile and | then develop into
largest ones are 35 feet in diameter are green & Argentina, and in | seeds.
and up to 300 feet in height. and compact. % public gardens 3. Scale
One tree in California has been named all over the begins to
“General Sherman” and is the world’s world. The tree grow.
largest tree. Measuring 274.9 feet, its has unusual
diameter around the base is 102.6 feet. overlapping | Embryonic tree
The total volume of the trunk is 52,508 scales and forms R
cubic feet. A branch that fell in 1978 adense canopy. | 4: Each scale
had a diameter of over 6 feet and a The name came | forms two
length of 140 feet. That branch alone from a Victorian | Winged
was larger than any tree growing in the plant collector | seeds.
United States east of the Cascade who commented, | Some cones Two
mountain range. “Well, it would | hold their seeds
Tallest trees puzzle a monkey | Seeds for per
to climb that.” | Many years. scale
The coast redwood is another type
of sequoia tree. They grow up to 1 to Old
2 feet per year, and live in a narrow cones
strip of land along the California and are brittle Needles
Oregon coast. Many grow to be more and brown. and scales
than 300 feet tall. They can also be as
The yew is more primitive Uses for conifers as cae x
old as 4000 years. than other conifers in that There are very few have been used for shelter, ae canee ers,
Oldest trees it produces berries rather than gymnosperms that have fuel, papermaking and Nees a fine
California is also the home of the cones. The berries, which are not been used by people. _clothing. Today, they provide : ae S
world’s oldest trees. poisonous, resemble small Some of the trees that grow _ softwood lumber and wood Bae ee hie s;
Dendrochronology is the study of olives, as each berry contains in the tropics produce edible pulp for the 14 major timber ee aie 2
annual tree rings. Dendrochronologists a single seed. Like the ginko, nuts that are eaten by local _ producers in North America. healed se
have estimated that some of the the yew has separate-sex people. The Western red Most of it comes from just a acienel ed a
bristlecone pines in California are trees, producing either male or cedar filled most of the few species planted over CURCIe MatCon:
between 4,000 and 5,000 years old. female flowers. : needs of Pacific Northwest __millions of acres of Serves moisture.
Coast peoples. Conifers managed forests. The pines all have
long needles that
Gallery of North American conifers grow in clusters of
two, three or five.

Scotch
pine

onterey
Eastern Balsam fir Northern Eastern Douglas Loblolly Monterey cypress Black spruce ine
red cedar Eastern Canada, white cedar larch fir pine Monterey County, Canada,
Eastern half of Northern United Southeastern North U.S. and Southeastern California Northeastern
United States, States Canada, America: Canadian U.S. into 60 to 80 feet United States
Southern Ontario 40 to 60 feet North eastern 40 to Pacific coast Texas 30 to
40 to 50 feet - United States 60 feet 180 to 90 to 50 feet Arolla
30 to 50 feet 250 feet 100 feet pine
CROCODILES
te

All in the family

The word “reptile” is from the Latin
repere, which means “to crawl.”
Reptiles are divided into four groups; one
of these is the crocodilians. Scientists
have divided the crocodilian family into
Crocodiles are a member of the reptile order Crocodilia, which also includes three subgroups: crocodiles; alligators
and caimans; and gharials.
alligators, gharials and caimans. Crocodilians are close relatives of ancient dinosaurs.
Years of being hunted by man brought many of these creatures to the brink of extinction. American alligator
Alligator mississippiensis
Due to conservation efforts some species have recovered, but others remain seriously Range: Southeastern United States
endangered. About 20 species of crocodilians exist today. Size: Up to 18 feet (5.5 m)

(ero =>» The phrase “crocodile tears” is used to Which is

Arh) describe someone who is faking sadness which?
= oN or remorse. A crocodile does not weep The easiest
y GA Qt
Ws over the victim it just ate, but crocodiles do _ way to tell an
produce tears to help lubricate and clean alligator from a
their eyes. Tears are especially apparent crocodile is to
when a crocodile has been out of the look at its nose.
water for a while and the eyes start to dry Alligators have a
out. While under water, a protective wide, U-shaped
membrane serves as an extra eyelid. snout. Crocodiles
The membrane can interefere with a have a longer, American crocodile
Crocodiles have excellent crocodile’s focus, so they rely heavily on pointed Crocodylus acutus
hearing underwater. V-shaped nose. Alligator Crocodile Range: Southeastern United States,
night vision due to a reflective
Southern Mexico, Central America
layer of cells called the
and northern South America
tapetum. These reflector Size: Averages 12 feet (3.5 m)
cells mirror even small Spinal cord Lung Intestines Kidney
quantities of light.

Gharial
ZAK Heart Crocodiles can crawl along on their Gavialis gangeticus
a bellies or raise themselves off the Range: Northern India
ground in a high walk. They are capable Size: Up to 23 feet
Most reptiles (lizards, snakes and turtles) have of moving quite quickly and can travel
three-chambered hearts, but crocodiles have a (7m) =
considerable distances by land.
four-chambered heart (like birds and mammals).

ey es Crocodiles Crocodiles have five toes on

Netra a sie have 60 to their front feet, but only four
eramera 70 teeth, toes on their back feet.
which they Webbing on the feet
lose and between their toes helps
grow back crocodiles move quickly
continually. through water and walk
more easily in mud.
Nile crocodile
Crocodilus niloticus
Range: Africa
Interesting facts Dinner time Size: up to 16.5 feet (5 m)
Crocodilians share many characteristics and lifestyles. Crocodilians are designed to be superior hunters, and many
Social animals, they live in warm (tropical) climates in will eat just about anything they can catch, including people.
freshwater marshes, rivers, lakes and swamps (only the Their teeth are ideal for grabbing and crushing prey, but not
saltwater crocodile lives in salt water). Strong swimmers, for chewing. Instead of chewing, crocodilians rip their food
these carnivores (meat eaters) spend much of their time in apart or swallow it whole. Crocodilians have very high levels
water, but they are born on land and have lungs, not gills. of acid in their stomach to help them digest every part of an
Some crocodilians can stay underwater for up to 30 minutes animal — even the bones. And they store more than half of
if they have to, but a typical dive is about 15 minutes.
the energy supplied by a meal as fat in their tails, backs and
Crocodilians are vertebrates (animals with backbones).
abdomens. Because they can store so much energy, it is
Because they are reptiles, they are cold-blooded; their body
temperature changes with that of their environment. possible for a large crocodilian to go up to two years
without a meal.
Excellent parents
Like most reptiles, crocodilians lay eggs. Crocodilian mothers build nests and lay one clutch of eggs a year. A clutch may
consist of 15 to 80 eggs (depending on the species). The mother fiercely guards her nest, while the male stays nearby to
assist her, but he will not get too close to the nest for fear of being attacked himself. (Some species dig holes in the ground,
others combine mud, leaves and branches and build above ground.) The sex of the babies is determined by the temperature
Spectacled Caiman
of the eggs during the first few weeks. If the nest is below 86 F (30 C), all are female; above 93 F (34 C), all are male. Caiman crocodilus
Temperatures in between will produce both sexes. Some mothers will help break the eggs by gently chewing on them. Some Range: Venezuela to South
crocodilian parents will protect their young until they are old enough to look after themselves (about 3 months), while other Amazon basin
crocodilian parents provide no further care for their offspring once the young hatch. Size: 5 to 6.5 feet (1.5 to 2 m)

Alligator eggs and incubation

Day 1 Day 38 Day 52 Day 65 Dwarf crocodile

Osteolaemus tetraspis
An alligator may lay 50 to 60 The eggs are incubated by the heat of the sun and Baby alligators use a special egg Range: West Africa, south of the Sahara
eggs in a nest as large as 10 decaying plant matter. The sex of the babies is determined by tooth to break out of their shells. Size: Up to 5 feet (1.5 m)
feet wide and 3 to 6 feet deep. the temperature of the eggs during the first few weeks.
 15

What is a desert? A group of Tuareg World deserts

tribesmen rest with their
Deserts are arid regions that Though all deserts have the
camels at an oasis in the
occur on every continent. obvious characteristics of
Sahara Desert
They cover about one-fifth sand, temperature and
of the Earth’s land surface. aridity in common, each
Most desert regions are desert is a unique eco-
near the equator, where system with specific plants
the sun’s rays strike the and animals found only
strongest. Deserts usually there. Here are some facts
have these things: of note about some of the
world’s desert regions:
* They receive less than
10 inches of precipitation Sahara desert
per year. The Sahara is the world’s
+ Most have hot tempera- largest desert and covers
tures for part of the year. the top third of the African
continent. It stretches
* More moisture is lost 3,100 miles across and
through evaporation than 1,200 miles from North to
is received as rainfall. South. Sahara means
* Desert plants and animals “desert” in Arabic, and many
have adapted for surviving experts consider its neighbor,
their harsh environment. the Arabian desert, to be a
continuation of the Sahara.
An oasis is formed when
Types of desert water seeps up from under-
- Polar deserts are arid Welwitschia ground, forming islands of
because any moisture is green. Many nomadic tribes
either frozen or evaporated Desert wander the Sahara, trading
by harsh winds. goods and camels at small
settlements around the
¢ Cold winter deserts lie oases. Tuareg tribesmen
between 35 and 50 degrees \\ live as traders, and are
latitude and are hot in the famous for their
summer and freezing in indigo-colored cloth.
winter. They lie inland, They have long been
where ocean moisture UAL epee important traders of
~\Chihuahuan
wy

cannot reach them, or in the salt, carrying it by

rain shadow of a mountain. caravan from salt pits in
- Subtropical deserts Bilma, Niger, throughout
straddle the Tropic of the Sahara.
Cancer or Tropic of
Capricorn about 23 degrees Turkestan desert
latitude in either direction. : This region in central Asia is
AX composed of two separate
* Coastal deserts, are dry deserts called the Kara-Kum
and cold at night because of (black sand) and Kyzul-Kum
the nearby ocean currents. Polar
‘ ee fi ‘ 1 oe 2 ite i
(red sand). The region is
Fog forms over the land, but Cold winter et extremely dry and in winter,
years can pass between ‘ ria) Stony cold Siberian and Arctic
rain showers. f wae winds can reduce the
ce temperature to minus 44°F.
Total precipitation is less
than 4 inches per year.
Because of human settle-
Adaptation is the key to desert survival ment, many native animals
Desert plants have developed special Desert animals tolerate temperature have been forced out of
features to survive searing heat, harsh extremes and lack of water. In order to the region by herdsmen,
including carnivores, like
winds, cold nights and lack of water. survive the quest for food and survival,
Most have dense root systems that the caracal or desert lynx.
many desert animals have evolved in
Spadefoot toads can may extend for many feet to tap a variety of ways to cope with their Namib desert
burrow deep into desert whatever water is available. harsh environment. The Namib desert is
soil while it is wet from blanketed in fog every day
spring rains. Females lay Kangaroo rats do not need to drink. from the Atlantic Ocean. It
eggs in rain puddles, and They are able to make water inside rains less than an inch per
the tadpoles grow quickly, their bodies from the seeds they eat. year there, so the fog is the
before the dry season. main source of water for all
In the dry season, the of the creatures who live in
toads remain in their the Namib. Many very
moist burrows for unusual plants like the
months. To conserve water cactuses have welwitschia live there. It
NS evolved fleshy, thick stems covered can live to be 2,000 years
‘= — in protective spines.
Dune formation old, and absorbs moisture
from fog through its leathery,
Antelope jackrabbits have evolved long legs to help them run quickly
Only about one-fourth of the above the hot desert sand. Their long ears are full of tiny blood vessels strap-like leaves.
world’s deserts are covered that are cooled by the air— a kind of air conditioning for the blood.
by sand. The rest are a
mixture of other types of
features, including rock,
gravel, dried clay or salt.
Sand dunes can travel
hundreds of feet per year,
gradually covering non-
desert areas. This process,
called desertification, also
occurs when land is
suffering from drought or fe

agricultural misuse. Normal Star Longitudinal Parabolic Transverse Seif Barchan

dune formation begins with
saltation, a process where Star dunes are Longitudinal dunes Parabolic dunes Transverse dunes are Seif dunes are Barchan dunes are
wind causes grains of sand formed by converging form troughs that form with horns formed by winds that wobbly ridges crescent shaped and form
to fly into the air. When the winds from many carve deeply into facing the wind, sweep Sand into ripples caused by shifts in constant winds from
sand grains hit the ground, directions. The arms the floor of the usually because perpendicular to the in the wind one direction. The horns
it Causes more grains to radiate from a central desert. Crests form vegetation anchors wind. They are gently _ direction. face away from the wind
launch into the wind. ridge. as the wind the horns and sand sloped on the and are caused by sand
changes direction. builds behind them. windward side. moving rapidly.
16

Dinosaur basics See y Dinosaur hunters

Dinosaurs were large reptiles The study of dinosaurs is
that dominated the land not limited to palaeontolo-
during the Mesozoic gists. Geologists,
(“middle-life”) era of geologic anatomists, evolutionists,
time. They evolved as a oceanographers and
result of mass extinctions at zoologists contribute to
the end of the Permian our knowledge.
period, about 248 million
years ago. Richard Owen
(1804-1892) As the first
superintendent of the
The name “dinosaur’ means British Museum of Natural
‘terrible lizard.” It was given History, he reviewed fossil
to these animals by Richard ~ reptiles and named them
Owen, a British anatomist after the Greek words
(a scientist who studies the deinos and sauros, or
anatomy of animals) “terrible lizards.”
in 1842. Many prehistoric
animals are mistakenly
grouped with dinosaurs
by novices.
Here’s what makes a
dinosaur a dinosaur:
Parasaurolophus Ankylosaurus
? All dinosaurs lived
during the Mesozoic era, Dinosaurs evolved from a common ancestor into
between 227 million and two main groups, about 220 million years ago. It is
65 million years ago. thought that birds, who survived the catastrophic Gideon Mantell
% All dinosaurs were extinctions at the end of the Mesozoic era, are (1790-1852) A family
reptiles that lived on land. their modern relatives. doctor living in Sussex,
Most did not swim or fly. England. Mantell
> All dinosaurs were
published a description
members of a group of of an animal he named
reptiles called the
Iguanodon, after its living
archosaurs (“ruling relatives.
reptiles”), which included
crocodiles, flying reptiles
and thecodonts, a primitive
form of reptile.

Changing Earth: This type of relational diagram is

The Mesozoic era called a cladogram.
The study of plate tectonics
allows geologists (scientists
who study the Earth’s land
A look at hips
Edward Drinker Cope
and rocks) to track the Since the 19th century, dinosaurs have been grouped (1840-1897) was an
movement of Earth’s into two distinct types based upon the structure of their American naturalist who
continents over time. hipbones. specialized in mammal and
Here’s a peek at what our Saurischian (‘lizard- dinosaur fossils. His
planet probably looked like
during the Age of Reptiles:
[Ae hipped”) dinosaurs had
hipbones arranged so
that the upper bone
(illium) made firm:contact
collection is part of the
American Museum of
Natural History in
New York.
Ilium
with the backbone. The
two lower bones (pubis
Ischium and ischium) pointed
forward and backward,
providing a large area
The Triassic period began for the attachment of the
with the continents joined in ; : : : Pubis i huge leg muscles.
one great land eet called _ 1-An animal dies. Fossils in the water that had soaked Ilium ae izard-hipped
Pangea. Toward ae late form best if the carcass is into the bony structure. dinosaurs were plant
Triassic period, there was covered quickly with 4. Petrification occurs if eaters, others were meat
upheaval and violent sediment — water and mud. —_water that contained eaters.
geologic activity. Very slowly, 2. The flesh rots away, and minerals soaks into the Ornithischian (“bird-
the continents began the bones are slowly cov- pores of the bony structure, hipped”) dinosaurs Edwin Colbert
to separate : red withwith layered
ered laye sediment.
edimen itirel
iees lacing
pete the m Pubis F
had hipbones arranged (1905-2001) excavated
3. Permineralization occurs if with the pubis and the famous Ghost Ranch
some or all of the original 5. Weathering, Earth Ischium ischium pointing back- site in New Mexico. An
material remains, but has movements and/or erosion, ward, much like modern abundance of Coelophysis
been strengthened by cause the fossil to become birds. All bird-hipped skeletons (carnivores from
minerals that were dissolved exposed. dinosaurs were plant- the late Triassic period)
eaters. were found there.
The Jurassic period was ; : z
mild weather-wise, and no Making a dinosaur: From field to museum Stephen Jay Gould
polar ice caps meant higher (1941-2002) developed
An incredible amount of work scientists and technicians
sea levels. Marine life the evolutionary theory
is required to obtain a fossil must painstakingly expose called “Punctuated
forms were widespread and transport it back to a each bone or fragment and
and abundant. Equilibrium.” It states that
museum for preparation remove it from the surround- most evolution occurs in
and display. After locating a ing rock. Small hand tools, short bursts, interspersed
suitable site, scientists picks, dental tools and bristle with long periods of stasis.
search for bone shards or brushes aid the diggers.
promising rock formations. Each bone is numbered,
The chances of finding an photographed and
intact animal are rare; often, catalogued onsite.
During the Cretaceous a few bones or a skull are all Then they are carefully
period, land masses that remain of an animal in wrapped, crated and
separated and moved the rock. shipped back to-a laboratory
considerably, looking more Once a fossil is chosen to for cleaning, study and
like the modern map. be excavated, a team of preparation.
 17

The rise of dinosaurs

The Triassic period marked the beginning of a time of recovery for life
on Earth. Mass extinctions at the end of the previous period — the
Permian — were brought about by all-time low sea levels, global climate
changes, and low oxygen levels in the atmosphere and water.
Extinction brought major developments in the surviving land animals,
including the emergence of ruling reptiles, called the archosaurs, which
Eudimorphodon
dominated the land. (YOU-die-MORF-o-dahn)
Habitats diversified, and land plant life adapted significantly. Life in the Wingspan: About 2.5 feet (.75 m)
sea also began to flourish again, and bony fish, corals and mollusks Flying reptiles, or pterosaurs, evolved about 70 million Most of the animals on
formed Earth’s first primitive reef systems. years before the first-known birds. Eudimorphodon this page never shared
is the earliest-known, and had very sharp, the same habitat or
pointed teeth, probably to help it catch fish. lived at the same time,
Placerias
but they are shown in
(pluh-SEHR-ree-uhs)
Length: About 11.5 ft (3.5 m) scale with each other.

A hippopotamus-like, herding
therapsid, or mammal-like
reptile, it was not a dinosaur.
Placerias ate roots, ferns,
moss and other
low-lying plants.

ZA
Plateosaurus
: PLAT-ee-oh-sore-uhs
end of the Triassic during the : ean About 26 feet b,m)
period. Some Jurassic period.
scientists believe the . Spiral-shelled
* The name Triassic geological evidence mollusks called
refers to the threefold
division of rocks of
PWNS FO aMEWcOr Ammonites evolved
ee enren rapidly in the Triassic.
this age that were
_ coincides with a The distinct forms of
found in Germany.
mass extinction that their changing shells
* Scientists agree there eliminated half the are used as index, or
was a worldwide major groups of life indicator, fossils to
disaster that occurred and allowed the small —_giq scientists in dating
about 200 million surviving dinosaurs to the surrounding rock
years ago, toward the evolve and diversify strata.

Coelophysis
(seel-OH-fie-sis)
Length: About 10 feet (3 m)
The best skeletal remains were
discovered in 1947 by Edwin
Colbert at Ghost Ranch, N.M.
Several hundred animals were Euparkeria
jumbled together in a mass (eew-PARK-er-ee-ya)
grave. Phytosaurs, fish, clams Length: About 2 feet (.6 m)
and crayfish were also found at Euparkeria is a close relative of the archosaurs. Its body
the site, providing a snapshot of form is unusual for reptiles of the time, in that the hind
the Triassic ecosystem. limbs are longer than the fore limbs. Scientists believe it
is a sister group to all other Archosauria, or is part of the
lineage leading to dinosaurs.
< Going back in time
APPROXIMATE PLACEMENT OF THESE REPTILES AND DINOSAURS ON THE GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE

The Scythian Epoch The Middle Triassic Epoch The Late Triassic Epoch
248 to 241 million years ago 241 to 227 million years ago 227 to 205 million years ago

Euparkeria Placerias
nepniinneen inane
Coelophysis Plateosaurus Eudimorphodon
Early Triassic > Late Triassic — Late Triassic Late Triassic Late Triassic
South Africa : or N. America N. America Western Europe Italy
18

The Jurassic period began with a worldwide disaster that " @ e

wiped out many forms of life. Small dinosaurs, crocodiles C r
and mammal-like reptiles survived the change, but many e U i as S] e 10
large reptiles became extinct. Plant life was also
affected. Conifers and thick-leaved evergreens called
cycads grew along the shores of shallow lakes. The Stegosaurus
ginkgo tree, which still survives in modern times, (STEG-oh-SORE-us)
evolved during this period. Moist Length: About 30 feet (9 m)

ae etspesca ig The largest-known plated dinosaur, this herbivore hada

climate was dry. The skies very small skull and brain for such a large animal. Italso
were full of flying reptiles had rows of tall, bony plates running along. its.back.
the first bi " While scientists disagree about théifuse, they may have
Syne! eae helped release body heat.
dinosaurs.

a AS x

Lo
ou know?

* Drought was a constant

threat during the Jurassic
period.
+ Because of plate
/ collisions and the open-
Apatosaurus ing of new ocean basins,
(ah-PAT-oh-SORE-us) there is no ocean floor in
Length: About 70 feet (21 m) the present-day basins
This giant herbivore (plant-eater) was that is older than
called brontosaurus until 1978, when Jurassic age. MAY
Abs

scientists re-evaluated the skeleton. * The Jurassic had an

This giant dinosaur weighed as much abundance of cycads
as five adult elephants and used its (left). The plants were
tail for balance. widespread over the
entire Earth, along
with conifers.
Allosaurus
* Mammals were still rare
(AL-oh-SARE-us)
during this period, and
Length: About 35 feet (10.5 m)
were small, nocturnal
This gigantic carnivore insect eaters.
(meat-eater) was the largest
predator of the Late Jurassic
period. Allosaurus had bony,
rough ridges above the eye
sockets. It fed on large game
like the Apatosaurus, and hunted
anything it could trap and kill.
Allosaurs may also have been
scavengers, feeding on dead or
dying animals.
Archaeopteryx
(AR-kee-OP-ter-iks)
Length: About 1.5 feet (.45 m)
Archaeopteryx occupies a special
place in evolutionary history — as a
link between reptiles and birds.
Fossils show it had a wishbone,
clawed fingers on its wings, a long
tail with a bony core (similar to that
of small dinosaurs) and feather-like
structures on the wings and tail.

Scutellosaurus
(skoo-TEL-o-SAWR-us)
Length: About 4 feet (1.2 m) :
This small bird-hipped dinosaur
had hundreds of small, armored, bony
plates on its back. It could walk on two or
four legs and probably sprinted on its
back legs to evade predators.
_ Going back in time f}
APPROXIMATE PLACEMENT OF THESE DINOSAURS ON THE GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE

The Lias Epoch (Early Jurassic) The Dogger Epoch (Middle Jurassic) The Malm Epoch (Late Jurassic)
205 to 180 million years ago 180 to159 million years ago 159 to 144 million years ago

Scutellosaurus Stegosaurus Archaeopteryx Allosaurus Apatosaurus

Early Jurassic Late Jurassic Late Jurassic Late Jurassic — Late Jurassic
N. America N. America Europe N. America N. America
 The name Cretaceous comes from the :
Latin word for chalk. Millions of fossilized
marine organisms and shells are found in
chalky deposits in rock dating back to this
period. Massive floods invaded the land, Pteranodon
and as the oceans swelled, North America was divided by a shallow (TERR-an-O-donn)
sea. Geologic ) pushed the Rocky Mountains upward, and Wingspan: 23 feet (7 m)
sediments from t mountains washed eastward onto plains, where This flying reptile probably was a
a Lae vast number
a A of dinosaurs5 roamed. Dinosaurs flourished Ses
and :
glider. F
Its relatively large eyes may
diversified
:
into more species
j
than ever
;
before.
a
Though scientists F
have helped it search for fish.
,
disagree, most say the climate during this time began to change
from humid and very warm to cooler and drier.
At the end of the Cretaceous, an inexplicable event
brought about a great extinction. On land, the
dinosaurs died out, survived by most of
~ the plant life and newly evolving
smaller mammals. A smaller Wey
fraction of the marine PN
animals and plants <_< ‘oh LO A. SS)
survived the event. r ; Motes - AG PROS oe a - \)

* Sea level was high

throughout much of
the Cretaceous
period. At its
maximum height,
only about
18 percent of the
Earth’s surface
remained uncovered
Triceratops by water, as "
(try-SERRA-tops) Length: About 30 feet (9 m) compared to
These massive herbivores had a bony neck frill. approximately
They were one of the last of the dinosaurs to 28 percent today.
evolve, and one of the most numerous. They Carnivorous
traveled in small groups or herds. dinosaurs developed
many kinds of
advanced teeth and
claws during the
Oviraptor Cretaceous period.
(OH-vih-RAP-tor)
Many new types
Length: About 6 feet (1.8 m)
of plants devolped
The earliest fossil of an oviraptor was found near during this time,
a nest containing what were thought to be the including figs,
eggs of Protoceratops. Up until a few years ago, magnolias, poplars,
scientists thought the ovirapto was an “egg thief,” willows, sycamores
but then proved that the eggs were her own. and herbs. With the
advent of many new
plant types, insects
also diversified.

Tyrannosaurus rex
(tie-RAN-oh-SORE-us-REX)
Length: About 46 feet (14 m)
Perhaps the most well-known of all dinosaurs,
VAY the Tyrannosaurus rex was an awesome
RY Deinonychus predator that could have weighed up to 8 tons.
(die-NON-i-kus) It was armed with fangs measuring up to
Length: About 8 feet (2.5 m) 6 inches long and had a bite force that could
This predator was fast, agile and intelligent. have easily ripped through a car roof. The
It was believed to be a pack hunter, using function of its tiny, two-fingered hands remains
the enlarged “terrible claw” on the second a mystery. It is lilkely that the Tyrannosaurus rex
toe of each foot to disembowel its prey. both hunted and scavenged.

=)
«Going back in time =X OSs
APPROXIMATE PLACEMENT OF THESE DINOSAURS ON THE GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE

al
The Neocomian Epoch (Early Cretaceous) The Gallic Epoch (Middle Cretaceous) The Senonian Epoch (Late Cretaceous)
144to 127 million years ago 127 to 90 million years ago 90 to 65 million years ago

Deinonychus Pteranodon Oviraptor Tyrannosaurus rex Triceratops

Early Cretaceous - Late Cretaceous Late Cretaceous Late Cretaceous Late Cretaceous
N. America ; zi Europe Asia N. America N. America
20

DOGS
Way back when Famous canines
Dogs are thought to be the Laika — The first dog in space, aboard the
descendants of a carnivo- Soviet satellite Sputnik 2 in 1957.
rous, weasel-like animal Lassie — A line of popular collies in movies
called the Miacis that lived and in television. The first Lassie starred in
about 50 million years ago. the 1943 movie Lassie Come Home.
The Miacis had five toes Dogs can hear high-pitched They have been human companions for 10,000
Le Diable — A French dog trained to
and was probably a good sounds that humans cannot, years, maybe longer, but through the centuries smuggle items across the border. His
climber. and, some dogs like the blood- the domestic dog has not lost its charm.
hound can track a 4-day-old owners dyed his hair different colors to
confuse the guards.
scent. Dogs see the world in Anatomy 101: Inside and out
shades of gray and blue. Rin Tin Tin — Famous
Dogs come in many shapes and sizes, but they all share basic
German shepherd
physical characteristics. A dog’s skeleton has about 320 bones (this
Crest movie star. “Rinty” was
number varies depending on how many bones are in the tail).
Skull in many movies before
Miacis
his death in 1932.
Withers Spine Loin Pelvis A dog's tail is used
(Paleocene period: (back- or Croup for balance when Saur or Suening —
Ribs
65 million to 55 million bone) flank an running and for This dog was put on the throne of
years ago) rump communication. Norway for three years by an angry king in
Muzzle the 11th century.
WOO NS
The Cynodictis evolved
20 million years ago. This
Be ku Wd
a Se :
What are we talking about?
animal had some doglike
Bitch — A female dog.
characteristics.
Humerus Breed — A kind of dog with consistent traits.
Femur Tail- Kennel — A place where dogs are bred and
Chest Thigh bone boarded.
Tibia License — Permission by a government ~
Brisket Fibula agency allowing you to keep a dog; a fee is
Cynodictis usually required.
(Eocene period: Hock joint Neuter — A surgery that prevents male
55 million to 38 million Panting helps a dogs from impregnating female dogs.
years ago) dog stay cool. Ulna Metatarsals Dogs have Pedigree — A list of the dog’s ancestors.
sweat glands
Radius on their feet. Registration papers — Proof that a pure-
About 10 million years ago Pastern bred and its parents are on record at a dog
a creature evolved called Metacarpals
Paw registry (kennel club).
the Tomarctus. Tomarctus Pad Toe Dogs have five toes on their front feet, or
resembled a wolf and is the Spay — A surgery that prevents female
bones forepaws, and four toes on their hind feet.
ancestor of all members of dogs from getting pregnant. a
the dog family. Impeccable breeding Working for a living » Egyptian
jackal statue
Dogs have been bred for many practical reasons: Sporting dogs are also called gundogs because \ A.D. 300
hunting, herding, guarding and even keeping they are bred to assist hunters. Pointers, setters,
humans warm. Toy dogs in ancient China were retrievers and spaniels are sporting dogs. Hounds
carried in wide sleeves to help keep a person’s are also hunting dogs. Beagles, basset hounds
Tomarctus hands warm. It was not until the establishment of and bloodhounds rely on scent to hunt and are
Miocene period the first kennel clubs in Europe that breed also known as scent hounds. Working dogs have
(25 million to 5 million histories and pedigrees were recorded. been bred to perform a particular job. Siberian
years ago) huskies pull sleds, Newfoundlands are well-suited Greek vase
Today there are more than 400 kinds of purebred (c. 380-360
dogs. A purebred is a dog whose sire and dam to rescue work. Terriers specialize in hunting
Archeologists have rodents and small animals. Toy dogs are mostly B.C.)
discovered evidence that (father and mother) are of the same breed and
whose ancestors were also purebred, dating back bred as companions and to compete at dog Ancient Roman
people and dogs have lived shows. Utility or nonsporting dogs are generally
to the establishment of the breed. Mixed-breed guard dog
together for at least 10,000 larger breeds; the poodle originally specialized in
years. This makes dogs dogs are also known as mutts or mongrels.
These dogs have parents of different breeds or retrieving ducks for French hunters. The collie and Scoring
the oldest known German shepherd are herding dogs.
domesticated animal. The are of mixed breeding themselves. Give yourself 1 point for every dog identified
correctly and another point for each correct
saluki is considered the Name that breed: Test your knowledge classification.
oldest of the present-day
breeds. The saluki probably Below are some pictures of different breeds. Can you identify the breed? You get bonus points if you 1-5 You need to improve your dog breed
originated in the Middle can name the AKC classification, too. A book on dog breeds from the library might ‘help you. identification skills
East around 5000 B.C. 5-10 You’re pretty good at this
By 1500 B.C., Egyptian
10-15 Very impressive work
art depicts a variety of
dog breeds that resemble 15-20 Awesome! A++
mastiffs and hunting dogs. Answers
English bulldog (Utility)
Mexican
pottery dog Bloodhound (Hound)
from the Border collie (Working)
Colima culture Bull terrier (Terrier)
A.D. 300
Dalmatian (Utility)
lrish setter (Sporting)
« ((By
Ss
=
Saluki (Hound)
Skye terrier (Terrier)
=
i . Pomeranian (Toy)
On)
O15
ON
COR
CON
10. English springer spaniel
Big and small: dog sizes (Sporting)
Dogs come in many sizes, from the Chihuahua (world’s smallest
dog) to the larger breeds like the heavyset St. Bernard or the tall
lrish wolfhound. This chart shows the average weight and
shoulder height for several breeds.

V A. We

) € Se 13 =
‘G

Chihuahua English cocker Collie St. Bernard lrish wolfhound

1-6 pounds spaniel 50-75 pounds (23-34 kg) 140-200 pounds (64-90 kg) 126-145 pounds (57-66 kg)
(0.5-3 kg) 26-34 pounds 22-26 inches (56-66 cm) 26-30 inches (66-76 cm) 32-34 inches (81—86 cm)
5 inches (12-15 kg)
(13 cm) 16 inches (41 cm)
 21

DOLPHINS
By definition Marine dolphins
Dolphins are not fish. Dolphins range in size from 4 ft.
They are aquatic mammals. (1.2 m) to 30 ft. (9 m) long and
Closely related to whales weigh from 100 pounds (45 kg)
and porpoises, they belong to to 10 short tons (9 metric tons).
a group of mammals called They come in a variety of colors
cetaceans (sih-TAY-shunz). and markings.
Dolphins breathe air and feed Dolphins have Movies, television shows, aquariums and Z00S
their young milk. They are also ed ih have made the orca and the bottle-nosed dolphin NOTE: Illustrations are not to scale.

warmblooded, which means AES a the most popular and well-known of dolphins. The Indo-Pacific humpbacked
they maintain a relatively imagination orca, or killer whale, is known for its friendliness Sousa
consistent body temperature and trend. oh, and ability to learn clever tricks.
regardless of the temperature : Orcas live in pods of three to 25 and can be
of their surroundings. ship of people found in oceans all over the world. _
jaa
~—

for thousands They are fast swimmers and can reach

The word dolphin is used to —— speeds
p up p to 30 mph p (48 kph)
describe two kinds of cetaceans: of years. There ple Common dolphin
Marine dolphins and river Delphinus
are many ancient delphis = é!
dolphins. There are 32 species
of marine dolphin and five myths and
species of river dolphin. legends about
All in the family dolphins. Native Striped dolphin
Stenella coeruleoalba
Kingdom. Animalia | Americans and
Phylum .....chordata_| Australian
Subphylum cu Vertebrata) aborigines believed
oS —— Mammalia.) the dolphin was a
ese Pater se Petes . eee messenger of the Long-finned pilot whale
amily marine
sna aereeHee MeN eee
elpniniaae
cesoc nrtvasre aA caconusednesesorsreréuse
“4H:
ods. Killin a dol
:
hin @
Globicephala
Family (river) Platanistidae 8 8 P melaena y
in ancient Greece was a
Fresh air crime punishable by . |
Dolphins breathe air through a
nostril called a blowhole. While death. But we have not
Killer whale (orca)
it is underwater, the blowhole is always been kind to Orcinus
sealed with a special muscle.
Most dolphins surface to
this highly intelligent orca
breathe every 30 or 60 seconds. animal, and many Bottle-nosed -

Speaking dolphin species are threatened dolphin

Tursiop: é
Dolphins communicate in a or on the verge s iller
anicea whale
ase(orca)
variety of ways. Short clicking of extinction.
sounds and high-pitched Bottle-nosed dolphin
squeals and whistles are often Tursiops
truncatus 2
combined (scientists call these
combinations phonations).
These dolphins are in big trouble
Squeals sometimes express This list shows some of the rarest and most threatened dolphins.
excitement, or they can signal
an alarm. Clicking is also used Species Distribution Estimated Pop. Note
for echolocation and helps the Baiji dolphin. Yangtze River, China less than 100 Will probably become exti Risso’s dolphin
dolphin find food and friends. Grampus griseus
The clicks are created in nasal
Bhulan dolphin. Indus River, Pakistan less than 500... 500. Population
Population continues,
continues to diminish
sacs behind the melon, an Hector’s dolphin Coast of New Zealand less than 4,000. Rarest marine dolphin
organ made of special fatty Susu dolphin Rivers of India 4,000 to 6,000 Population continues to diminish
tissues that focus sound into a
beam (like a flashlight). When Anatomy 101
the sound hits an object, sound
waves bounce back. By listening The brain of a bottle-nosed ~
to this echo, a dolphin can dolphin is slightly larger than River dolphins
locate objects. a human brain. Tests have shown River dolphins live in fresh
that cetaceans are very adaptable water or brackish (slightly salty)
and that they use sophisticated water. They are found in the
problem-solving skills. warm rivers and lakes of Asia
Echolocation Click and South America. All species
The dorsal fin of river dolphins are threatened
Lung helps with balance. | due to habitat destruction
by humans.
Blubber is a layer of
The five species
fat that helps keep a
dolphin warm. Baiji (Chinese river, Yangtze

\\| Boto (Amazon river dolphin)

\ Franciscana (La Plata river)
To swim,
Susu (Ganges
river dolphin)
A family affair ee “eg a dolphin Bhulan (Indus river dolphin)
Most of what we know about Liat its
dolphin behavior comes from UKeS Franciscana (La Plata river)
observing animals in captivity. ae Pontoporia blainvillei
Dolphins are extremely social Kidney Spinal column
and prefer to live in large
groups, or pods. A pod of eermes Porpoising is when dolphins leap and
dolphins will hunt and play glide over the water. This allows the
together for many years. Stomach dolphin to breathe while moving rapidly. Baiji (Yangtze river)
They also protect the Lipotes vexillifer
young, sick and injured
within the group. By using
their backs and flippers,
pod members will sometimes
help an injured or ill dolphin
Bhulan (Indus river)
breathe by keeping it near
Platanista minor
the surface.
nee
A male dolphin is called a bull,
a female is a cow and a baby
is called a calf.
 22

Goin, Grabak,
Gravitnir and
Grafvolud
(Norway) are the
serpents living
under the ash tree
Yggdrasil, the
“Tree of Life.”
Okay, so they don’t exist, but these giants
of legend and folklore are still pretty cool.
i
= Leviathan (Israel) is a Biblical water
What is a dragon? = creature which defies the power and
Today many people skill of humans. His back is a row of
think of dragons as shield-like scales and his eyes glow
large, green, four- as bright as the rising sun.
legged, winged reptiles
with long necks and
tails who breathe fire
and hoard treasure. But
historically and culturally,
dragons have come in
many forms. They could be
any fantastic type of mythical mon- y Fafnir (Germany
ster. Snakes and dragons are almost ' began life as a
interchangeable in some cultures. dwarf. Rewarded
Serpentine dragons appear to be giant with gold from the
snakes, with snake-like behaviors.
gods, he hid his
Sometimes the same word is used
hoard, guarding
for both snake and/or dragon. To
Polynesians, Mo’o (or Moko) means it day and night. £
lizard. In a myth, Moko could be a Greed turned
dragon, or a tiny lizard. him into
a dragon.
Is it a dragon?
Dragons often possess similar traits.
Some themes recur in myths or
legends from different lands. To
students of mythology, creatures
that share the following traits or
themes are thought of as dragons.
A creature may not display all or even
most of them, but will still be a dragon. Chi Lung Wang
Traits many dragons share: (China) is one of >)
YI many dragon kings. ‘
* Reptilian appearance
Associated with a
* Breathes or spits poison or fire fire-fighting, he is .
* Lives in or is associated with water invoked to help with
+ Influences storms, rain and wind the water pumps =<9@”
* Can fly (even without having wings) that extingush &
the flames.
* Guards treasure, knowledge or
another resource, and will fight to the
death to protect it
* Displays magical or supernatural Puetzelcoey
powers when alive; remains will have sa aeteineaaes Vitra (India) is a
power even if the dragon is dead ree serpent-dragon
=e of civilization. who absorbed
Uncommon dragon traits: He is a feathered all:thelonena
* Bird-like appearance serpent and is waters and then
+ Roundels (circular panels) on the sometimes wrapped himself
wings or body shown swallow- sround/e
* Ability to transform into another ing his own tail. mountain to rest.
animal or human The rain-god
- Holds a powertul position (god, or Indra killed Vitra
servant to one) with thunder-
Te or false? bolts, releasing
Western dragons are evil; Eastern eee
dragons are good. Not true! Eastern
dragons can wreak havoc and cause
massive destruction, usually by storm,
sea or sky.
Dragons must have legs and
wings. Wrong again! Many :
European myths describe dragons Hotu-Puku
without limbs, such as wyrms, or
the Jormungandr, the Midgard (New Zealand) ate
Serpent in Norse mythology. many travelers. War
parties were sent to find the
-

Dragons must be intelligent. Lernean Hydra (Greek) was a

O)
missing. They hung a noose,
O
False. Although there are dragons
serpent with many heads. She e
with one man acting as bait. As
who speak in riddles, this O
lived in swampy waters near the O) Hotu-Puku put his head into
behavior is not true to them all.
Taniwha (New Zealand) show town of Lerna. As soon as one of s the noose, it was pulled tightly
maximum strength but minimal her heads was cut off, two more C) until he died. He was cut
O
brain power. grew in its place. ©) open, and the missing bodies
©)
©
were found inside.
Mythological dragons are ©)

large. Contrary to popular belief,

Tiamat (Babylonia), a
tiny dragon spirits appear in /
some European household representation of the
folk tales. saltwater ocean, is
the mother of all
things and bore the
gods of Babylon.
 23

Our world Achievements

Earth is a unique place that
> The Clean Air Act of
supports a myriad of life forms.
1970 was passed.
As human populations around
the world continue to grow, it »> Seven “Dirty Dozen”
becomes more and more Congressmen — des-
clear how important it is ignated by the Earth
for people to protect the Day organizers —
planet by using its were defeated in the
1970 elections.
resources wisely.
“Earth Day worked because of the spontaneous response at the.
Earth Day has been very > The military was
successful in making people aware of grassroots level. We had neither the time nor resources to forced to halt the use
how rare and special the Earth’s plants of mutagenic defoliants
and creatures are. It has played an organize 20 million demonstrators and the thousands of in the war in Southeast
important role in bringing environmental schools and local communities that participated. That was the ae : |
issues to the forefront, helping many saath) ie t
nations gain the support needed to remarkable thing about Earth Day. It organized itself. Pominiagency aes
change environmental laws and protect established.
endangered habitats and animais. President Kennedy — Gaylord Nelson
and Gaylord Nelson. » The Federal
Occupational Health
An idea and Safety Act was
passed by a coalition
In 1962 Senator Gaylord
of labor and environ-
Nelson, the founder of Earth
mental groups.
Day, began to think about
the dismal state of the >» Within three years,
environment and its the Clean Water,
unimportance to U.S. Endangered Species,
politicians. He decided to to and Resource
discuss his environmental Conservation and
ideas with the administration Recovery Acts were
and to persuade President
Kennedy to go on a national
conservation tour. As a result
of this meeting, the president
began a 5-day, 11-state
conservation tour in
September of 1963. The tour
did not succeed in putting
environmental issues on the
national political agenda, but
it was the beginning of an
idea that would eventually
become Earth Day.
Atter the tour, Nelson
continued to speak on
environmental issues.
Evidence of environmental
degradation was appearing
across the United States
and the world. Although the
politicians didn’t take much
of an interest, the people did. Sharing the planet
In the summer of 1969,
Nelson decided to organize You can participate on Earth Give up a few fast-food meals
a grassroots protest over Day in a number of ways. every month.
what was happening to Any action taken to care for Ride a bike on local trips to
the planet. our planet-helps. Here are reduce car use.
some ways to start:
At a Seattle conference in Wear natural fibers instead
September 1969, Nelson Follow the three R’s every day: of synthetics.
announced plans for a nation- Reduce the amount of waste
you produce, reuse whatever Use a fan instead of air
wide demonstration on behalf
you can, and recycle what- conditioning one day a week.
of the environment. He invited
everyone to participate in the Don't indiscriminately use
event, which was scheduled Keep informed of the latest insecticides.
for the following spring. actions being taken regarding Try sand instead of salt to
The immense response to the environment. de-ice the pavement.
Earth Day led to the need for Ride public transportation one Encourage employers to
a national headquarters. In day or more per week. provide clearly marked
January 1970, John Gardner, Don’t buy products with recycle containers.
founder of Common Cause, excessive packaging. Buy organic items.
provided office space. Four
months later, on April 22, Fix dripping faucets. Eat a non-meat meal once
1970, the first Earth Day Turn off lights when you are per week.
was held. An estimated not using them. Use biodegradable
20 million people products when possible.
Don’t run the dishwasher
took part.
unless it’s full. Use recycled paper
Contact direct-mail sources products.
and request that your name be Plant a tree.
removed from mailing lists to
Buy used furniture.
reduce unwanted mail.
Plant a garden.
Plant drought-resistant plants
in your yard. Join a wildlife
organization
Adopt a park and pick up
trash when you visit it. Use the National Parks
system for vacations.
Buy shade-grown coffee
to reduce dependence on Carpool.
slash-and-burn farming. Support local farms and
Start a compost pile. farmers’ markets.
Lower the thermostat.
24

Almost all animals make eggs in order to reproduce. Most Chicken egg development
mammals keep the egg inside the mother’s body until the An egg begins as a cell called an ovum.
young are ready to be born. But many creatures — birds, Yolk particles form around the ovum until
the yolk is the size of a fully formed egg.
most reptiles, insects and fish — lay their eggs. This page The yolk travels through a long tube
focuses mostly on the eggs that animals lay. called the oviduct. On its way, layers of
albumen (protein nutrients) form, followed
What is an egg? Kinds of eggs The ostrich egg can weigh by shell membranes. The final shell is
more than 3 pounds and is formed in the uterus. It takes more than
All eggs start as tiny cells that, if fertilized, The egg examples 24 hours for the yolk to move through the
the largest egg laid today.
will grow into baby animals. When birds, below are drawn oviduct and turn into an egg ready to lay.
Some dinosaur eggs
snakes, turtles and insects mate, the eggs to scale and are A goose egg can vary were even bigger. The egg cell or ovum is
are fertilized inside the female. But most slightly smaller a great deal in size. "released into the oviduct.
toads, frogs and fish fertilize their eggs out- than actual The
This one is about
side the mother. Eggs come in many sizes, size. 4 inches long. hummingbird 2.
shapes and colors. Some have hard shells; The egg
others have soft shells. Birds lay just a few eetae
Ss ae is
eggs each year, while an oyster can pro- fertilized
duce more than 500 million eggs in a year. (Jelly coating) of bir
here.
eggs and
Anatomy 101 weighs Layers of
3 albumen
The germinal disc, or nucleus, is the ee
form here.
part of an egg that becomes an animal. Silk moth —° “ :
The rest of the egg serves as food and egg Frog eggs ounces.
| Sunfish—© are laid in 6. The 4, Shell membranes
protection for the embryo. Se Is * are formed in this
water.
Parts of a chicken egg egg aid. gland area.
°
Yolk 5 The hard shell forms inside the uterus
Shell membranes | “and colors develop on the shell.
Germinal disc Shell — Inner shell Human egg
membrane Anewly laid egg must be kept warm
Light layer (incubated) if it is going to grow into a
Dark layer chicken. If the egg gets too cold the
chick will die.
Day 1
An alligator egg is white,
The
but may be coated in bits embryo
begins to
of debris from the nest.
develop.

Egg : Day 3
white Ait | Snapping
space | turtle eggs are The embryo
Chalaza more round than oval has a head, a
and are laid in a nest heart and a
tail. The yolk
Thick white Thin white dug into the ground. develops
blood vessels
Day 1
Insects : The eggs
change color
to feed the
embryo.
Insects lay a lot of eggs. shortly before Day 7
Many of these hatch into they hatch. Asac of water
called the
larvae (caterpillars or grubs), Lady bugs The larva is born without wings; after eating
amnion forms
which have another stage of lay about 15 for about a week it changes into a pupa. around the
development (growing inside —_to 20 eggs. Day 35 Day 36 Day 37 embryo. Wings
a cocoon, pupa or chrysalis) The pupa case
After about 24 hours, the and legs begin
before emerging as an adult. breaks open and an to develop.
ladybug changes color
adult ladybug is born.
from yellow to red.
Day 12
About three weeks Day 28 Day 84 Pimples where
Fish later, the baby The young trout the feathers
trout (or alevin) (parr) develops will grow are
Different species of fish have
emerges. black stripes. visible. A beak
a variety of ways to lay their eggs.
forms and a
Most fish eggs are fertilized in the
The rainbow trout can lay waste sac
water after they are laid, but some
more than 1,000 eggs a shares the
species, including sharks and rays,
year. Two weeks after they space.
fertilize the eggs inside the mother.
are laid, little fish bodies It takes two years for the Day 20
can be seen. trout to reach full maturity. One more day
before the
chick will
F Day 1 Day 10 are Day 17 Day 43
hatch. A
rogs 0252, Cont O¥OLOPO, SZ.De In six to eight special egg
Amphibians live part of their Be OnaS0 v 0% os ea e546 Nee weeks, the tooth on the
lives as water animals and - SrsKe) wy —> “S% tadpoles beak will help
part as land animals. é =a, develop the chick
Frogs, toads, nawis and A frog can lay up to 1,000 eggs at a time, but = back legs.
only a few will manage to survive to adulthood. Day 21 break out of
salamanders are amphibians. Most are eaten by predators. The first crack or break __ the shell.
Most of these animals lay in the shell is called a
round, jelly-coated eggs. Day 53 pip. The chick uses all
It takes three years
Some are laid one at a time; In the span of about a of its strength to break
for a frog to reach
others are laid in string month, the tadpole full maturity and be out of the shell and is
clusters. grows front legs and its born wet and tired.
able to lay eggs.
tail begins to shrink.
: Day 1 Day 38 Day 52 Day 65
Alli gator fa u y y y The baby alligator
@ >. uses
a special egg
Unlike many reptiles, alligators ‘€. if tooth to break out
and crocodiles are excellent
mothers. They carefully dig
“Cao | of the shell.
Sas e. : ——— > a

nests and remain nearby while

the eggs incubate. Also, they An alligator may lay 50 The eggs are incubated by the heat of the sun and Me
often help out when it is time to 60 eggs in a nest as decaying plant matter. The sex of the babies The chick rests and warms up close to its
for the babies to hatch. large as 10 feet wide depends on the temperature of the eggs during the ie mother and within a few hours it is dry
and 3 to 6 feet deep. first few weeks. = and covered in a fluffy yellow down.
 25

ELEPHANTS
African elephant Asian elephant
The African elephant The Asian or Indian elephant
(Loxodonta Africana) is the (elephas maximus) is smaller
largest animal living on land. than its African cousin. A bull
The largest is the bush stands 9 to 10 feet (2.7 to
elephant, which lives south 3.2 m) tall and weighs up to
of the Sahara. Forest
The largest and heaviest land mammal in the world, the elephant is very 11,000 Ibs. (5,000 kg). The
elephants are found in smart and very strong. And with a life span of about 70 years, they live female is smaller than the male
Central and Western Africa. and has very small tusks or
Males are larger than
longer than any other land mammals (with the exception of humans). none at all. An Asian elephant
females, and a bush elephant has five toes on its front feet,
Tusks are actually The easiest way to tell an African and four toes on its back feet.
can be 11 feet tall (3.4 m)
incisors, or front elephant from an Asian one is to look at This animal is listed as
and weigh up to 14,000 Ibs.
teeth. Tusks never their ears. African elephants have much endangered, with wild
(6,300 kg) These animals
stop growing. larger ears. One way elephants keep populations estimated at 35,000
have four or five toes on their
front feet and three toes on cool is to flap their ears. They also take to 50,000. The Asian elephant
African
their back feet. Both males elephant dust and mud baths or go swimming. has been domesticated by man
and females have tusks. Wild and to this day is captured and
Asian trained to carry heavy loads.
populations are estimated at elephant
400,000 to 600,000. At one time it was even used
in warfare.

4
Some elephants
greet each other
by intertwining
trunks (like
shaking hands).

Elephants breathe and smell

with their trunks. African
— African bush elephant elephants have two finger-like
fH African forest elephant
lips on the end of their trunk;
Asian elephants have just one
of these extensions.

An elephant skull d The ridges on the African elephant’s molar are

wouldhebe very > lozenge- (diamond) shaped, and its scientific
heavy ifitdidnot f » \ name loxodonta africana means lozenge teeth.
have small holes or es ca The Asian elephant’s molar has sharp Indian Ocean
pockets of air. ridges that cut the food when chewing. coe 4
Elephants chew by African Asian paul -
moving the jaw from yy elephant elephant a
side to side ina > yk ola molar
grinding motion. = : LY Elephants
Molar 2 are still killed
The toe bones of In its lifetime, an Molar 3. Appears at : Louies
an elephant sitona elephant has six sets of Three to 18 months Ivory

soft pad of fat that four molars (two on the nine years Molar 1
acts as a shock top and two on the nape!
Newborn
absorber and allows
the animal to move
very quietly, despite
)
~»
bottom). Over time, as
old molars wear down,
the new (larger) molars
4
its size. The sole of / Molar 6 is the last and largest Molar 4 shows
pears ae e> move from the
BA hackio theron molar; it appears when the what a worn-down Did you know?
cracks and elephant is about 40 years old. molar looks like
grooves for traction. § | -“=—=_=— ; ’ * An elephant’s heart is
ees Food for thought Family life five times larger than a
human heart.
a
cushion Elephants are herbivores and Elephants form tight-knit family groups, * An elephant’s trunk
On the move survive on many kinds of grass, leaves, or herds. A herd generally consists of has more than 100,000
Elephants walk at about 3 to 6 miles fruits, roots and tree branches. Adult 10 to 12 related females and their muscles.
(5 to 10 k) an hour but can double that elephants spend 16 to 18 hours of offspring. The herd is led by a
every day eating. They can consume up matriarch (the oldest and usually the * Elephants can’t jump.
speed when on the march and reach
up to 25 miles (40 k) when frightened. to 330 Ibs. (150 kg) of vegetation and largest female). This dominant female * Some elephants cry (with
drink up to 40 gallons (160 |) of water decides when to eat, rest or migrate. tears) when frustrated.
a day.
Musth Young males are forced to leave the * The Asian elephant is
Elephants can travel more than herd when they reach maturity (age more closely related to
For several weeks in a year, adult
males experience musth (pronounced
50 miles a day foraging for food and 10-16). Adult males often lead solitary the ancient mammoth
water. Migration routes are never too far lives or gather in small groups with than to the African
muhst). High levels of the hormone
from water, because an elephant can other males. A lone male elephant is elephant.
testosterone cause unpredictable and
live for only about three days without it. called a rogue.
aggressive behavior. During musth, the * Elephants will rest their
elephant oozes a thick, smelly, black Wild elephants can live to 60 or 70 heavy trunks on their tusks.
fluid from a gland on the side of its years of age. If it avoids being hunted
+ Humans can hear only a third
head (between the eye and the ear). and does not die from disease, it will
Sensitive souls of elephant sounds.
die of old age in the form of starvation.
Its final set of molars wears down to * An elephant never stops growing,
Ancient ancestors Elephants can cry, play and even so the larger an elephant is, the
nothing, and the animal can no
Fossil evidence suggests that laugh. They also grieve when a older it is.
longer eat.
elephants are descendants of the calf is stillborn or a family
moeritherium, a mammal that lived member dies.
45 million years ago. When a calf (baby
elephant) cries,
the entire family
responds with
caresses and soft,
reassuring sounds. The skin of an elephant can be up to
Elephants will lift or 11/2 inches (3 cm) thick in some places
support an injured or ill herd on its head and back, but is paper thin
member. And they have been around the mouth. Elephants use touch
known to rescue family members as a form of communication, and their
Moeritherium Palaeomastodon Dinotherium —_Trilophodon Mastodon Woolly mammoth from natural disasters and skin is not tough and leathery, but soft
- man-made traps. and sensitive.
26

American Kirtland’s warbler “e. eG =. California condor

peregrine Dendroica kirtlandii Haliaeetus ES Gymnogyps
leucocephalus 4 californianus
falcon
Falco ‘
Ae.
peregrinus 4 A
anatum : i \ Hawaiian
© honeycreeper
Oreomystis mana

Extinction has been a part of the Each time a mass extinction has past 100 years. Ten percent of
Earth’s natural history since the occurred, the planet has recovered all vertebrate species in the
beginning of life. It is estimated due to a balance existing in nature. United States are in danger of
by scientists that as many as In order for a new life form-to being wiped out.
99 percent of all the species that establish itself, it seems another The U.S. passed the Endangered
have ever existed on Earth are no must be lost. Species Act (ESA) in 1973. The
longer around. Many factors may Many scientists believe the Earth powerful law makes any activity
contribute to extinction, but it is is undergoing a mass extinction that reduces the survival chance
generally accepted that changes now. As the human population of a listed species illegal. The ESA
to a creature’s habitat are the continues to grow, more demands is currently protecting more than
greatest threat to its survival. are placed on the Earth’s natural 1,200 plants and animals. For
Mass extinctions (when many resources. These demands for some, like the California condor FOREST TYPES
different groups of unrelated more food, water, farmland, living or the black-footed ferret, which [| Conifers
animal species die out) have space and fuel cause humans to survive only in zoos and captive [®] Broadleaf
occurred about five times during encroach further and further into breeding programs, the outlook [4] Mixed
prehistoric eras. Usually these wild spaces, forcing the plants and is grim. But others, like the bald GRASSLANDS
events take thousands of years animals who have lived there to eagle and gray wolf, have | Taligrass prairie
before the last of a species dies. either adapt or die. Most of today’s benefited from protection and are |_| Shortgrass steppe Biomes are regions containing similar
The most well-known mass extinctions are taking place at an beginning to make a comeback. (Tropical climates, land features and habitats.
extinction happened around alarming rate. Since the discovery Extinction is a normal part of the Human development alters the
63 million years ago, when an of North America in 1492, more cycle of life. But man’s role in the DESERT appearance and natural systems within
unknown event triggered the end than 60 species of vertebrates loss of many animals and plants PERMANENT ICE a biome. This map shows the biomes
of the dinosaurs and large reptiles. have died out — many within the might be halted. Mi TROPICAL RAINFOREST existing prior to modern development.

MAMMALS
63 endangered, 9 threatened, 11 candidates for listing
Bighorn sheep
Ovis canadensis
Canada lynx Ocelot
Lynx Leopardus pardalis
canadensis

Ozark big
eared bat
Black-footed ferret
Corynorhinus
Gray wolf Canis lupus Mustela nigripes
townsendiingens

REPTILES |
14 endangered, 22 threatened, 5 candidates
American alligator
Alligator mississippiensis _
Chinook salmon
Oncorhynchus
4 tshawytscha
Shortnose
sturgeon Z
Acipenser Desert tortoise Atlantic loggerhead
brevirostrum Gopherus agassizii Caretta caretta

INVERTEBRATES AMPHIBIANS
204 endangered, 75 threatened, 112 candidates — 10 endangered, 8 threatened, 8 candidates
Northeastern beach
Arroyo toad @%
tiger beetle
Bufo microscaphus californicus
Cicindela dorsalis
dorsalis
California tiger
salamander
Ambystoma californiense

Dwarf wedge California red- Bufo hemiophrys

Mitchell’s marsh satyr mussel California fresh-
legged frog baxteri
Neonympha mitchellii Alasmidonta water shrimp
Rana aurora
mitchellii heterodon Syncaris pacifica
draytonii
 27

+Florida
A fragile ecosystem The Everglades is a slow-moving
In 1906, Florida began to drain the river full of sawgrass, (hence

ve
Everglades to create farmland. the area’s nickname “River of
Developers built canals to provide Grass”). Sawgrass is named for
drinking water to ever-growing its rough, saw-like leaf blades.
communities. The growth of agriculture Sometimes called Everglades
and the demand for fresh water river grass, it’s not a grass at
continues to threaten the Everglades all, but a sedge. Sedges have
and the rare and diverse plant and triangular stems; true grasses
animal species it supports. have round stems. Sawgrass
typically grows to about
», Florida 9 ft.(2.75 m) tall.

| Zebra longwing The park

| Heliconius
charitonius
The Everglades National
Park was established in
1947 in order to conserve
and protect one of the rarest
subtropical regions of
North America. The park
covers about one-fifth of the
original Everglades (more
than 1.5 million acres, or Sawgrass
600,000 hectares). Cladium jamaicense
panther
Great blue heron Coastline: 137 miles (220 km) Felis Liguus
Ardea herodias Sawgrass and freshwater marsh: concolor coryi tree snail
572,200 acres (228,880 hectares) Liguus fasciatus
White pelican
Pelecanus Mangrove forests: 230,100 acres
(92,040 hectares) The Florida panther is
onocrotalus perhaps the rarest of
Birds: More than 400 species
Everglade animals. It is
Mammals: 25 species estimated that there are only
Amphibians and reptiles: 60 species 30 to 50 left in the wild. It has
Fish: 125 species been on the endangered list
since 1967. A subspecies of
Trees: More than 120 species
the mountain lion, the panther
Seed-bearing plants: was a victim of 200 years
More than 1,000 species of intense hunting and
Endangered species: 14 habitat loss. Mangroves
are critical to the “
Alligators play a vital role in the survival of the swamp ecosystem.
The easiest Everglades. During the dry season (December There are three kinds
The Everglades are home to 16 species of
way to tell an through April), alligators dig holes that become of mangrove in the
wading birds. Wading bird populations have
alligator from a pools of water. Plants thrive in “gator holes” Everglades: red, black and
dropped 90 percent over the past century
crocodile is to and many animals depend on these mini white. Mangroves prevent
due to plume.hunting (now illegal) and drain-
ing of the wetlands. The nesting populations ry aces marshes for food, shelter and water. soil erosion and build up
in the southern Everglades dropped from an Migaiors Hae Alligators are carnivorous (meat eaters); the coastline.
estimated 300,000 birds in the 1930s to awidesU: they feed on crabs, crayfish, frogs, fish, snails,
between 10,000 and 15,000 in the 1990s. shaped enatit turtles, snakes, birds, raccoons, otters, deer
Ceeodics and other alligators.
Red
have a longer, Florida is the only place in the world
mangrove
pointed V- where alligators and crocodiles share the
Rhizophora
shaped nose. Alligator Crocodile | same habitat. mangle
Cypress
tree knees
Bald cypress trees
love water and have
Roseate thick supportive bases
spoonbill to help them stay upright
Ajaia ajaja in muddy soils. The
roots grow distinctive
extensions called
“knees,” which poke up
out of the water.

The West Indian manatee

U (or sea cow) lives in
There are 30 species of freshwater slow-moving rivers and
fish native to the Everglades. Fish coastal waters and grazes
~ are an important part of the food on seagrasses and aquatic
chain, providing food for larger fish, plants. This animal eats
wading birds and alligators. 10 to 15 percent of its body
Green turtle weight a day, and when
Chelonia mydas you weigh 1,000 pounds,
Least killifish
Heterandria formosa that is a lot of food.
Manatees grow to 8 to
~ Mosquitofish The green turtle has been on the 15 feet (2.4 to 4.6 m) long.
Gambusia holbrooki endangered/threatened list since 1978,
The manatee is
but populations have not recovered.
endangered, and the
Female turtles return to the same
Florida population is
beaches year after year to lay their estimated to be about
Z eggs. There are few nesting areas left Manatee
Florida Gar in North America, but Florida supports a rea en Ross alee Trichechus
Lepisosteus platyrhincus _ large feeding population. gentle giant. manatus

/
 28

Birds live all over the world and have ancestors

related to ancient reptiles. The earliest known
bird fossil dates back to more than 140 million Ostrich
years ago. Some zoologists (scientists who The world’s largest, heaviest bird, and
study animals) believe birds are modern-day also the fastest running — up to 43 mph.
dinosaurs with a few differences. The major The ostrich kicks to protect itself.
difference is that birds have feathers or plumes Habitat: Dry savannas and deserts in
that cover the body instead of scales. Birds also Africa. Ostriches get water from the
have evolved forelimbs that enable them to fly. plants they eat.
But the hind limbs of most birds are covered
Physical features: The ostrich can
with scales and claws, like their reptilian
grow up to 9 feet tall, and weighs up
ancestors. Birds also have an extension to to 345 pounds.
the sternum (breastbone) called a keel. This Several groups of birds have
rounded bone connects to strong muscles that
power the wings for lift and flight. lost the ability to fly and have
Some flightless birds are called ratites. Ratite
adapted to life on land.
is the Latin word for raft. These birds have a
raft-like, flattened keel. Some ratites have
strong, muscular legs — good for running away
quickly from predators. Kakapo Double-
Another group of birds that do not fly are This bird's name means “night pace
cassowary
penguins. These marine birds have stiff flippers parrot” in the Maori language.
and an upright posture. Their short legs are Once plentiful, fewer than
70 now remain.
placed far back on the body, so they waddle
and cannot lean forward without falling over. Habitat: Rainforests and
grasslands of New Zealand. Male
Penguins appear to move slowly on land but
ostrich
can actually move as fast as humans. They are, Physical features: Weighs up
however, more spectacular as swimmers. to 8 pounds. About 2 feet long,
with males larger than females.
One type of parrot, the kakapo of New Zealand,
is the only nocturnal parrot in the world. It Cassowary
cannot fly, but will use its weak wings to glide
to the ground from tree limbs. The second largest bird in the world. Endangered
due to loss of habitat. Lives about 40 to 50 years.
The tinamous, a group of chicken-sized game Habitat: Rainforests and swampy forests in Australia
birds from South America, are grouped with the and New Guinea.
ratites by some scientists. They are capable of
Physical features: Nearly 5 feet tall, it weighs up
weak flight, but spend most of their time on the to 130 pounds. Females are more brightly colored
ground. They live in the grasslands and and larger than males.
plateaus near the Andes Mountains.

Many ornithologists (scientists who study Rhea

birds) disagree on how to classify birds. New Also called the nandu, this is the largest bird in the
discoveries and theories continue to challenge Americas. A fast runner, the rhea runs with its neck
the way we have traditionally grouped animals. almost horizontal to the ground.
Habitat: Forests in South America. Emu
Physical features: Grows up to 5 feet tall, . Common The third-largest bird in the world.
Males and females are the same color, rhea Emus can run at speeds up to 30 mph.
World distribution but the base of the male’s neck ; Habitat: Grassland, savannas, and bush
is black. in Australia.
All flightless birds live in the Southern Hemisphere.
Most live in harsh or impenetrable habitats. Physical features: 6 feet tall and about
110 pounds.

y» North4
( America /
\\ eaef
Martineta
tinamou

Australia «

i Penguins
i Cassowaries
§ Ostriches Tinamou
f Emus
a Tinamous The tinamou is thought to be related to
eae Antarctica
Kiwi the rhea. They are very weak flyers with
S Kiwi and kakapo undeveloped keels.
This nocturnal bird is the Habitat: Forest, woodjand and brush in- _ Emperor
national emblem of New Mexico and Central and South America. penguin
Zealand. It lives about
40 years and is in Physical features: 8 to 21 inches.
danger of extinction.
Habitat: Forests,
scrub, swamps, Penguin
grasslands and
farmlands. The penguin lacks flight feathers and
has flipper-like paddles instead of wings.
Physical features: Some migrate vast distances in icy Antarctic
18 to 33 inches long waters, following fish and plankton.
and about a foot tall, They form large colonies.
with females larger
Habitat: Antarctic and southern oceans
than males.
and shorelines.
Galapagos Physical features: From 1 foot to 3 feet tall.
penguin
 29

the language of
flo WCIS
The language of flowers was
developed in the 1600s in
Constantinople and Persia.
Flowers are symbolic of love
blooming, but also of love waning
and each flower has its own
special meaning. The red rose
was said to be the favorite flower
of Venus, the goddess of love.
Red is symbolic of strong
emotions, yellow of jealousy.
The forget-me-not represents
true love. How you combine a
bouquet can say quite a lot.

Flower lore and legend —

Acacia - Secret love; Dandelion - Wishes
elegance; friendship; hope come true; faithfulness
Acorn - Nordic symbol of Camellia (Red) - You’re a Delphinium - Airy
life and immortality flame in my heart.
Dogwood - Durability Hyacinth (white) - Monkshood - Beware Rose (yellow) -
Allspice - Compassion Camellia (White) - You’re Loveliness Friendship; jealousy
Eucalyptus - Protection Moss - Maternal love;
adorable.
Almond Blossom - Hope Fennel - Strength Hydrangea - Thanks; charity Rose (single, full bloom)
Carnation (in general) - heartlessness | love you; | still love you.
Aloe - Grief Fern - Sincerity Myrtle - Love; Hebrew
Affection; fascination
Alyssum - Beyond beauty Fir - Time Iris - Faith; wisdom; valor emblem of marriage Sage - Wisdom; long life;
Carnation (pink) - domestic virtue
Ambrosia - Love returned Flax - Fate Ivy - Fidelity; friendship Narcissus - Egotism
I'll never forget you.
Amaranth - Fidelity Forget-me-not - True love; Jasmine - Amiability; Nasturtium - Conquest; Snapdragon - No;
Carnation (purple) - deception; presumption
Amaryllis - Pride; timidity; memories; forget me not wealth; grace; elegance maternal love; charity
Capriciousness; whimsical
splendid beauty Forsythia - Anticipation Jonquil - Love me; Oleander - Caution Spearmint - Warmth
Carnation (red) - My heart
Apple blossom - affection returned; desire Orange - Generosity Spiderflower - Let’s elope
aches for you; admiration Foxglove - Insincerity
Preference; good fortune Juniper - Protection Orange Blossom - Strawberry - Perfection
Carnation (solid color) - Fuchsia - Good taste
Arbor Vitae - Friendship Yes Larkspur (pink) - Wisdom; eternal love Sunflower - Loyalty;
Gardenia - You’re lovely;
Arbutus - | love only you. secret love; refinement; joy Fickleness Orchid - Love; beauty haughtiness
Carnation (striped) - No
Aster - Love; daintiness Geranium (Oak leafed) - Laurel (mountain) - Orchid (Cattleya) - Charm Sweet Basil - Good luck
Carnation (white) - Sweet
Azalea - Fragile passion, Friendship Ambition Palm leaves - Victory Sweet pea - Goodbye;
and lovely; pure love.
temperance, Chinese Gladiolus - Love at first Lavender - Devotion Pansy - Thoughts; love thank you
Carnation (yellow) -
symbol of womanhood Rejection sight; generosity Lemon - Zest Peony - Shame; anger Sweet William -
Bachelor’s Buttons - Grass - Submission; utility Lemon Balm - Brings love Perfection; gallantry
Cattail - Peace; prosperity Peppermint - Warmth
Celibacy; hope in love Heather (lavender) - Lilac - First love Thyme - Courage
Cedar - | live for thee Petunia - Anger
Baby’s Breath - Admiration; solitude Lily (general) - Purity Tulip (general) - Fame;
Chamomile - Patience Phlox - Agreement
Happiness; pure in heart Lily (calla) - Beauty charity; declaration of love;
Chrysanthemum (in Heather (pink) - Good luck Pine - Hope; pity
Basil - Best wishes; love Lily (day) - Coquetry Tulip (red) - Believe me;
general) - Cheerfulness; Heather (white) - Poppy (general) -
Bay Leaf - Strength declaration of love
You’re a wonderful friend Protection; wishes will Lily (orange) - Hatred Eternal sleep; imagination
Begonia - Beware come true; good luck Tulip (yellow) -
Chrysanthemum (red) - Lily (tiger) - Wealth; pride Poppy (red) - Pleasure
Hopeless love
Bird Of Paradise - | love you. Hibiscus - Delicate beauty Lily (white) - Purity Poppy (white) -
Magnificence Violet - Modesty
Chrysanthemum (white) - Holly - Good will; defense; Lily (yellow) - False; gay Consolation; sleep
Bluebell - Humility Truth domestic happiness Violet (blue) -
Lily of the valley - Poppy ( yellow) - Waitchfulness; faithfulness;
Bouquet of withered Clover - Good luck ~ Hollyhock - Ambition Humility; perferct purity Wealth; success I'll always be true
flowers - Rejected love Columbine - Folly Honeysuckle - Devoted Magnolia - Sweetness Primrose - Early youth;
affection; sweet disposition Violet (white) - Let’s take
Buttercup - Cheerfulness; Cornflower - Delicacy Marigold - Grief; jealousy young love
a chance on happiness
childishness; riches Coriander - Lust Hyacinth (general) - Queen Anne’s Lace -
Mimosa - Sensitivity Water Lily - Purity of heart
Cactus - Endurance; Crocus - Cheerfulness; joy Rashness, sorrow, flower Fantasy
Mint - Protection Wistaria - | cling to you
warmth; grandeur dedicated to Apollo Rose (red) - Love
Cyclamen - Goodbye Marjoram (sweet) - Yarrow - Health; healing
Calendula - Joy Hyacinth (blue) - Rose (white) - Eternal
Daffodil - Respect; regard; Joy and happiness Zinnia - Friendship
Camellia (in general) - Constancy love; innocence; heavenly;
unrequited love; deceit Mistletoe - Kiss‘me;
Admiration; perfection; Hyacinth ( purple) - secrecy and silence Zinnia (red) - Constancy
Dahlia - Good taste sacred plant of India,
Camellia (Pink) - Longing I’m sorry Rose (pink) - Perfect Zinnia (white) - Goodness
Daisy - Innocence; loyal magic plant of the Druids
love; purity; faith; cheer happiness; believe me.
30

OGS_
Gallery of frogs and toads
Dendrobates
Poison dart

TOADS
frogs live in
South America.
Their skin is
highly toxic.

All about tailless amphibians American

toad
Although frogs have managed to survive for more than This
350 million years, they are now beginning to disappear. nocturnal
Scientists are studying frogs and toads with renewed animal can
interest, because deformities and mass extinctions are sometimes 4”
being discovered worldwide and at an alarming rate. be found in
suburban yards.
It is suspected that pesticides and pollution are the cause
of these extinctions. Because the frog drinks and breathes Arroyo toad
through its skin, it is sensitive to environmental changes. A beautiful,
Frogs are considered an indicator species that can signal but critically
to scientists that a biome is out of balance. Frogs endangered toad
and toads live worldwide, and are an from Southern
important group of animals because they California.
eat many kinds of harmful insects. They are
also an important food source for birds, fish and small Red-legged frog
predators. Efforts to study and perhaps halt the decline in This famous frog
populations are underway throughout the world. Perhaps was immortalized
it’s not too late. in Mark Twain’s
Frog or toad? “jumping Frog of
Calaveras County.” ~
Frogs and toads are amphibians,
which means “double life.” Wyoming toad
COMMON Amphibians must live and breed Another critically
GREEN in or near water to survive. endangered
FROG Amphibians are divided into four toad, the
orders by herpetologists (the Wyoming °%
scientists who study them): toad is a scarce
anurids (frogs and toads), sub-species of the
apodans (worm-like caecaelians), Canadian toad.
trachystomata (sirens), and
caudata (salamanders and newts).
All amphibians undergo
metamorphosis, and though they
were the first animals on Earth to
give up life in the water, they must
remain near it to develop. Eggs Surinam toad
are laid in water, and a moist jelly One of the weirdest
surrounds the developing embryo. toads in the world, the
Masses of eggs are called spawn. Spawn must be surrounded by water Some species are totally aquatic. female broods her eggs
to survive. During mating, some females can lay up to 20,000 eggs. Others live in treetops, some deep in small dimples that
Some species produce egg clumps that are big and blobby; other underground. All breathe through form on her spongy back.
ENLARGED species’ can look like long ribbons. Some lay single, separated eggs. the skin, and are ectothermic
EGG (coldblooded). Goliath
The embryo
frog
Life begins when the fertilized cells begin to divide.
The
NEWLY The yolk divides into two, then four, then eight and
Tailless amphibians are called anurids. biggest in
HATCHED so on, until the yolk elongates. At this point, the
All anurids are frogs. Some frogs are toads. the world, the
twitching embryo is called a tadpole. They will
Here’s how they differ: African giants can
hatch out in about 6 days, after consuming most of

ce
grow to 15.5 inches!
the nutrients in the yolk.
The young tadpole Leopard frog
Tadpoles have two missions Smooth, moist skin Dry, bumpy skin Once common subjects in high-
in life: Eat as much food as school dissections,
Long, strong hind limbs — Short hind legs
possible, and avoid being eaten. the Leopard frog
When newly hatched, gills are Moves by leaping or Moves by hopping is now
external, and the mouth and tail swimming Lives in damp places, on the
are small and weak. Lives in or near water sometimes far from water endangered
species list.
Half and half Sum of its parts
From six to nine weeks, the Golden Dart frog
tadpole grows longer, Frogs and toads are similar in body shape, but many Another South
stronger and more frog-like. adaptations exist from species to species. Here are American poison
WEEKS OLD
The head region becomes the body basics — features that help to identify them: frog. Its color
Bustin’ out: distinct, and the eye larger. warns
At about six weeks, Limbs begin to break predators.
JAVAN FLYING FROG
visible bulges along the through the body wall, and
body appear. Hind legs the diet changes to include
form first. dead insects and small
Lateral Ear Muzzle Paradoxical frog
animals. Sacral hump fom ; Strange pointed
and elongated
Fully formed fingers have
From nine to 16 weeks, evolved due to
Mini me:
the tadpole looks like a an extra bone
Like frogs,
miniature frog, except it still in the fingers.
with a tail, the
has a tail. Gradually, the tail Tadpoles are larger
tadpoles hang
is absorbed into the body. than the adults.
out at the
Frogs and toads are eating
edge of the
machines — a single toad Spadefoot toad
pond, and gulp
can consume more than Spadefoots are
air at
9,000 non-beneficial champion
the surface.
insects in one summer. diggers, and
Farmers greatly benefit have specially
A froglet greets the world: from natural pest control, formed hind
Young frogs hop out of the pond after absorbing when toads take up legs to help
the tail, usually after 12 to 16 weeks. residence on their land. them burrow.
 31

Marine iguanas and

Sally Lightfoot crabs bask in the
sun on partially submerged
volcanic rocks

PAGO:

92° W The Galapagos Islands, officially known as the Archipiélago MZ 4

Brief History
de Colon, is a cluster of volcanic islands, islets and rocks
1485 The Chimu from
G]peree located just under the equator, about 600 miles west of northern Peru (ruled by the
Ecuador in South America. The oldest of the islands are about Incas) first visit the islands.
4 million years old. The youngest are still in the process of 1535 Fray Tomas de
being formed, because the Galapagos Islands are in one Berlanga, the Bishop of
Panama, is credited with the
of the most active volcanic areas in the world.
official discovery of the
“Lonesome George” Galapagos Islands.
0 75
1593 -— 1710 The islands
Discovered by accident a year with no food or water, become a favorite hide-out
ria
S» 90° W The islands were discovered they were used as food for for pirates.
th-Marchena tt- by chance in 1535, during a sailors, resulting in the extinction
1793 — 1870 Exploitation of
Cs, YS) i t ® GC, voyage to Peru by Fray Tomas of several species. Today, most the Galapagos ecosystems
: R ca Redonde Ae _ _ P Genovesa de Berlanga, the Bishop of of the surviviors are critically
brings the tortoise, fur seals
eras Panama. His ship was swept endangered. The Pinta island and sperm whales to near-
a Equator off course to the islands by tortoise is survived by a single extinction.
©Mh, San Salvador strong currents. In his account male, named “Lonesome
1835 The HMS Beagle visits
of the adventure, he named the George,” who lives at the
islands Las Encantadas Charles Darwin Research the islands. Charles Darwin
(‘The Enchanted”). Station in Santa Cruz. observes similarities and
differences in the plants and
rer la, @ ¢ EAN Pirates and brigands Modern Galapagos animals there. He concludes
é ee goles > Atter the bishop's visit, the Today, the Galapagos Islands that, in order to survive, flora
islands became a refuge for are part of Ecuador. About and fauna would gradually
a English pirates and privateers 97 percent of the islands are evolve based on environmen-
roe Cristobal preying on the Spanish Armada. classified as a national park. tal conditions.
Be Based on the bishop’s writings The remaining area is inhabited 1832 Ecuador takes official
Charles oe and sailors’ descriptions of the by about 17,000 people. possession of the islands,
Darwin thousands of large galapagos renaming them Archipiélago
Research (tortoises) found there, the The islands are operated by
the Galapagos National Park del Ecuador.
Station islands were mapped in 1574 as
the “Insulae de los Galopegos.” Service and the Charles Darwin 1859 After 20 years of
Research Station. The park research, Darwin publishes
Scientific discoveries Later, the islands attracted new
service provides rangers and The Origin of Species.
kinds of sailors: whale- and
Charles Darwin was the first to guides, and is responsible for
seal-hunters, who also hunted 1892 Galapagos is officially
make a scientific study of the overseeing tourists. The
the islands’ giant tortoises. named “Archipiélago de
Galapagos Islands in 1835. research station conducts Colén” in honor of Christopher
Each island had its own unique
A young student just out of univer- scientfific research and
variety of tortoises. Because Columbus’ discovery of the
sity, he served as a naturalist in conservation programs.
tortoises could survive for up to Americas 400 years earlier.
the around-the-world scientific and
geographical voyage on board. the 1959 On the 100th
HMS Beagle. He had previously Island weather anniversary of the publication
spent four years exploring geology of Darwin’s Origin of Species,
Ocean currents determine the weather of the the islands become Ecuador’s
and wildlife in South America. Later in Galapagos Islands. Normally, from June to
his life, Darwin maintained that the first National Park. The
December, a cold current rises from the Charles Darwin Research
islands were the source of his ideas and
south. Near the sea, this creates a Station is established to assist
research. Today, the Galapagos Islands cool, moist fog called a gartia, but
4 of Darwin’s in preservation of the islands.
are more closely associated with Darwin inland it is dry. In December, winds
than any other visitor in the islands’ history. finches
blow with less force, and the ocean is 1978 The islands are declared
Dawin’s research and theories calm. Currents then change, surrounding a World Heritage site by
the islands in the warm Panama UNESCO underlining their
There are 13 species of finch native to the universal value to mankind.
Galapagos Islands, Each has a specifically current from the north. The
shaped beak. Darwin's study focused on Panama currents create a weather
Seed eater
the link between the beak shapes and the pattern of hot sunny mornings
Many kinds of birds visit the
birds’ feeding habits. His research resulted followed by clouds and
islands. This is an oyster-
in the Theory of Evolution, in which he occasional showers in
catcher, a shore bird that
explained how changes in a plant or the afternoons.
feeds on shellfish.
animal’s characteristics might have
occurred through natural selection. In
this process, the plants or animals that
can adapt their characteristics best to In the arid (dry) areas
their environment are the ones most of the islands, it is
likely to survive. Darwin’s ideas helped common to see
explain the basic similarities — or unity cacti that grow
— among all living organisms because taller than a person.
they evolved from common ancestors. This one is opuntia. Red
Darwin’s theories were contested in his eee! eater fruits follow yellow flowers
time, and disputes continue today. in spring.
32

Gentle giants of the Savanna

IRAFE
Giraffes are
herbivores
(vegetarians) and
feed mainly on
leaves, fruit and

SS
twigs of trees
Giraffes are found on the
native to \ plains of central
A giraffe’s
Africa. The 4 and south Africa.
prehensile tongue
map shows c Acacia trees are
canbeupto ®&
where they i their favorite
21 inches
can be found. food.
(53 c) long.
Giraffe populations
have declined greatly
due to hunting and
habitat loss. Today,
most live in national
parks or preserves.

The tallest of all animals, giraffes have

fascinated people since ancient times. Maybe
this is because every thing about this animal is long
— its legs, its neck, its bones, even its tongue!

What is in a name? Seeing spots

The word giraffe is from the Arabic A giraffe’s spots can range in color from
word zirafah, which means the tallest light brown to dark brown on a
of all. The ancient Romans called white or cream
giraffes “camel leopards” which is how colored back-
they got their scientific name — ground. The
Giraffa camelopardalis. spots are very
individual and like
All in the family the fingerprints of
people, no two
Male giraffes are called bulls and females giraffes have
are called cows. The female can have exactly the @
babies as young as 5 years old. She same pattern.
usually only has one ata All giraffes
time or, very rarely, twins. belong to the same
species, but there are
It takes 14 to 15 months for
several subspecies that have
a baby giraffe to grow inside
different kinds of spots. Reticulated
its mother. This is called the
giraffes have an even pattern of spots
gestation period. Baby giraffes
on their coats. Blotched giraffes have
are called calves and are 6 ft. tall
spots that are irregular in size and shape.
when born. They can stand shortly
after birth and may grow up to an inch
every day. Young giraffes are defense-
less and mothers stay near to protect
them. Sometimes other mothers in the
de y group will babysit, giving mom a break.

Did you know?

®@ Giraffes live about 25 years in the wild.
lf Giraffes can go without water for up to ; ze
two weeks. (They get much of the water they Reticulated Blotched
need from the plants they eat.) Defenses ;
@ A full grown male giraffe can eat up to
72 Ibs. (32 k) of leaves a day. Giraffes do not have many enemies. bird’s-eye
@ Giraffes are nonterritorial, social animals Humans and lions are their main view of the
that gather in loose herds of as few as six or enemies. Young giraffes also fall victim terrain so that
as many as 40. (They do not form complex to leopards, hyenas and crocodiles. they can usually see trouble coming.
social groups.) Giraffes have three basic ways to For this reason giraffes have been
When the first @ Giraffes are quiet, but not mute. They make defend themselves. nicknamed the watchtowers of
giraffe arrived in grunts, moans and short flutelike noises. the Savanna.
Bi Their color and pattern camouflages
Paris in 1827, the @ Giraffes are ruminant animals. This means them when they are near trees M@ If they are attacked, giraffes use
animal was so popular that they chew their cud, which is food that has so that predators do not see them. their powerful legs and hard hoofs to
that women did their hair been sent to the stomach and then returned to stun or kill predators.
i Their long necks give them an almost
up high in a “giraffe” style. the mouth to be chewed again.

\s y The average adult male is Giraffes walk by In order to drink or to eat -

fy about 17 ft. (5.2 m) tall and moving both something on the ground a i se
weighs 2,600 Ibs. (1,200 k). legs on one giraffe spreads its front legs vee,
side of the body wide apart and bends its & )
forward. neck down. @su8.

, Oxpeckers or
The closest living relative
tick birds eat
of the giraffe is the okapi.
, — ticks, insects
The okapi lives in the dense Females are
and other
forests of central Africa. somewhat Giraffes have strong legs & parasites
Okapis stand about 6 ft. smaller, and hoofs that can deliver a found on
(1.8 m) tall and have stripes averaging killing blow if needed. They many animals, including
like a zebra on their legs. about 14 ft. can’t run far, but they can run giraffes. This helps keep
They have short knobby (4.3 m) tall. fast — reaching speeds of the animals clean and
horns like the giraffe. up to 35 mph (56 k). disease free.
 33

General properties of the world’s grasslands

Grasslands are one of the Tallgrass — 4.5 to 9 feet tall
Earth’s major biomes. Biomes Midgrass — 1.5 to 4.5 feet tall
are geographical areas that
support specific plant and animal Shortgrass — 0.5 to 1.5 feet tall
communities. Grasslands can be Generally, tallgrass habitats form
found on every continent except on moist soil, and shortgrass
Antarctica and make up about 27 habitats form on drier soil. Natural
percent of the Earth’s vegetation. grasslands can form only where
How grasslands form and develop less moisture falls on the land than
depends on environmental factors evaporates from it, and they can > [Grassland
Australia Zo
like temperature, soil type, rainfall | be thought of as transitional regions
and humidity. The grasses them- habitats between wet forests
Sere selves are divided into three types and deserts. Six kinds of grasses Types of grasslands
vulture based on their height: n
Grazing, pasture and forage Grasslands can be divided into
Burrowing
owl grasses provide food for live- three main types; steppes (with
stock and other animals. In short grasses), prairies (with
Termite mound _ winter dried grasses are turned tall, thick grasses) and
into hay and straw. Orchard, tropical/subtropical savannas
smooth brome and timothy are (with scattered woody
examples of grazing grasses. vegetation).
Turfgrasses are used for Some famous steppes are the
lawns and recreation areas. Great Plains of North America,
Kentucky bluegrass prefers western Pampa of Argentina
cooler climates, while and the Veld of South Africa.
bermuda grass likes warmer Large prairies can be found in
temperatures. the Midwest of North America,
Ornamental grasses are used eastern Pampa of Argentina
to decorate gardens and parks. and northeast China.
They come in a variety of Venezuela, the Campos of
colors. southern Brazil, India and Africa
Cereals are a vital food crop. are home to tropical savannas.
Sometimes called grains, these
grasses help feed people and
domestic animals. Wheat, rice, Just to name a few
corn and oats are examples of Kinds of grasses: Bamboo,
cereal grains. barley, bentgrass, bluegrass,
Sugar cane is a kind of grass brome, corn, fescue, foxtail
that is used to make sugar. barley, kafir, millet, oats, reed,
Woody grasses like bamboo rice, rye, sandbur, sorghum,
are strong enough to use as partina, sudan grass, Sugar cane,
building material. timothy, wheat.

Most grasses are small plants ‘The parts of a grass plant

consisting of a group of tillers
(shoots) that are tightly rolled
; 4 Spikelet
leaves called sheaths. Joints BAe
6 or tne
in the sheath are called culms. | gpikelet
Joining the sheath at the =e
o ade
ligule are the leaves (blades).
Grass flowers (spikelets)
, Ligule
contain pollen, and are
contained in protective base arp
coverings called glumes. Tey
The lemma and palea are Culm sprout ee a 3
: : AVENEAE FESTUCEAE ORYZEAE PANICEAE
petal-like and attach to a Bluejoint grass Meadow Rice Elephant grass
central spike called the ’ Tiller |, Stolon (11 to 22 bluegrass (14.5 to 30 (3 to 9 feet tall)
d i, ; inches tall) (1.8 to 18 inches tall) Grows in Africa
rachilla. Hairlike spines S Widespread in inches tall) Grows in moist along streams
' zi North America. | Widespreadin tropical regions. — and moist
called awns project from Phisomne An important forage temperate and Cultivated savanna.
: for animals. cool regions. for food.
each lemma.
Family tree of the Artiodactyls — grass-eating mammals with an even number of toes
SUIFORMES - The swine and peccaries TYLOPODA - The camels RUMINATA - The deer, cattle, giraffes, antelopes, buffalo and gazelles

Hippopotamus Camels have 3-chambered Ruminates are cud-chewing animals that regurgitate
stomachs. Some are and rechew grass. They have complex, multi-chambered
ruminate (cud-chewing) stomachs to help digest tough fibers.
animals.
White-
tailed deer
ig
Pronghorn

Pigs are a primitive group of Artiodactyls. They have 2-or-3

chambered stomachs, but do not ruminate (cud-chew). Camel Mouse deer
34

Marmotophiles
People who like groundhogs How much wood would a
very much are called
marmotophiles. Scientists woodchuck chuck, if a
who study groundhogs and
marmots are called marmot- woodchuck could chuck wood? —
teers or marmotologists.

All in the family

All about.
Ground
Groundhogs or woodchucks
belong to the marmot family.
The scientific or Latin name
for a woodchuck is marmota
monax.
Marmots are a kind of rodent
closely related to the ground
squirrel and prairie dog.
and other marmots
Getting around
Groundhogs have been Also known as the woodchuck, this
known to climb trees, but
they are generally more member of the marmot family can
comfortable on the ground.
They are also quite good be found across North America. Here
swimmers.
is a look at the facts and myths
What big teeth... surrounding this unimposing animal
Like all rodents, groundhogs
have two front gnawing teeth that is famous for one day every year.
called incisors. Except during
hibernation, the incisors grow What’s for dinner
continuously and require
constant grinding and gnawing Woodchucks are herbivores (plant eaters).
to keep them from piercing the They like to eat young plants and grasses, but
roof of the groundhog’s they also get into gardens and farmers’ fields and
mouth. eat bulbs and produce. They do not store their
food like squirrels, but eat enough in the summer
to sustain them through winter hibernation.

Sensible senses
Groundhogs have excellent hearing and very
good vision. They make a short, sharp whistling
sound when alarmed or frightened, which is
incisors why they have the nickname “whistlepig.”
molars

Hibernation North American marmot ranges*

Groundhogs enter their dens There are 14 known marmot Enemies and defense Groundhog day
for hibernation in early species throughout the world. Groundhogs have a number of enemies. According to superstition and
autumn (Sept. - Oct.) They Six of these live in North America. Eagles and hawks are always on the legend, if a groundhog sees
curl into a ball and go into a Alaska lookout for unsuspecting woodchucks. Red its shadow on Feb. 2, there
deep sleep. Their breathing foxes, wolves, and domestic dogs are also will be six more weeks of
slows and their body tempera- dangerous to groundhogs. winter. If it does not see its
ture drops to between 43° Humans are the most dangerous enemy of shadow, there will be an
and 57°F. During hibernation all. Farmers try to protect their crops by early spring.
the groundhog cannot hear or trapping, hunting and poisoning. And many Groundhog Day has roots in
feel. It would take several Hoary
people hunt these little rodents just for the early Roman history, when the
hours in a warm room to wake Vancouver fun of it. tradition of seeing a hedgehog
a groundhog from deep Island
The groundhog is generally very timid and shadow in mid-winter
hibernation. In early spring, predicted a severe winter.
the groundhog wakes up and Yellow- will run and hide in its den when threatened.
But if cornered, (like all wild animals) the The Germans continued this
begins to look for food and bellied
tradition when they came to
a mate. groundhog can be vicious. They have been
known to badly injure dogs and they will North America, using the
* Ranges fight until exhausted. groundhog as a weather
indicated are Groundhog/ forecaster on Candlemas Day.
Babies
approximate , Woodchuck Groundhog Day may also be
Groundhogs mate in early linked to the early Delaware or
spring, usually in March. Lenni Lenape people, who
About a month later, the Home sweet home believed that the woodchuck,
mother gives birth to four or Groundhogs live 2 to 4 feet under- Escape Oijik (Wejak) or Wojack was
five babies, that she raises ground in dens or burrows that or spy their ancient grandfather.
alone. Born tiny, naked and consist of several tunnels and oe hole
blind, the babies spend The most famous of weather
rooms. They like to build x predicting groundhogs is
the first month of life summer dens near sunny
entirely dependent on Punxsutawney Phil from
open fields and where the Pennsylvania. But many towns
their mother. They food supply is plentiful.
open their eyes at across North America have
Winter dens are often near their own Groundhog Day
about a month old. dry wooded areas.
Soon they are large celebrations and traditions.
enough to venture out Sometimes they will dig a
of the den and begin burrow under a barn or
foraging for plants and shed. You can spot a
grasses. Unlike most groundhog den by looking for
marmots, the groundhog is the pile of dirt that often marks Predicting the weather
a solitary creature and does the main entrance.
Punxsutawney Phil and
not live in colonies. In mid to The groundhog’s large feet and sharp his ancestors have been
late summer the youngsters claws are ideal for digging and tunneling. predicting the weather since
leave the family unit and set All dens have an entrance and a secret back door, used as an 1887. Unfortunately, his
off to make their own dens a escape route. They build several rooms, one for nesting, one forecasts have been correct
few miles away. for nursing and another for waste. Abandoned groundhog only about 39 percent of
dens are often taken over by foxes and other animals looking the time.
for a safe secondhand home.
 HIPPOS
35

There are two species of hippopotamus — the river hippo

(also. called the common hippo) and the smaller and
extremely rare pygmy hippo. The river hippopotamus is
one of the world’s largest land animals. Both species are
related closely to cetaceans (whales and dolphins).
Where in the world It was once thought that The river hippopotamus has a huge head and
hippos sweat blood, but the mouth. When it opens its mouth wide, it is usually
The river hippopotamus needs fairly fact is that hippos do not posturing in a threatening manner. Males will not
deep water and grazing land to sweat at all. They do, hesitate to use their long, tusk-like canines to fight
survive. In the past, hippopotamuses however, secrete an oily off rival hippos — sometimes fighting to the death.
thrived along the many rivers and red-pink substance that early
lakes of Africa, but hunting and observers mistook for blood.
habitat destruction have taken their toll,
This fluid protects The oxpecker bird eats ticks, A large river hippopotamus may weigh as much as
and the hippopotamus range is: now ns eee ee fleas and flies found on hippos —_—_7,000 pounds (3,175 kg). Yet, despite its huge size,
restricted mostly to wildlife parks and e sun an: and other large animals. this beast can gallop at 18 mph (30 kph).
refuges. The river hippo can be found dehydration.
in central and south Africa. The pygmy
The hippo’s ears, eyes
hippo lives in Liberia, Sierra Leone
and nostrils are located
and Guinea.
at the top of its head
so it can use these
What is in a name? senses while mostly
The scientific name for the river hippo submerged.
is hippopotamus amphibious, which,
translated loosely from Greek, means
“river horse that leads a double life”
(because it needs both water and land
to survive). The river hippopotamus is
also known as the Nile or common
hippopotamus. Hippopotamuses and
hippopotami are both correct plural
forms. A group of hippos is sometimes
called a bloat. Hippos are pachy-
derms, which means they are thick-
skinned, with skin up to 2 inches thick
in some places.
GFF, Did you know?
Following the herd ¥ (2% i». «Hippos can’t jump and won't
The common river hippo usually lives Aig ade f even step over objects.
in herds of about five to 30, but larger
groups have been observed. The herd
is led by a dominant male that River hippopotamus Pygmy hippopotamus
defends his territorial right to the
The river hippopatomus The pygmy hippopotamus
females in his group. The pygmy
(hippopotamus amphibious) is (hexaprotodon liberiensis) is
hippo is a more solitary creature,
preferring to live alone or in pairs.
well adapted to life on land and considerably smaller than its
in water. This hairless animal cousin, the river hippo. The
ranges in size from 12 to 15 feet pygmy weighs an average of
(4 to 5 m) long. The life span of 400 to 600 pounds (180 to
hippos is about 30 years in the 270 kg) and is about the size
wild and 50 years in captivity. of a large hog. It lives near
water but is less aquatic than the
common hippo. This rare animal
forages for roots and plants in forests and
swamps near lakes, streams and rivers.
River hippopotamus skeleton Water babies
Dinner at 8 The river hippo does not have sweat
glands and depends on water to
Hippos are herbivores. The river keep it cool. For this reason, it
hippo eats mostly grass, but it also spends most of the day resting or
feeds on leaves, vegetables and fruit. sleeping while submerged in water.
This giant creature feeds for about The river hippo has webbed feet that
six hours and can eat up to 100 make underwater movement easier.
pounds (45 kg) of grass in one night. The hippo is too dense and heavy to
Some travel long distances in search float, so it can’t really swim, but by
of food and new waterways. pushing off the bottom it appears to
do a slow and graceful dance.
This huge beast also walks and
Enemies gallops underwater. It is capable of
staying underwater for five minutes
With the exception of man and rival or more. While submerged, its ears
hippos, the river hippopotamus has and nostrils close to stop water from
few enemies. The very young, old or getting in.
sickly are sometimes the victims of
River hippos mate and usually give
crocodiles, lions and hyenas. When
birth in the water. A calf weighs
threatened, a hippo will head for the
about 100 pounds (45 kg) at birth.
safety of water, but if water is not Once born, the calf will even nurse
nearby, the hippopetamus can be
underwater.
very dangerous and aggressive.
 36

ORSES
The evolution of the horse Horses and man
No one knows when man first captured and
The relationship between horses and men domesticated the horse. Primitive man
is over 2 million years old. But horses hunted the horse for meat. Discoveries at
have been on earth for about 54 million the ancient city of Susa in Southwest Asia
years, Starting in the Cenozoic Era. reveal that the horse was ridden about 5,000
years ago. Here are some historic facts
Holocene epoch Forelock Poll Mane This powerful beast is respected about how man has used the horse:
10,000 years ago to present
Glaciers in Antarctica and Greenland.
for its beauty and its strength. The Ancient Egyptians
Many tomb paintings, scrolls and carvings
Giant mammals become extinct. People have relied on the horse illustrate horses pulling chariots for Pharaoh.
Widespread human development.
Man domesticates the horse. as a beast of burden, a weapon
Pleistocene epoch of war and as a best friend.
1,800,000 to 10,000 years ago
The final evolution of the horse,
about 2 million
years ago,
occurred about
the time that The Arab
man had Arabs are
evolved into the oldest Chest
homo sapiens. purebred
horses in the ‘
The new horse
was called Equus. world. It has WW The Scythians
been bred all 4 The Scythians were
over the world Parts of the hoof nomadic Eurasian people who
Pliocene epoch and has Heel lived in the steppelands. They were
5,000,000 to 1,800,000 years ago improved Center cleft fierce warriors who used the horse
nearly every a in warfare.
Pliohippus had a single toe, ending
in a hoof. other breed
of horse. The Tartars
A grazer,
These Mongolian horse warriors of the
it could see
steppe were a fierce army that first united
well and run
under Genghis Khan in the 13th century and
quickly on long, 4) Fetlock were still a force to be reckoned with in the
strong legs. The Lq Pastern
Pliohippus was
Hoof Wall late 1800s when British mpetienay spread
to China. They
about 50 inches
Colt — A male less than 4 years old. Mare — A female more than 4 years old excelled at fast
(127 cm) tall.
Dam — The mother of a foal Purebred — Bred from horses of the maneuvers on
Pliohippus Filly — A female less than 4 years old same type the tough little ponies
Foal — A newborn Stallion — A male more than four of the region.
Miocene epoch Hand — Aheight measurement. Ahandis years old
four inches. Horses are measured from the
26,000,000 to 5,000,000 years ago ground to the top of the withers in hands.
Beginning in the
Miocene, these Horses have different face markings. Here’s how they’re named:
horses lived on
open prairie land.
Teeth changed to flat,
grinding molars. The
muzzle and head
became longer.
Merychippus, this
form of the horse, a Ne
was a little over i] ae)
3 feet (0.9 m) tall. I ee Age of Chivalry
The foot changed to & Skull During Medieval times, the Renaissance,
allow the horse to and Baroque, elaborate suits of armor were
escape predators fashioned for kings, noblemen, knights and
Star Stripe
quickly. their steeds. Here is a German suit of horse
armor from the 18th century.
Oliogocene epoch Origins of modern horses
38,000,000 to Prehistoric horse herds migrated from North America to Asia in response to a hotter,
26,000,000 years ago drier climate. None remained in the Western Hemisphere until they were reintroduced by
During the Oligocene, Spanish conquerors to Mexico in 1519.
about 38 million years The slow-moving
The earliest horse Later migrants, The next group of
ago, gradual changes
migrants travelled to called the Southern migrants became horses were the last
took place in the Mesohippus
the arid regions of Group, had moved more adapted to to leave North
Eohippae family.
Africa’s savannah south during the ice harsh and cold America, and they
Some strains died “EZ
and the Asian age, but remained conditions of the became the Tundra
out, others evolved I aaa North American ice Horses. These large
steppes, becoming on the grasslands of
into Mesohippus, :
the Zebras and Eurasia. They age. They stayed animals grew big feet
a three toed, 2-foot "6 Skull
Asses of today. became the Steppe further north as they and thick coats to
(0.6 cm) tall animal. Front foot
These primitive Horses. Steppe traveled to Asia and survive in snow and
Eocene epoch horses have horses were lean, Europe. This group ice. They are
changed very little. fast and large- became the shaggy, ancestors of the The Pony Express
54,000,000 to headed. Their coats tough and adaptable Work and Draft Fast horses and brave riders carried the mail
38,000,000 years ago were fine and thin. Ponies. horses of today. across the Wild West in alles until 1861,
Modern horses are all when the telegraph
descendants of the tiny linked the East and
Eohippus, or Dawn West coasts.
Horse that lived in
swamps and forests.
Fossils of this 10-inch
(25.4 cm) tall animal
have been found in
North America. The
four-toed Eohippus Front foot
was a slow-moving
pig-shaped animal with sharp teeth.
Scientists speculate that it had a dappled
brown coat, like a young deer, to Clydesdale
camouflage it on the forest floor.
 37

Wild koalas can only be found in Prized for their soft fur, the
Australia. Fossil evidence suggests
that koalas evolved more than koalas were hunted to near
25 million years ago. These extinct extinction. In 1937, they
koala species were much larger than
the 20- to 30-pound koalas of the became a protected species.
present. The map shows where koalas But despite conservation
were found when Europeans arrived
(A.D. 1788) and where they can be efforts, their numbers have
found today. Two hundred years of continued to decline.
hunting and habitat loss has drastically
affected populations. It is estimated that there
Habitat loss, are 100,000 koalas in the
dogs and cars
are the koalas
wild today, compared
greatest with more than a million
enemies. 100 years ago.
& Western
\ Australia Koalas live alone or in small groups high
A. in the forest canopy. Koalas don’t build
cies nests, but like to wedge themselves
between forks in the tree branches. They
only leave the trees when they
absolutely have to. (For example, to
cross a road to get to another tree.)

So j ih j TD A

Amerioa_,\,--/ EN
aS

250 million years ago 130 million years ago

nee
antaren Today

Land of the marsupials Skeleton

The plants and animals of Australia
have evolved differently from those
on other continents. This is because
Australia was separated from the
rest of the world about 200 million
years ago.
Marsupials first appeared about
250 million years ago, when all the
planet’s land areas were joined as one
giant continent called “Pangaea.”
About 130 million years ago, Australia
and Antarctica were one landmass.
When they broke apart about
45 million years ago, the marsupials
that lived in Antarctica did not'survive Each koala has a
There are more
the cold as the continent drifted farther than 600 kinds home range made
south, but the marsupials of (warmer) of eucalyptus up of several trees.
Australia thrived. Esophagus Small trees in These home trees
There are about 200 kinds of Australia. provide both food
marsupials living in Australia today. But koalas and a place to live.
South America has about 200 species. Stomach only eat about
North America has only one —
the opossum. Caecum
120 kinds.
(Some will only
Special diet
eat four to Koalas only eat the leaves and bark of certain types of
What’s in a name? six kinds.) eucalyptus (gum) trees. They have sharp teeth for the job.
They also have cheek pouches (like hamsters), where they
The word “koala” is believed to be Proximal @F ge store leaves until ready to eat.
from an aboriginal word that means colon
> Eucalyptus leaves are thick, fibrous and oily, but not high in
“no drink.” This is because koalas get
Distal colon nutrition (some are even poisonous). Koalas will carefully
almost all of their water from gum
choose the young and tender leaves. A koala eats about
leaves. It is very rare to see a koala Anus 2 Ibs. of leaves a night and takes three days to digest them.
drinking. : Footprints Koalas have a special digestive chamber called a caecum
Koalas are awkward on the ground. (SEE-kum) that helps break down and extract extra nutrients
Relatively close Here they are vulnerable to predators from the gum leaves.
and automobiles. They are capable of The diet of eucalyptus gives the koala a unique odor, which
Koalas are closely related to the
running and swimming if they need to. some people compare to cough drops.
Australian wombat and opossum.
Koalas are distantly related to the Grooming
claw
opossum of North and South America. Just call me “joey”
The kangaroo is an even more distant
cousin on the genetic family tree. Baby koalas are called joeys. A joey is born about 35 days
What all these mammals (milk-drinking after its parents mate. Newborn koalas are about the size of a
animals) have in common is that they jellybean. A newborn is pink and has no fur. Despite being
are marsupials. Marsupials are a tiny, blind and deaf, a joey must make its way from the birth
group of animals that are not fully canal to the mother’s pouch.
formed when born — they are in an When the joey is 5 or 6 months old, it
almost embryonic stage. They continue will begin to peek its head out of the
their development in their mother’s pouch. Its mother begins to feed it
special pouch. a runny mix called pap. Pap is
made with the mother’s
Behavioral traits
Vi
droppings and is needed to
Front paw Rear paw pass on microorganisms
Koalas are nocturnal and are active required to digest gum leaves.
at night. (Koalas sleep about 18 to 21 Koalas have adapted to life in the trees. They have powerful By 7 months the joey will be
hours a day.) They are also arboreal, legs and sharp claws that are well suited for climbing. The leaving the pouch more and
which means they live in trees. They front paw of the koala has two thumbs, excellent for gripping more often — clinging to its
communicate with each other using tree limbs. Two of the toes on the hind paws are joined ~ mother. At 1 to 3 years, it will leave
smell and a variety of growls, clicks, together for most of their length. These joined toes are to live on its own. Koalas are fully grown
snorts and bellows. — used for combing, scratching and grooming thick fur. by age 3 or 4.
38

The primate family tree Where Lemurs fit in Where lemurs live
The Primates
Lemurs are very specialized in
There are more than 200
their habitat requirements.
species of primates living today. The Prosimians The Anthropoids
Every lemur on Madagascar
Primates are mammals with
GIBBONS is endangered.
. As many as :
flexible hands and feet, each LORISES TARSIERS LEMURS NEW WORLD OLD WORLD
with five digits. There are nails POTTOS AND MONKEYS GORILLAS 15 species have become extinct
on the hands and feet instead of NEOTROPICAL LANGURS since man arrived on the island
2,000 years ago. Scientists know
claws. Special bones in the Ea eS MONKEYS
MACAQUES ——_ces
ORANGUTANS eeethese species
about oe from sub-
ear, chest and limbs as well as
vertical posture, large brains,
pee
MANDRILLS HUMANS fossils (ancient
2 bones, not full y
mineralized) they have found on
and short snouts separate
the island. One of these lemurs,
primates from other animals.
Megaladapis, was as large
Humans, great apes, monkeys
as a gorilla, and weighed up
and lemurs are all primates.
to 170 pounds!
Scientists who study primates
are called primatologists.
Scientists arrange animals
using a system called taxon
classification. The system Unique primates of the Red Island
arranges animals into group
based on their resemblance: Gray mouse lemur (above)
to each other.
Malagasy name: Tsidy, Koitsiky
The primate order is divided Size: 5 inches, 2 ounces

ro
into two suborders: prosimians * Where the lemurs shown live:
and anthropoids. Habits: Solitary nocturnal forager
Habitat: Dry forests and spiny deserts | Golden-crowned Sifaka
The Anthropoids Madagascar
Humans, great apes Diet: Insects, lizards, frogs, fruit, leaves
(chimpanzees, gorillas and Status: This lemur is the least threatened and
Eastern Lesser Bamboo
orangutans), gibbons and one of the smallest primates. a
monkeys have lived on Earth co Blue-Eyed &
for about 30 million years.
Golden-crowned sifaka (left) | Common Brown
Scientists believe they evolved
from similar ancestors, called the Malagasy name: Ankomba Milandy, Simpona
|_| Ring-Tailed
Early Simians, about 36 million Size: 20 inches, 8 pounds
years ago. Habits: Social; diurnal; | Sanford’s

The prosimians groups of 3 to 10

Lemurs, tarsiers, galagos and Habitat: Dry forests
lorises are primates that have Diet: Seeds
been around the longest. They and fruit Mahajanga
are prosimians, or pre-monkeys.
Status: The most Province
Scientists believe they are
endangered lemur.
related to ancestors called
Less than 8,000 live
omomyids and adapids,
in a small, specialized
who first lived on Earth about
unprotected habitat.
60 million years ago. All of the
prosimians living today live on
the island of Madagascar, sub- Brown lemur (right)
Saharan Africa and parts of
South and Southeast Asia. Brown lemurs are divided
into 7 sub species. Say it in
What is a Lemur? Malagasy names: rs © Malagasy
Ring-Tailed
Lemurs are unique prosimians Lemur (right) vere Meee anela) ee ; Because lemurs
because they have evolved Malagasy name: Seren ee, iae 2 pravine are found only on
in isolation on the island of Madagascar and
Maki, Hira SIE NEST oak)
Madagascar. Human beings Sizes: 20 inches, the tiny Comoro
arrived on the island about 2,000 Size: 17 inches,
Y 5.75 pounds (common brown) Islands nearby,
years ago. At that time there plus 24 inch tail;
16 inches plus 20 inch tail;, i
Toliara scientists often refer2
were at least 49 species of 6.5 to 7.75 pounds
Habits: ae 5 pounds (Sanford’s) Province ; to lemurs by their
lemurs. Today, around 15 of
those species are extinct.
fomcterncio’ Status: The common brown SF _ local names. We have
is one of the more protected included Malagasy
Lemurs are varied, ranging dominated A
Groups:of 3 10.25 lemurs, but poaching and names for the species
in weight from 1 ounce for ae brush fires threaten the located and illustrated on this
the pygmy mouse lemur to ust Sanford’s lemur and its habitat. Page. Madagascal is Caled isk
16 pounds for the indri. They Habitat: Arid, Island because of the color of its soil.
live in the treetops or on land, open regions
are social or solitary, and have Diet: Fruit, leaves,
diets that include all or some of flowers, small Aye-aye
the following foods: fruit, plant vertebrates Malagasy name: Hay-Hay, Ahay
parts, tree gum, small animals Status: Ring-Tails Size: 15.75 inches, 6.5 pounds
and insects. have been most studied. Habits: Solitary; nocturnal forager
The name lemur derives from Habitat destruction
the Latin word lemures, which threatens populations, but Habitat: Tree-dweller in moist forests
means ghosts. zoos have many animals. Diet: Insects
Lemurs don't blink. They have Males engage in “stink fights,” Status: The aye-aye is believed to be an
a special eyelid called a using scent spread over the omen of evil by the Malagasy. These
nictitating membrane which tail to defend territory. animals are often killed on sight
moves over the eyeball to because of this superstition, but
keep it wet. . Eastern lesser their populations are healthy in
bamboo lemur protected regions.
Lemurs depend on their sense
of smell much more than other Malagasy name:
primates. Many have special Bokombolo, Kottrika
scent glands they use to mark Size: 11 inches, 1.5 to
territory. Lemurs that live in Blue-eyed lemur
2.2 pounds
social groups form strong bonds Malagasy name: Ankomba Joby,
Habits: Forms groups
by grooming each other. To do Ankomba Mena, Ankomba
of 2 to6
this, they have special teeth that Size: 16 inches, 5 pounds
Habitat: Bamboo forests _
serve as a tooth or grooming Habits: Social; forms groups of 2 to 15
comb. Another grooming feature Diet: Bamboo
Habitat: Dry western forests
of lemurs is the toilet claw, a Status: One of three
special nail on the second toe of sub-species of the Diet: Ripe fruit, leaves, flowers,
the hind foot that is used to gentle lemur. occasionally insects
spread scent through the fur. Status: The only nonhuman primate
with blue eyes '
 39

The male
Where in the world lion can be
distinguished by
There was a time ee
its large mane.
when wild lions
This protects its
roamed much of head and neck
Europe, the and also serves
Middle East, Asia to make the
and Africa. But animal look
hunting and larger to
habitat loss Lions are powerful animals, potential
reduced their enemies.
numbers drastically.
respected for their beauty, power and
Today, lions are found only in the mighty roar. Sometimes called the
grasslands of central and southern
Africa. (There are about 300 lions left king of beasts, the lion is the second
in northwest India.) Protected national largest of the big cats after tigers.
parks called reserves have been
formed to give lions a place to live
without fear of hunters.
Just the facts
Scientific name: Panthera leo
Feast or famine Scientific classification: Lions are members
Lions are meat-eating carnivores of the class Mammalia and the order Carnivora.
that hunt mostly large, hoofed animals They are part of the cat family Felidae.
such as Zebra or antelope. If food is Size: The adult male is about 9 feet (2.7 m) from nose
scarce, they will catch smaller prey or to the end of the tail. The adult lioness is smaller at
scavenge for carrion. Catching dinner about 8 feet (2.44 m).
can be a challenge, as most potential Weight: Adult males weigh 330 to 500 pounds
meals can run faster than the lion. A (150 to 225 kg). Adult females weigh 260 to 330
week may go by without a successful pounds (120 to 150 kg). A lion’s color is similar to the
hunt, but lions usually manage to eat Sexual maturity: 3 to 4 years grasses of its savanna habitat.
every two or three days. Hunting in Gestation period: About 31/2 months
small groups and at night may give the
potential advantage of surprise. The jaws of a lion are strong enough to bite through Growing up
Females do most of the hunting, but bone. Lions don’t chew their food; they swallow large
the males usually get to eat first. After chunks. Lions have 30 teeth. Their four sharp, pointed Lions spend most of their time
a successful hunt, the lions gorge canines are perfect for holding down prey, and their sleeping or resting. During the day,
themselves. Some can eat 75 pounds four carnassials (cheek teeth) are sharp enough to they can be found snoozing in the
(34 kg) of meat in one sitting. cut through skin and tendons. shade of a tree. They hunt only when
hungry. A lion in the wild lives up to
Example of what a pride of six lions about 15 years. In captivity, the life
ate in one year. span averages 25 years.

5 Elands 14 Other A cub’s spotted and lightly

striped fur will fade to a
5 Hartebeeste —~
more uniform coat.

9 Giraffes
9 Impalas
12 Buffaloes |

Perfect paws Front >

Hear me roar
Lions have retractable foot — gy?
Lions roar for many reasons: to Call a pride
claws that can be pulled
member, to announce territorial rights or to
back into a protective
intimidate rivals. Social bonds are strength-
covering called a sheath.
ened when the pride roars as a group.
Some roars can be heard miles away. Alion’s sharp, curved claws
are weapons that help it ®6
Pride of place catch prey.

Lions are the only wild cats that live Alion’s paws have thick Lions breed at any time of the year.
together in a family group, called a pads that provide grip and A) 6 The lioness leaves the pride when it is
pride. A pride ranges in size from six allow for quiet movement. time to give birth. She can give birth to
to 30 animals. The size of a pride one to six cubs, but two or three is
depends on the availability of food. most common. Cubs are born after
A pride consists of several related 100 days of gestation and weigh about
females and their cubs, led by one 3 pounds (1.4 kg) at birth. Born
male or a coalition of two or three blind and helpless, the babies are
males. Members of a pride hunt, sleep vulnerable, especially while the mother
and eat together. Each pride has its is away hunting. (It is estimated that
own hunting territory, which is guarded 50 percent to 80 percent of cubs die
jealously by the males in the group. Unsheathed claw Retracted or sheathed before 2 years of age.)
(pulled back) claw
Cubs are introduced to the pride at
Lions may about 10 weeks of age. It is not
spend uncommon for nursing lions to share
20 hours responsibility for each other’s cubs.
a day just Males are generally tolerant of cubs,
but if a new male takes over a pride,
it will kill all cubs that are not its own.

Cubs are considered full grown at

about 18 months old. At this time, their
mother may breed again, and young
males may be forced to look for a pride
of their own.
40

What are marsupials? Kangaroo locomotion x

Marsupials are an ancient,
When feeding at ground level, the tail The tail also acts as a rudder, providing At full speed, a kangaroo can leap 30 feet or more.
unique group of animals often
is used as a “fifth limb” while the rear balance during leaps and turns.
called pouched mammals. Like
all mammals, marsupials are
legs are lifted and repositioned.
warm-blooded, have hair, and
mothers nurse their young.
They differ from placental
mammals in that they give live
birth without long gestation SHORT LEAPS
times. Marsupials give birth to
a helpless embryo. The embryo
climbs from the mother's birth
canal to her pouch. There it
attaches with its mouth to
the mammae (nipple) and
continues to nourish and
develop for weeks or even
months, depending on the
species. Placental mammal Virginia opossum (Didelphis)
mothers instead nourish their
North America
developing embryo in the
uterus with the blood supply, Habitat: Variety of environments. Prefers wet
areas, especially streams and swamps. Coarse-haired wombat (Vombatus)
during a longer gestation.
Diet: Insects and carrion. Also plants, Australia, Tasmania and Flinders Island
Today, marsupials have including fruits and grains in season. Habitat: Wet, humid climate with suitable burrowing
fewer species worldwide than conditions. Mainly solitary, except during breeding
placentals, but are very diverse season. Individuals live in a series of
in body structure. They range burrows called warrens.
from tiny four-footed forms to
large, two-legged kangaroos. Diet: Feeds on grass,
roots, sedges, matrushes and fungi.
When they evolved
Cases of convergent Red kangaroo (Macropus)
evolution exist between Central Australia
marsupials and placentals.
Habitat: Scrub and shrub land,
This means that two different
grassland and desert, where
animal species fill the same
rainfall is less than
ecological niche in different
500 millimeters yearly. Of all
parts of the world, evolving
marsupials, only the kangaroos
independently. Today, most
are bipeds, moving more
marsupials are found in Central
naturally on two legs than four.
and South America (around
70 species) and Australia Diet: Plants, preferring green
(around 200 species). grasses and flowering plants.
They can go without water for
North America long periods of time.
The only living marsupial found
here is the opossum. During
the Mesozoic Era, marsupials
were more common than
placentals, persisting until the
mid- to late Tertiary period. Brown antechinus (Antechinus)
South America Eastern and southeastern Australia
Marsupials began to go extinct Habitat: Wet forest with dense cover
in the late Miocene and Early and fallen trees for nest building.
Pliocene Epochs here. At that Usually ground dwelling; may
time, a land connection with become arboreal in dry areas
North America allowed many
competing placentals to cross a Diet: Insects
into South America. Feathertailed glider
Koala (Phascolarctos) (Acrobates)
Australia and Tasmania Eastern Australia Mainland Australia
Marsupials are the dominant
Habitat: Arboreal, mostly in eucalyptus Habitat: Open and closed
native mammals and include
trees, where they feed and avoid forests. Forages in trees,
kangaroos, koalas, Tasmanian
predators. They are slow-moving and bushes and tall grasses.
devils, wombats and others.
sleep up to 18 hours a day. Diet: Insects, arthropods,
Thylacinus lived there until
1936, when the last living Diet: Feeds at night, on eucalyptus trees. occasionally nectar. :
individual was seen in Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus) Tasmania
Tasmania.
How the marsupials and placental mammals differ Habitat: Hollow logs, caves or
The marsupial orders Key anatomical differences distinguish the mammal groups. A third
burrows in forests. The Tasmanian devil
resembles a small bear. They are nocturnal
Traditionally, scientists have group of mammals, the monotremes, is an ancient and primitive
and usually solitary. They make nests of
classified marsupials egg-laying group of animals. The only living monotremes are the
bark, grass and leaves, which they inhabit
(Metatheria) duck-billed platypus (which lives in Australia) and the echidna
during the day.
into these orders: (which lives in Australia and New Guinea).
s Diet: Carrion. An efficient scavenger, the
Didelphimorphia American MARSUPIAL PLACENTAL devil eats both bones and fur. Other food
ie opossums includes insects, insect larvae, snakes
Kidneys
Kidneys and some vegetation.
Paucituberculata “Shrew”
bh opossums Ureters
Microbiotheria Monito Ovaries
del monte

Dasyuromorphia Australasian Vaginal

, Fallopian
sinus tubes
Carnivorous marsupials
Bladder
Peramelemorphia Bandicoots
Ls Bilbies
In marsupials, the embryo
Bladder
Notoryctemorphia Marsupial passes down through the
Vagina My
aa “moles" vaginal sinus and into a
Rectum fa Urethra
single body exit called
Diprotodontia Kangaroos } \ the cloaca. In placentals,
wallabies, opossums Cloaca=> there are three separate
koalas, gliders, wombats body exits.
 4

Reasons for travel

Scientists have been studying the
migrational habits of animals for many
years, but they still cannot explain
f, what triggers many animals to migrate.
Daylight plays an important role for
many migrations. It is believed that
In =
under certain light conditions,
late é ate e F hormones are released that tell the
eee Cg The word migration is usually used to describe the animal it is time to move. Experiments
and R ~ seasonal or periodic movement of an animal from one reveal that some animals do not need
early fall, 33 ; : : outside
any aye stimulants or cues,
eee habitat to another and then back again. Many species of bal MBean eae
butterflies insects, birds, sea creatures, mammals and reptiles are when to migrate.
gather known to be migratory. People also migrate, but not
pods always for biological reasons; they will sometimes
southern migrate for political and/or social reasons. The Arctic
migration. a tern migrates
About 245 species of birds migrate from the United States to from the Arctic to
Central or South America. Herons, swallows, flycatchers, hawks, Antarctica (11,000
falcons, owls and warblers are just a few of these migrants. In miles, or 17,703 km)
Europe, many birds migrate back and forth to Africa. About half of
and back again,
the 9,500 species of birds found around the world migrate.
one of the longest
migrations of
Some species of any animal.
salmon will travel up to
800 to 900 miles (1,287-
1,448 km) from spawn-
Monarchs are the only butterfly to ing stream to ocean and
make such an extreme, two-way back again.
journey. Their route can be more
than 3,000 miles (4,828 km) long. The ruby-throated
Monarchs begin the return trip in hummingbird eats
the spring. They breed along the way until it has gained nearly
and then die. The new generation 40 percent of its original body
completes the journey. weight. This extra fat is needed
to fly the 500 miles (805 km),
across the Gulf of Mexico.
On the move
Gray whales breed and winter How do they do that?
Migration occurs in a huge variety of in the warm waters of Mexico.
animals. From microorganisms to They migrate north to the seas Many species have migration routes
giant whales, migration is commonly around the Bering Strait. and navigation skills that are
a round-trip response to climate, instinctive. Some animals rely on
food availability and/or ideal breeding the Earth’s magnetic field to navigate.
conditions. Baby loggerhead turtles embark on an
Some use the sun, moon and stars as
8,000-mile (12,875 km) migration that
There are many types of migration. a compass, while others may use land-
takes five to 10 years to complete. When
Daily and seasonal migrations are the marks such as mountains or rivers.
they are born along the eastern Florida
most common kind, but some animals Many birds and insects use polarized
coast they are only 2 inches (5 cm) long.
migrate on lunar or cyclical intervals. light to find their way (this lets them
find their way even on cloudy days).
One-way, irregular movements are
Salmon use their sense of smell and
called mass movements or emigra-
water currents to find their way back
tions. When an emigration is the result
of a population explosion it is called an The green turtle migrates a to their spawning stream.
irruption. Lemmings and some insect : ae a ash arte
and bird species experience cyclical MIIeS (v, mM) trom Its teeaing ; ;
ae. f i grounds off the coast of Brazil to Lunar migrations
lay eggs on Ascension Island, in Lunar migrations are most common
the middle of the southern in aquatic animals and are usually
Daily migrations Atlantic Ocean. associated with reproduction. From
Daily migrations are quite common in March through July, California smelt
creatures that live in oceans and lakes. (or grunion) ride the night tide of the
These daily movements are usually full moon in order to deposit their eggs
triggered by changes in light and/or and sperm in sandy burrows on the
temperature. Huge numbers of zoo- beach. Two weeks later, the fish’s
plankton (collections of tiny organisms offspring are washed out to sea by
that drift in bodies of water) move the high tide of the new moon.
toward the surface at night and return Lemmings have
to the deep during daylight hours. a 3- to 5-year cycle
of migration, and
Some terrestrial (land) animals make
animals (like the snowy
daily migrations. The tree-living daddy
owl) that depend on
longlegs can be observed each
lemmings as a food
evening moving from its tree trunk to
source will sometimes
the forest floor. As dawn approaches, migrate with these
the spider returns to its tree trunk.
small rodents.

Seasonal migrations
Seasonal migrations generally take Cyclical migrations During droughts
place twice a year. They are usually and the dry
triggered by changes in temperature, season in Africa,
Cyclical migrations are not linked to climate or seasons, snaliserids OF
light or rainfall. but happen at irregular intervals and often take a lifetime to
There are three main types of completé: Some species of salmon have cyclical migrations ee
seasonal migrations: Latitudinal, where the young hatch in small rivers and streams and then Be ee ae ales
altitudinal and local. Most migrating move into the ocean for two or three years. To breed, the fe t
birds, bats, seals and whales move in adult salmon make their way back to the river where they AAS Neca
eats
a north-south or latitudinal direction. were born. There they lay their eggs before dying.
Many mountain dwellers, such as the Human migrations
great panda or mountain quail, move People have been known to migrate as well. For example, the
up and down their mountain range Kung bushmen of the Kalahari Desert continue the tradition of
in an altitudinal migration. Local following migrating game animals, which they rely on for food.
migrations are usually when animals During drought or dry seasons the Kung bushmen will migrate
relocate looking for water. to areas where water is more plentiful.
42

Mushrooms are not plants, but a kind of fungi.

Lacking chlorophyll they rely on the decay
What is in a name?
Mushrooms are part of the scientific group called
of dead plants for their nutritional needs. (ize tpi, basidiomycota. This group is divided into classes,
a APs Eile
orders and families of mushrooms and other

Nature’s recyclers Tiny basidia on the gills (plieus)

9 Ca fungi. A mycologist is a scientist who studies
fungi. Some mushrooms are edible and some
or tubes produce are poisonous. Poisonous mushrooms are
There are more than 5,000 kinds of mushrooms. reproductive spores.
sometimes called toadstools (a term that dates
Most species grow in shady forests or in damp, =) Ring
back to the 14th century). There are two main
grassy fields. Most mushrooms are saprotrophs Y- (annulus)
types of mushrooms, agarics and boletes.
(they break down organic debris). These mushrooms
Agrarics have gills under their caps, boletes
play an important role in their ecosystems by
have tubes.
enriching the soil. They turn decaying matter into
helpful chemicals such as amino acids and sugars
which feed the mushroom and the plants around it.
Some fungi are parasitic (they feed on living Stem A historic favorite
organisms). Symbiotic fungi have a beneficial Gilled cap (stock
give and take relationship with an organism or stipe) In ancient Egypt mushrooms were food for the
of the agraric group
(some orchids rely on fungi for healthy growth). gods and could only be eaten by Pharaohs.
The Greek physician Hippocrates (c.460 BC)
The mycelium recorded the use of mushrooms in medicinal
Life cycle of the has threadlike
filaments called
potions. The ancient Romans seemed to have
agreed with the Egyptians and referred to
Mushrooms produce and release spores that hyphae that mushrooms as food of the gods.
grow into new fungi. A spore is a nearly microscopic absorb water and
nutrients. Some
Myths and madness
cell that contains the genetic information of the
mushroom. When a spore germinates it species have long
grows thread like filaments that strands called
make up the mycelium. rhizomorphs that Mushrooms have been associated with frogs,
Eventually a button forms on serve the same fairies and little people for centuries. When mush-
the mycelium and develops a purpose. rooms grow in a circle they are sometimes called
cap and stalk, becoming a fairy rings and folklore suggests that it is where
mature mushroom fairies dance. In South Africa mushrooms are
that releases sometimes called duiwelskos (devils food). Many
spores. cultures, past and present, have used hallucino-
genic mushrooms in mystical and spiritual rituals.
When eaten, the toxins contained in these
Mycelium “magic” mushrooms can damage the body’s
nervous system and may result in serious illness.

Anatomy 101 Nutritional facts

A mushroom has two main parts the The common white mushroom or table
mycelium and the fruiting body. The mushroom, has a mild flavor and is used in many
mycelium can live for many years. It is dishes. Wild mushrooms, such as chanterelle,
usually found in soil or wood and is morel, shiitake, portobello and oyster, have a
responsible for absorbing nutrients. more intense flavor. Generally, mushrooms
The fruiting body consists of the stalk contain 90 percent water and have few calories.
and umbrella-shaped cap, it grows They are rich in protein and contain vitamins
from the mycelium and generally lives such as B, C and D. Cooking depletes
up to several days. some vitamins.

Nonpoisonous Poisonous
There are more than 2,000 kinds of edible mushrooms. ‘ Poisonous mushrooms contain chemical toxins that (if eaten) may
Most people are familiar with the table or button mushroom. cause abdominal pain, vomiting, weakness, hallucinations or even death.

Shiitake Common Parasol mushroom

mushroom mycena

Green-spored
mushroom

Mary russula Edible Aspen

scaber stalk Emetic russula Fetid russula Jack-o’-lantern
boletus
 Dragons
The dragon is common in the
mythologies of Europe and Asia.
In Europe, dragons were usually
evil and ferocious, but in Asia,
they were benevolent
and wise.

In China, dragons are wingless

and snakelike. A dragon dance
celebrates the new year. Many
dancers dress as one giant,
writhing creature, moving in
' |an has used Mythology for unison as various parts of the
dragon. Dragons are believed to
|centuries as a way to explain protect the new year from being
4, the mysteries and troubles of spoiled by evil spirits, and the
}) the world. Myths and legends dancers travel from house to house
Unicorn | from many lands and cultures
through the town in order to scare
those spirits away.
Legends about the unicorn are | have been used to address
common in Europe, Asia and parts European dragons were
of North Africa. In medieval Europe, human concerns such as birth and large and fire-breathing.
it was believed that only a pure, death, love and hate, fortune or misfortune, creation and Tales told of treasure
unmarried maiden could tame a _, afterlife, magic power or forces of nature. These common hoards in under-
unicorn. The maiden would wait ground lairs
alone in a forest grove until the themes, or motifs, are used to classify myths into groups attracted dragon-
usually swift and wild animal would by the mythologists who study them. slaying heroes like
slowly approach her and lay his St. George, the patron
head in her lap. From that moment A motif common to all cultures is that of fantastic saint of England or the
on, the unicorn would follow the creatures with extraordinary powers. These creatures ancient Greek
maiden wherever she went. god
usually fall into two categories: those to be feared, and Apollo,
According to legend, the unicorn’s those that were accepted as a part of life. Some of the who fought
horn could cure any poison. If a river with a
or pond were tainted, the unicorn
creatures were helpful, some mischievous. They may
dragon
could purify the water by dipping its have existed once as real animals or people, but over called Python.
horn. Sometimes, hunters would kill time, and through the storyteller’s art, enhancements
a tamed unicorn in order to possess But men didn’t always win
the magical horn. Kings made made them fantastic and magical beasts. Often stories K in fights with dragons. Beowulf
goblets from the horn to guard about them were used to entertain or even scare children / was killed while fighting a dragon
against being poisoned. into behaving. Every culture has an interesting collection for its treasure. Perhaps the most
famous dragon-slayer story is that of
of fantastic beasts in their mythology and describing them the Siegfried, who killed Fafnir.
all would take many volumes. Fafnir guarded the treasure of the
Nibelungenlied. When Fafnir’s blood
covered Siegfried during the fight, it
gave him the power of
protection. A famous opera by
Richard Wagner, called The Ring,
tells the story in detail.

Basilisk
Europeans in the Middle Ages feared
Mermaid a certain positioning of the stars and
Sailors often planets, because at that time, a
returned from seven-year-old rooster could lay an
seafaring with tales egg. When the rooster crowed at his
of beautiful women with tails achievement, a snake and toad would
like fish, who sang sweetly on come to coil around the egg or sit
rocks by the shore. Mermaids upon it to help it hatch. When it did, a
were considered dangerous, fearsome creature known as the
because they held power basilisk — part rooster, part snake,
over the sea, and could bring and part toad — came out of the egg.
storms, floods and giant
waves that could sink ships. The basilisk was small, but so deadly
that anything it breathed on would die.
It was thought that mermaids % The only way it could be killed was to
could entice men to live under see its own reflection in a mirror.
the sea by showing them a
magic mirror — as long as the
Griffon
man held the mirror and could Legends about the griffin are common to
see his reflection, he had the Europe and the Middle East. Griffons had the
ability to breathe under- body and hind legs of a lion and the head, wings
water. 1 and claws of an eagle. Griffons were thought to be
very wise with great treasures hoarded in their
A sailor could force a nests, which were built high up on craggy
mermaid to live on land mountaintops. If a brave hero could take even tiny
by finding and hiding an amount of a griffon’s treasure, he would be rich for
object belonging to a the rest of his life, but the risk of climbing high into
mermaid. Often, she the nest, and the attacks of the sharp-beaked
would remain for many beast, resulted in many men being killed.
years. But if she ever came
across her possession, the
mermaid would return
to the sea, forgetting
the life she once
had on land.
44

ited sme tested Insects

When evening falls, a strange and different world awakens. It is full of night Although bugs are sometimes
creatures, nocturnal animals that have adapted to living and hunting in the thought to be pests, they are really
an essential part of nature.
dark. You may discover that some of them live right in your own back yard.
Crickets
Beginning at sunset,
Flying squirrel (Glaucomys) male crickets sing all
These shy squirrels are mostly night long as a way
active at night. They don’t really of marking out ;
fly but use special skin flaps their territories.
under their arms to help them
re]Ife(= Mixelanme)e-lareamom ele-lalean
Mosquitoes
Only the female of the
Opossum ye species drinks blood.
((D)fol=fe)altsmuiee|ialte tare) a Mosquitoes use light, heat
and scent to seek out their
This solitary, cat-sized
victims and can locate a lighted
marsupial lives in trees and _.
building from a great distance.
carries her babies in a pouch. ~\
AAVateYammere)gat=iesxe Mr-Vale Minto]
alge Moths
d S ened, she “plays possum” Moths use moonlight to navigate.
(dead) to fool her enemies. They become confused by bright
light and this is why they often circle
These are the only around street lamps. To assist them
mammals that can truly in avoiding attack by predators such
fly. There are some bats as bats, moths are equipped with an
that eat fruit and others (erc-r-|marelgat=e Ke)| ultrasonic hearing system.
that eat fish. And almost ((eilefemVicelialttalets))
Cecropia é Moth’s ear
all of them like to eat
Cottontail rabbits
flying insects. Bat eyes moth
are the favorite prey
are small and not well (Hyalophora
of this sharp-eyed
developed, but they can cecropia)
1al0la) (lem ol0) allaraUisie)
see a little bit. Some
eats many other
bats use a kind of
Santelli ieclaliaarslisem sy
sonar, emitting high-
horns are really tufts
frequency sounds that
of feathers.
humans can’t hear.
The sounds bounce off
objects and help the latelerexeley a} ;
bats to navigate. (Uecoven"e)al(ere\omrc lanlNa)
Sonic fishing @}aT=manlelalatalialq@iarclatatexc)
: Greater horseshoe bat iectsver=Uswes) esa -\| male|aime|=i dare]
Echolocation ((mtaliare)(e)e)alerswmcelaablantcre
(lialelan)) alComn al=Mefg or lo(=vmolU| ¢-(ereele)als)
"Viatetamalley=iaar-Ulalepr-laemelU laine nm
cars) that live in forests eat fruit, Fireflies
Cat day, this parkland creature frogs, crayfish and fish. Fireflies are sometimes called
(mellletstemrclanllVp) roosts upside down in shaded lightning bugs, but they are really
areas. At night he awakens to beetles and not bugs or flies at all.
Niiatelulelamares enjoy large insects as a mid-air Every firefly species has its own
entirely nocturnal, snack and to devour bigger prey unique flashing pattern. This has
a cat’s eyes are E\malcmal(elaluiiagiom o\=1ce1a8 helped scientists to identify more
eo ~ IWVZ=)|me(=rsyle [aleve mole than 130 diferent types of fireflies.
A fisher bat dives toward ral(elaliiaatem alelaiiiarep
the water, emitting high- Eyes
pitched sounds.
Feelers

Slugs and snails

Slugs and snails are closely
related and there are more than
When a fish breaks the 1,200 kinds in North America.
surface, it reflects back Both have two sets of tentacles.
the bat sound, creating The long tentacles are tipped with
an echo. Mice eyes, and the short pair are used
(Murinae family) as feelers.
Under the protection
of darkness, many
species of mice scurry Spring peepers
about, collecting food. (Pseudacris crucifer)
Some are caught by f Q
owls and cats and During the night, male peeper frogs
they become part of ERT use inflatable air sacs beneath their
a ee
a food chain. SE chins to make loud breeding calls.
Beeping again, the bat
Female peepers do not make sounds.
uses its curved talons to =~
Night eyes
hook the fish.
Animals with good night vision usually have a special layer of cells behind their retina Color blind
called tapetum. These reflector cells mirror even small quantities of light and give eyes
Human eyes contain two kinds of cells
the appearance of glowing in the dark. This phenomenon is called “eyeshine.”

ODO®D®
— rod cells and cone cells. Cone cells
help us tell one color from another and
require lots of light to do this. Rod cells
make it possible to see in poor light
conditions, but they can’t distinguish
between colors. Night creatures have
While biting into the fish The pupils of a cat’s eyes close to tiny slits in bright sunlight and open wide in the dark. mostly rod cells and for this reason
the bat remains silent. Human eyes also work this way, but not as much as cats’. most of them are colorblind.
 45

The sunlit zone 2< Where in the world

: ’ [ie= Oceans (also called seas)
Most of the animals that live in oy \ cover almost three-quarters
the sunlit or epipelagic zone . ssthe Seti rh Sl
are strong swimmers. They /§ percent of theworld’s _
have to be in order to cope Vv 7 water. The Pacific Ocean is
the largest and deepest
with strong surface currents. eee : : 3 ; ;
This zone extends from the
Scientists believe that life began
8
in this wet, salty world. Th €
this wet, salty wo larges
t ocean. It covers about 70 mil-
lion square miles and contains
surface to 656 ft. (200m). animals on Earth (whales) and the smallest (bacteria and viruses) live in our about half of all the world’s
Always on the move oceans. Oceans play a vital role in global weather by regulating air temperature | cea water. The Atlantic
; ; : ; J : Ocean has an area of about
The global ocean is in constant and supplying moisture for rainfall. Oceans provide us with food, minerals and | 36 million square miles. The
motion. Gravity pulls at the water, energy. We also use oceans as water transportation and for recreation. ens Cay ae cool
29 million square miles. The
creating the rise and fall of tides.
Wind and earthquakes result in The orca, also known as the Atlantic flyingfish can grow to world ocean has an average
waves and whitecaps breaking killer whale, is the largest of 17 inches (43 cm). They are capable depth of about 12,200 feet,
on the surface. And currents the dolphin family. It grows to of gliding up to 300 ft. (90m) and 5 ft. but is much deeper in spots.
move like underwater highways. 23 to 32 ft. (7 to 9 m) and (1.5 m) above the ocean. They stay in
0 to 656 ft.
prefers cooler coastal waters. 57 the air for about 10 seconds.
656 to 19,700 ft.
Making waves
Deeper than 19,700 ft.
Most waves are the result of wind
moving over water. The size of a - Arctic Ocean
wave depends on wind speed, The Atlantic bottle-nosed X North
and how long and far the wind | dolphin is a very intelligent North Atlantic
America Ocean
blows. Some waves are caused
:
F
cetacean, often seen in coastal Northee ; é
by the movement of tectonic waters and at ocean parks and - Pacific » Africa
plates below the sea floor. Ser aie Ocean South
Called tsunamis, these waves
ear nieve Senay derive
Be ee OS
called herds or pods. They use : South
America
c echolocation to find food. _. Australia pacitic South =/
ocean, reaching speeds of up Killer Indian Ocean Atlantic
to 600 miles an hour. eae Ocean Ocean
Ocean waves move up and Antarctica
down, not forward.

ees
ofa awave. the shore.
Plankton
Plankton is the basic food of
wave. the sea. These tiny, often
microscopic, organisms travel
The tentacles of a with the currents and provide
Portuguese man-of-war
food to more than 90 percent
can be up to 30 feet (10m)
of marine life.
long. This creature is really
hundreds of individual The two main types of
animals living jointly. plankton are tiny plants called
Tides . phytoplankton that travel on
Tides are the rise and fall of ocean currents and swimming
the oceans caused by the animals, such as water fleas and
gravitational pull of the Skipjack tuna jellyfish, called zooplankton.
moon and the sun. Because swim in large Phytoplankton use the sun’s
the moon is closer, its pull pe schools of energy to make food out of
has more influence on tides ae up to 50,000 sunlight and minerals in a
than the sun. Generally, there fishes. They are process called photosynthesis.
are two high and two low an important — It is estimated that phytoplankton
tides every day (lasting for commercial fish. make more than 60 percent of
about 6 hours each). Spring the Earth’s oxygen.
tides happen when the sun, | Dolphinfish travel Zooplankton feed on
moon and Earth are ina _~ in small schools.A | phytoplankton. Then larger
straight line, causing the - popular game fish, | zooplankton eat the small
tides to rise and fall more _ they should notbe | zooplankton and these in turn
than usual. provide food for larger creatures.

Phytoplankton

The moray eel is

found near rocky
shores. Known to be
an aggressive |
predator it
will bite |)
if disturbed.

Weedy seadragons are

considerably larger than their
cousin, the dwarf seahorse, |
growing up to 18 inches long. |

Dwarf seahorses and weedy

seadragons are spiny creatures You can catch plankton by
that resemble tiny horses or submerging a bucket in the sea
dragons and swim standing up. and dragging it. Pull it up and
They livein all the oceans of the put the contents in a glass.
world and are.related to sea Use a magnifying glass or a
urchins and sand dollars. microscope to see it even better.
46

Studying the deep

The twilight zone The hammerhead
Hawksbill
Scientists who study oceans are
The mesopelagic zone is shark can be found in called oceanographers. They
also called the twilight or warm tropical oceans. examine the secrets of the seas,
It feeds mostly on fish looking at how oceans move and
midwater zone. It extends
and rays. It is thought affect climate. Oceanographers
from 656 ft. to 3,281 ft. to be aggressive and also examine life in the oceans
(220m to 1000m). Here the may attack humans. and study the sea floor. They
light becomes fainter and There are about 370 species of. = use computers, satellites and
the water gets colder. “sharks and more are being discovered. underwater submersibles to
Sharks can be found near the ocean surface - help collect information.
Water temperature and in deeper waters. Scientists are still
studying the habits of these predators. _ People who study fish are
The temperature of the called ichthyologists
——ae z
ocean varies depending on (pronounced IHK thee
currents and water depth. AHL uh jihsts).
Warm surface water generally Ichthyologists divide fish
reaches depths of about 500 ft., into two main groups;
Redfish are also called
double that in some tropical jawed and jawless.
ocean perch. They can grow
waters. As we move into Most fish have jaws;
to about 3 ft. (1m). They feed
deeper water, the temperature at the surface at night and only lampreys and
drops quickly. Below the warmer hagfish do not.
during the day
surface waters is a band of
é Coral can beoes ol of
colder water called the , : .
thermocline. Below the , isa
thermocline layer the water limestone
cools more slowly. \ ua
made
or Ms \ from the
Currents % 4.4 skeletons
Currents are the result} Oe
*+¢ Ayer of tiny ‘
animals.
of two main forces: j
surface wind and the
difference in temperature and
salt content of the water.
Marine algae
Wind circulation produces the Large marine algae are also
major ocean currents or great
The Greenland shark canbe foundon called seaweed and help
streams that travel in general
seabeds at depthsof 1,800 ft. (650m). purify the air and water through
circular patterns. Thermohaline photosynthesis. Here are some
circulation happens when algae that can be found on
colder, saltier water sinks, wharves and rocky beaches:
resulting in vertical currents
that flow from the surface to the
bottom and eventually to the
surface in a never-ending cycle.
The opah is a shy, rarely seen brightly
Warm = —— colored fish found at depths of 330 to.
Cold Arctic- Ocean 1,300 ft. (100-400 m). Itcangrowto5ft. 7
Mermaid’s hair Codium
foo es a (1.5 m) and weigh up to 161 Ibs. (73kg). _/

Sa ———, outh =)
(Indian Australia ~(( ‘Pacific. /})
(Ocean “= Ocean a Sea lettuce Sargassum
Se The Atlantic football fishisa —
Nc See deep- sea angler found at depths —
= Antarctica : ft. (800m).
of 980 : oe —
It uses the lure
on its forehead to attract prey.
Shells & shellfish
Shellfish are part of a group of Roughie can be
soft-bodied animals with no found at depths of
bones called mollusks. Limpets 7A
3,300 feet (1,000m)
and snails are univalves, ==— in the North Atlantic. Agarum Alaria
protected by a single shell. =" Little is known about
Clams and mussels are their habits. They Press and dry seaweed
bivalves. They have two hinged grow to about You can dry seaweed and kelp
shells covering their body. 11 inches (30cm). by hanging them over railings or
on laundry lines. Later you can
Quiz place the dried seaweed in
Can you tell the univalves from saltwater and take a closer look
Sperm whales are the largest of the toothed
the bivalves in the mollusks? at how it is made. Here’s what
whales and grow between 36 and 66 ft.
(11-20 m). Their bulging skulls protect an organ to do:
1. Float specimen
made up of weblike pipes containing waxy
yellow oil called spermaceti. Scientists think in a pan of
seawater.
this organ helps with echolocation
and controlling buoyancy.

2. Slide heavy paper underneath

| the seaweed and
use the paper
to slowly lift
the weed.

3. Place cheese-
cloth over the
VS \N seaweed to dry it.
Once dry, mount
Eagle ray the specimen on
another piece of
paper and label it.
 47

Whale diving depths

The dark zone : Diving depths and underwater
The bathypelagic or dark zone | , The Alvin Ba times for various whales:
extends from 3,281 ft. to | Paneocesanedor ile
13,124 ft. (1,000m to 4,000m). deep-sea research.
Despite the lack of light and In 1977, the Alvin team of
the immense water pressure, scientists discovered deep-

many creatures can be found Shiba sags eect

unknown species. aS : =
here. Sperm whales dive to aa ™~)\ |
this level in search of food
and bioluminous creatures
begin to apperar. * possibly deeper

Bioluminescence Larger shrimp or

Many ocean creatures use prawns are an important
bioluminescence (pronounced ‘N food for many fish and a
BY oh LOO muh NEHS uhns) a7 valuable commercial
to attract prey and to warn catch. Related to crabs
predators away. These fish have and lobsters, these
a special enzyme that changes crustaceans come
stored energy into light. This in a variety of colors
light does not give off any and sizes.
significant amount of heat.
There are 10 species
Sailors often see bright lights
of swordfish ranging in
flickering in the waves at night.
size from 6 to 16 ft. (2 to
This is usually caused by algae
4.9 m). They are found in
that light up when movement
deep waters, but also at
is sensed.
the surface. Generally
C) solitary predators, they
feed on fish and squid.

ge } ee ~ : Roughhead grenadier can be

: WS), OR se Roughhead found at depths of 650 to 3,300
I, eS grenadier ft. (200 to 1000 m). They are
© members of the cod family and
grow up to 31/4 ft. (1 m).

The oarfish is the longest bony

fish in the sea. It can grow more
than 50 ft. and weigh as much as
100 Ibs. Ancient stories about sea
serpents were probably based on
sightings of these strange animals.

How fish swim

Most fish swim by moving their tail
Octopuses belong to the 2 2 : oes The Greenland halibut
from one side to the other, while
mollusk family, which includes e , can grow to up to 4 feet
their body moves in the opposite
clams, oysters and snails. C € = (1.2 m) long. This fish
direction. Fins are used to make
There are about 100 species. ! has strong, fanglike
turns and other maneuvers. Fast
They have soft, round bodies Octopus teeth. It feeds on fish,
swimmers often have deeply
with eight legs. Some live in ‘=, crustaceans and squid.
shallow water, others live in Both of its eyes are on aeaeees o
the deep. As a means of ce XK the right. Greenland oats od to have round or
defense, the octopus can eS ; halibuts can be found at squarish shaped tails and fins
discharge an inky fluid; Ses 4 "5 depths of 6,600 feet
it can also change ee or (2,000 m). Dogfish Tuna Eel
color to match its
surroundings or to
scare a predator.

The skate is a valuable

commercial species,
caught for food. They
feed on fish, crabs,
lobster and octopus.
Skates live in depths
from 98 to:2,000 ft.
(30-600 m) and grow to
about 8 ft. (2.4 m) wide.
: LE Ratfish are also known as
Most squid have light-producing Squid : > sis chimaeras. They live in deep
organs called photopores and q “88 * waters, feeding on starfish,
some can eject a glowing cloud mollusks and crustaceans.
of ink. Ratfish can grow to about
5 ft. (1.5 m).
Lanternfish are named for their
ability to make light. During the day, 7 : >| The snipe eel is a deep-sea

l
they stay in the deep ocean, but at s, y | fish found at depths of 3,300 ft.
night they swim to the surface to (1,000 m) or more. They can
feed on plankton. Lanternfish can grow to about 4 ft. (1.2 m) long.
be found at depths of.3,000 ft. Although they are fairly common,
(914.4 m) little is known about their habits.
48

The abyss Weird and wild

The creatures that live at the
The abyssopelagic zone bottom of the sea could almost
extends from 13,124 ft to be called monsters, they are
19,686 ft. (4,000 m to so strange and scary looking.
6,000 m). The word abyss is Many use bioluminescent light
to attract prey or ward off
from the Greek and means
predators. Others have evolved
“no bottom.” Except for in such a way as to get all of
bioluminous flickers and their nutrients from chemicals in
super hot spews from Silver : a the ocean in a process called
deep-sea vents, the deepest a hatchetfish siti Li chemosynthesis. Many deep-
parts of the ocean are : J sea creatures are enormous.
This is where the sperm whale
incredibly dark and cold. : Ariglerfich comes to feed on squid.

The Triest |submersiblewas Z& NY | There are many types of Tripod fish balance on projections
conceived and built by Auguste cel Ay deep-sea anglerfish. Most from their fins waiting on the
Piccard. It is famous for its q are black and have “lures” bottom for falling food.
1960 dive to 35,800 feet at the : Coal: Called illicium growing from
bottom of the Mariana Trench in Y =e 7, Linophryne _‘ei heads. Some are
the Pacific Ocean. fimy deep light-producing.
sea angler
Tripod fish
Black swallowers
Silver hatchetfish grow naeoars
up to 4 inches in length i
Elam are\Wicmitcliccralcren Zi
scaleless bodies and
upward-facing eyes.

Lanternfish are one of the

most populous and widely
distributed deep sea fish.
Named for their bright
bioluminescense these
There are 8 kinds of
creatures play a vital role in
viperfish in the world’s
their ecosystems, being dinner
oceans. They are able to
for many larger fish.
swallow large prey by opening
the mouth to 90 degrees.
A deep-sea chimney spouts
magma-heated seawater into
the cold ocean. At the bottom
The hadalpelagic zone extends
from 19,686 ft. to 32,810 ft.
(6,000 m to 10,000 m).
This zone is mostly found in
trenches and canyons. Starfish
and tube worms can be found
at this depth.
The gulper eel can live at depths of 4,500 ft. [
(1,400 m) and can be found in most oceans. The lay of the land
It grows to about 24 inches long. Despite its size The Earth’s crust is covered with
FValo Wn
ic-(ell(om ofole\VAmalism aye Mant-lar-(e(=sm OMer-lm-lce(mi a tectonic plates that float on a liquid
that swim into its open mouth. mantle of molten rock. When the
plates collide, earthquakes and
volcanoes may result. When the
plates spread, rifts allow magma to
leak upward on to the crust,
forming ridges.
a Gulper eel
ser a y i Trench Ocean Depth

caused Tonga S. Pacific 35,433

by the Philippine W. Pacific 32,995
temperature ie
difference Kermadec S. Pacific 32,963
gives a Izu-Ogasawara W. Pacific 32,087
“black
smoker” ictann
its color. :
- Ocean surface
oglolcances
Continental” ~ Ces /
elf ZN S v ~~ : ff

Trench
a

Magma

Giant isopods are carnivorous

witty crustaceans that feed on
ja ~ Starfish FZ : gehinidi anything they can find on the
4 SG Cl deep ocean floor.
= . ‘ "~ _ Sea urchins are related to
29 Giant starfish and found in seas
SY isopod around the world. These small
2 creatures have a shell called a
test which is covered in spikes.
 49

What are owls?

Owls are mysterious, mostly nocturnal birds that have
been worshiped by primitive peoples, associated with
magic, superstition and sorcery and made companions
or advisors to gods and goddesses. The owl has
figured prominently in the folklore and legends of
people around the world. The owl is often portrayed
as wise, or as a sign of things to come.
Because owls are seldom observed by the average
person, many of their traits or
Cornea
habits are not so obvious.
Owls are extraordinary and
unique birds.
Efficient hunters
Owls are raptors, like
hawks, eagles and falcons.
They capture living prey
using specialized talons on
their feet. The beak is razor Snowy owls live in far North America.
sharp, but unlike other They inhabit the frozen tundra and feed
raptors, the owl swallows mostly on lemmings and hares. During the
its prey whole, or in rough, Cross-section Arctic summer, they hunt in the daytime.
torn chunks. of an owl eye This large owl grows to about 23 inches long,
and the female’s plumes are more heavily
Super vision
barred, or speckled, than the male’s.
The owl has the most versatile
eyesight of any bird. It has what
scientists call a tubular eye. It
differs from other animal’s eyes
in that it allows more light to be
gathered and concentrated on the
back of the eyeball. This is why an 270 degrees
The great
owl can capture small prey like horned
mice or voles in a dense wood in complete darkness. owl is the
But the trade-off for such a large eye is that the owl largest eared
cannot swivel its eyes in their sockets like other owl in North
animals can. Instead, it must turn its neck, but has an America. It can grow to
amazing range of motion and can rotate its head a full 22 inches in length and has
270 degrees. the power to take skunks and
Canada geese as prey.

The short-eared owl grows to be about 15 inches long.

It lives in all of North America but is becoming endangered due
Primary to habitat loss. It lives in open country, tundra, marshes and
; 5 wing weedy fields. The bird nests on open ground.
On the flight deck feather
The owl’s nocturnal lifestyle has led to
some effective adaptations in its feathers.
Owl anatomy
The plumage of an owl is fluffy, and the leading edge The owl has many features common to all birds, as well as some
of the primary wing feather is finely toothed to absorb specialized features. Here are a typical owl’s parts:
any sound made by air rushing over the wing. Greater
Eating too much junk food... wing coverts
Owls eat a huge amount of food. They can consume Barn owls grow to be
the equivalent of their own body weight each night. But ‘ about 16 inches long.
because they don’t chew the food they eat, owls end UN Alula They like to roost in old
up with lots of fur, feathers, bones, beaks and nails in
> 5 buildings, eaves and farm
their gizzard. As with other predatory birds, the owl Median
wing coverts buildings. They have
has evolved the ability to regurgitate the animal parts it We smaller eyes than most
can’t digest as neat little pellets, which can be found : owls and a clearly defined
under nests and around feeding areas. = Sigateltg Neart-shaped facial disc.
9 Females are paler in
: color than males.
Primary wing
Owls and humans Mantle Forehead
feathers (10)
Owls have had a long relationship with the folklore and
myths of humans. The earliest known drawing of a bird Secondary
was of snowy owls in the cave of Les Trois Freres in ing Nape Cere
feathers EE
Southern France. : (11-19)
One of the oldest coins made depicts a saw-whet owl,
a symbol of Athena, the goddess of wisdom, from ancient .
Greece. It is dated from about 500 B.C. i

P ai
eathers
Barn (1 2) ill
owl egg

Undertail :
coverts pce

Tibi
Owls’ eggs ae The elf owl is North
All owls lay pure white, round Tarsus America’s smallest
eggs. They do not build nests, but owl. It lives in the
Southwestern desert,
often use ready-made sites like
Toe where it usually
abandoned nests of other birds,
hollows out a nesting
the holes in trees made by wood- Talon cavity in the tall
peckers, or the aerie of a raptor. saguaro cactus. It is
Owlets leave the nest before that strictly nocturnal, and
can fly. They keep in touch with only grows to be
their parents by directional about 5 inches long.
The owl was-associated with death by the Aztecs.
sounds and begging calls.
Above is a wooden drum called a teponaztii.
It is carved with the image of an owl's face.
 PANDAS
50

A taste for bamboo

Pandas are picky eaters and live
almost exclusively on bamboo. If the
bamboo forests disappear the panda
would die of starvation. And this bear
eats a lot! At least 12 hours of every
day are spent eating. The giant panda
consumes up to 40 percent of its
Despite efforts to protect it, the giant weight (up to 85 pounds, or 38.5 kg)
every day.
panda is still in danger of extinction. In the forests of China there are many
kinds of bamboo, but only a few
Habitat destruction and hunting have species grow in the mountains where
pandas live. Every 10 or 12 years,
taken a toll on populations. Only about bamboo plants flower and die off.
This forces the pandas to migrate to
Location, location 1,600 of these black-and-white bears a new area. It is becoming more and
more difficult for the panda to find
Wild pandas can only be found in
China. They prefer the wet mountains
remain in the wild. suitable bamboo forests.

of the southwest and live at altitudes

between 3,000 and 10,000 feet. The giant panda can grow 5 to 6 feet (1.5 to 1.8 m) long.
In addition to poaching and a low birth An adult weighs 150 to 275 pounds (68 to 125 kg).
rate, one of the main threats to the For many years scientists debated whether pandas are bears,
giant panda is habitat destruction and raccoons or in a special group of their own. DNA tests have
fragmentation. To address habitat loss, indicated that the giant panda is related to bears.
the Chinese government has created
12 nature preserves where bamboo is Because
plentiful and giant pandas are known to bamboo is
roam. Strips of land, called “bamboo not highly
corridors,” are being planted to help the nutritious
pandas migrate when they need to. and pandas
do not
have very
efficient
digestive
systems,
they need
to eat large
amounts
in order
to stay
healthy.

Range of the giant panda

What’s in a name? Having babies

Besides being adorable,
In China, the giant panda is a symbol of the giant panda has many
peace and is called “da xiong mao,” interesting and unique The giant panda breeds from
which means “giant bear cat.” characteristics. March to May and gives birth in
The scientific or Latin name for the giant August or September.
panda is Ailuropoda melanoleuca. The female can give birth to one, two
Female pandas are called sows, males Bamboo is a very sinewy and or three cubs, but usually only one cub
are called boars, and the young are tough plant, and strong jaws are will survive. At birth, the cubs are
called cubs. needed to chew it. The panda has white, furless and blind. They are
large teeth and well- developed exceptionally tiny, weighing about 3 to
muscles to make eating easier. 5 ounces (85 to 141 g). Cubs develop
Close relatives their black and white coloring at about
Panda ~
4 weeks old. They open their eyes at 6
molars
The red panda (also known as the to 7 weeks and become mobile at 3 to
lesser panda) is a close relative of the Molars are 4 months. They begin to eat bamboo
giant panda. Scientists once thought teeth used for Human at around 6 months. Cubs nurse for
the red panda was related to the grinding food. molars about nine months and often remain
raccoon (which it resembles), but DNA a, with the mother for one or two years.
tests have shown that it is genetically They are not considered fully grown
similar to the giant panda. until they are 4 to 6 years old.
This shy and solitary creature can be In captivity, giant pandas have been
found in southern Asia. Red pandas known to live for more than 30 years.
are listed as endangered. Pandas tend to eat in a seated position.
Their front paws have adapted to help
them hold bamboo. Their paws have
Captive breeding
Red Panda five clawed fingers, plus a bone on each Giant panda Other bears
Ailurus fulgens In 1955, China began attempts to
palm that looks and acts much like a The giant panda has excellent eyesight, breed the giant panda in captivity.
thumb. Unlike other bears, pandas do but it has unusual eyes for a bear. Most But it was eight years before they
not walk on their hind legs. bears have round pupils, but the panda succeeded. On Sept. 9, 1963, a
has vertical slits, like a cat’s pupil. giant panda named Li Li gave birth
to Ming Ming at the Beijing Zoo.
Shy and solitary long, coarse There are about 110 to 120 giant
hairs pandas in captivity. Most of these
Giant pandas are not social creatures
are in China.
and prefer to live alone. Small groups
may share a feeding range, but they
only get together to breed.
Because this animal is very shy, Did you know?
scientists know very little about its
habits in the wild. Giant pandas do Giant pandas are technically
not live in a permanent den, but take carnivores (meat eaters). Despite the
The red
shelter wherever it is convenient. In fact that they live almost exclusively
panda is about Pandas have oily,
winter, they do not hibernate, but on bamboo, they will eat small
the size of a cat. waterproof fur (similar
move to lower altitudes where it is mammals if they can catch them.
It is primarily nocturnal, to seal fur) with a dense undercoat
and feeds on bamboo warmer and food is more plentiful. Giant pandas have unusually thick
that protects them from the wet
and fruit. and heavy bones for their size.
and cold.
They are also very flexible.
 51

About birds
Feet Beak Habitat
Living birds include more
Parrots are zygo- Parrots Parrots live
than 9,000 recognized
dactyls — two toes have in tropical
species and inhabit every
face forward and a hooked and sub-
biome of the world.
two back. This is beak. tropical
Whether modern birds
common in arboreal | The hinged regions. ., -
are most closely related
to dinosaurs and other
(tree-dwelling) birds. | upper jaw is fF
: more mobile
reptilian ancestors is
and devel-
currently under scientific
oped than
debate. Orders of living
‘the lower.
birds appear to have
evolved closely, but the
age of birds is uncertain.
Estimates place the Cockatoos Lories and Lorikeets
earliest birds between Family
60 to over 90 million cacatuidae Family loriidae
years old based on
morphology, fossils and
molecular data.
Cockatiel
Bird characteristics Nymphicus
Birds are warm-blooded, hollandicus
produce external eggs,
and engage in complex Parrots and Macaws
parental and reproductive Family psittacidae
behaviors. They have Budgerigar
highly developed color Melopsittacus
vision, use vocalization undulatus
and social interactions.

Birds have feathers,

enabling flight. Feathers
insulate, camouflage,
and are used by birds to lovebird
communicate via sound
and sight. In waterfowl, / Agapornis
feathers aid in swimming, roseicollis
water repellence and
support of the body.

Features shared Mustached Rainbow

with reptiles parakeet lorikeet
Unlike mammals, birds Psittacula \, Trichoglossus
have nucleated red blood alexandri \ haematodus
cells, one middle ear
bone, and a single
occipital condyle (a knob
at the back of the brain
case, which joins the
skull to the spine).

Adaptations for flight

Lightweight bones in
birds are fused or
reinforced. A keeled
sternum supports the
flight muscles in the
breast. Birds are able Palm cockatoo
to detect and react to
magnetism. Probosciger
aterrimus
Birds have distinctive Hyacinth macaw
bills, with many variations
Anodorhynchus. |
in shape, size and color
hyacinthinus
based on diet and
habitat, and for sexual
display and identification.
Purple-crowned
lorikeet
Suiphur-crested Glossopsitta
Characteristics cockatoo porphyrocephala
All three families of parrots Cacatua
share a distinctive feature: galerita
they have crooked bills. It is
commonly thought they are all
brightly colored, but this is not
the case. Many canopy-living Scaly-
species have green plumage breasted
in order to camouflage them- lorikeet
selves. Some parrots have /y
Trichoglossus
grey or black feathers. chlorolepidotus

Brown- -
Parrot classification Y / throated Y/
J
Kingdom Animalia parakeet eo
; iy{—
Phylum Chordata Aratinga
Subphylum Vertebrata pertinax
Class Aves
Subclass Neornithes
Order Psittaciformes African
Family Psittacidae ad
Family Cacatuidae Potecis
Family Loriidae erithacus
 \
52

What is a penguin? Jackass penguins are Rockhopper penguins are Arctic penguins?
“named for their braying widely located in the Antarctic.
There are no penguins in
Penguins lay eggs, have call. They are found only
the Arctic (North Pole). The
compact, hard feathers, in Southern Africa.
breathe air, have clawed
Great Auk lived there at one
feet and horny beaks. They Galapagos time, but it was hunted to
penguins extinction in the 1800s.
are short-legged, flightless
birds that live in cold regions live the Predators such as bears,
farthest north, wolves, foxes and rats live
in the Southern Hemisphere,
such as Antarctica. on the in the north and may
Equator. Macaroni penguins
Penguins have webbed prevent penguins from
are one of six crested
feet and wings that work establishing colonies
penguins.
like flippers. because nesting chicks are
virtually defenseless on
The first animal called a
land. Antarctica and the
penguin was a flightless bird
other southern islands
of the Arctic Ocean, known
as a Great Auk. Despite a where Penguins nest are
similar anatomy to today’s free from predators.
penguins, it was from a
Unique adaptations
different order of birds.
Hearing
The Great Auk, hunted to ey 180° z Africa ie Penguins do not have
extinction, was last seen
South 5 = iy ee external, visible ears, but
in 1844, America 2 aw" = ra ms wy have a protected ear canal
under the feathers. This
When similar animals were Caescoe ( Tristan de Cunha Prince, Madagascar
found in the southern seas, \ war allows them to hear sound in
they were called penguins. panes U Gecrota Bouvet . Islands Crozet the air and underwater. They
| ~ 90° 2 Falkland O ev a a can recognize each other
The word originally was
thought to mean “fat one” in pee? ? Islands ©A =. nev. oO and their young by sound.
Spanish/Portuguese, but
ee ®AV . H _ Kerguelen Staying warm
es “@ ....~ Islands McDonald Penguins don’t get cold
may have originated from a oS ee 2a Islands
the Welsh pen gwyn (white because of their fat. Fat has
head), or from the Latin Islas Juan 3 Antarctica an two main purposes in the
pinguis (fat). goo Fernandez South Pole _ _ Islan body; It is a good insulator
OVe ; against cold and is an
Classification . je , oO A t
energy reserve. Usually, the
Antarctic i) Fd colder the habitat, the larger
Kingdom
Circle ‘ lar all the penguin. Penguins can
Animalia
They have spinal cords. Ago = overheat on warm summer
King penguins must maintain a constant 30° AUS Islands a 8 ¢ days. When temperatures
Phylum body temperature. This restricts their Bounty Islands. 40m A | are high they erect their
Chordata range. They weigh about 29 lbs. (13.2 kg.) ‘= BEE feathers to increase airflow
Have strong skeletons. and are about 3 feet tall. Reduction in Cheene ;-OM Teg near the body. They also
Subphylum range and harm from oil spills, hunters a4 j F separate from each other, or
2 New {Australia lie on ice, panting to release
Vertebrata and egg collectors have greatly reduced Zealand \. ize
Their horny beaks, the population. Populations are now ’ ; «(TY excess body heat.
lack of teeth, large recovering. Where penguins live Emperor penguins are very
muscular stomachs and @ Emperor @ Magellanic © Erect-crested & Jackass
social, which helps them
feathers make them birds. Vv Adelie O Galapagos V_ Macaroni Peruvian/ survive the hardships of
Another trait of birds O King A Little Blue Royal © Humboldt winter. During cold and
is that they lay large- SA Geniog or Fal M@ Yellow-eved O Fiordland- windy nights, they cluster
yolked, hard-shelled eggs. » @c.-4-..
Chinstrap © Rockhopper
PP ope
Atrican/ crested into groups called
Parent birds usually care turtles. When the birds in
for the young until grown. The Little Blue Penguin prefers sandy, rocky beaches for the center become warm,
they exchange positions
nesting. It lives in the temperate seas of Australia, feeding
Class with colder outsiders.
mainly in inshore waters around the mainland and offshore
Aves Feathers
islands. Most colonies are found on sandy, rocky islands,
around bases of cliffs, or near sand dunes. Little Blues weigh The structure of penguin
Order
about 31.68 oz. (900 g.) and are the smallest of all penguins. feathers gives them
Sphenisciformes increased protection against
They are social birds, and the most nocturnal of all
penguin species. During the day, they hunt at sea or nest. cold. An outer layer of long,
hard and smooth feathers
Variety aids fast swimming by
streamlining the body and
Today there are 17 species protects them from wind.
of penguins. Fossil records
A layer of fluffy down
show that there were more
feathers underneath
species in the past. The
provides insulation by
living penguin species are:
trapping warm air close to
Adelie, African (Jackass),
the body for warmth.
Chinstrap, Emperor,
Erect-crested, Little Blue, Protective coloration
Fiordland, Galapagos, Penguins have white bellies
Gentoo, Peruvian and dark backs. These colors
(Humboldt), King, Macaroni, help the penguins appear
Magellanic, Rockhopper, Adelie penguins live in open areas of less visible in water. When
Royal, Snares Island and ice-free, rocky coastlines. They can seen from above the black
Yellow-eyed. weigh up to 11 Ibs. (5 kg.). After blends into the darkness of
breeding, they head to feeding grounds, the sea; when seen from
Two species, Adelie and where they molt on ice floes. To breed, below the light belly hides
Emperor, are often studied “ the Adelies return to their native colony blends into the shimmering
because they live on each year. Nests are small surface.
Antarctica year-round. depressions lined with pebbles.
Permanent research Pairs keep the same mate and use
stations make it easier for the same nesting site as they did
scientists to study and Emperor penguins spend 10 months in the the year before. The Adelie is the
monitor the population. Antarctic. The sea is their home and they do not most studied of all penguins.
Scientists estimate that settle on dry land, only on ice caps. Each year, they Like other penguins, they move Finding food
2,300,000 mated pairs of return to the same location to mate. They reach a quickly on the ice by Penguins swim fast and can
Adelie penguins and height of up to 3.5 feet and weigh up to 88 lbs. tobogganing (sliding on their dive 1,640 ft. (500 m.) and
220,000 mated pairs of (40 kg.) Emperor females produce a single egg. bellies, using wings and feet stay submerged for five
Emperor penguins live on No preparations or nests are made. Instead, the male for extra speed). They can minutes. They feed on krill,
Antarctica. The exact places the egg on his feet, holds it between his legs, leap over walls of ice small fish, octopus and other
population is unknown, but it and incubates it. Incubation lasts nearly two months, 3 to 4 feet high. sea Creatures found in the
is estimated that 175 million and the male does not move or eat during this time. cold waters of the Antarctic
live near Antarctica. Chicks hatch in early September. Ocean.
 53

The age of mammals Land of Giants: filling every niche with diversity in size, shape and diet
Dinosaurs and many forms MEGATHERIUM
of plant life died out in global MEGALOCEROS
mass extinctions 65 million Pleistocene epoch; 20 feet long
years ago. Their demise left An immense ground-dwelling Late Pleistocene
room for new animals to relative of the sloth. It epoch; 8 feet long,
dominate the Earth’s probably weighed 3 tons 12-foot antlers
ecosystems. Over time, tiny and lived in South A giant relative of
primitive mammals grew America. It walked on modern deer, it is often
larger and larger, and its knuckles and called the Irish elk,
became more specialized, probably used its because most known
filling niches in the food front claws to pull fossil remains have
chain by adapting in their down tree been found there.
quest for food and habitat. branches for
In the Miocene epoch, food.
Time and rock
mammals had reached their
largest ever diversity. In the 19th century, scientists began to
Ancestors of all of today’s date fossil rock using a geologic time
26 orders of mammals scale. Layers of rock contained specific
spread over every continent, fossil animal species called indicators.
and many were huge in size Using the indicator fossils, prehistoric
compared with their modern time was divided into three great eras.
relatives. PLATYBELODON EQUUS Eras were subdivided into periods, and
Late Miocene epoch; Late Pleistocene epoch; periods into epochs.
How did they evolve? 10 feet tall 5 feet long The earliest known mammals appeared
Four main groups evolved ‘An elephant called a The modern horse in rocks of the Mesozoic, during the
from a common ancestor shovel-tusker. evolved from descendants Jurassic Period, which started about
called a therapsid about Scientists think of this animal. 206 million years ago. The Mesozoic Era
190 million years ago. it used its wide, is called the Age of Dinosaurs because
The Therapsids were flat teeth to they were the most dominant life form of
more advanced reptiles root in lakes that time. The Age of Mammals began at
who had special jaw and for plants the KT boundary, about 65 million years
skull development and to eat. ago. KT rocks contain a rare mineral
unique teeth. These features substance called iridium. Most scientists
allowed them a greater diet believe the iridium came from a giant
range, leading to their meteorite that crashed into the Earth,
evolutionary success. causing environmental havoc and the
Two of the main mammal Rapid evolution: after the KT event a burst ofadaptive radiation mass extinction of the dinosaurs.
groups died out: eotheria Mammals then rose to become the
(dawn mammals) were tiny, The land was nearly empty of life after the extinctions following the KT event. Large reptilian dominant life form on Earth.
shrew-like animals that lived animals were wiped out, along with most of the earliest marsupials. All of the early placental
with the dinosaurs, and mammal groups survived the KT extinctions and continued on with rapid bursts of adaptation. The geologic time scale
allotheria were primitive
rodents who had special HYRACOTHERIUM The earliest forms of life were plants that
cheek teeth for chewing Early Eocene epoch; 8 inches to 2 feet long evolved about a billion years ago.
plants. They became extinct Animals evolved after plants, and the
This tiny animal is the earliest known oldest fossil vertebrates (animals with
50 million years ago.
ancestor of the modern horse. Sometimes backbones) are about 500 million years
The two remaining mammal called “The Dawn Horse,” this animal is old. Here we show the uppermost
groups are the prototheria known from fossils found in Asia, Europe portion of the geologic time scale of
(egg-laying, or monotreme, _and North America. mammals and their ancestors:
mammals) and theria, which
includes marsupials
(pouched mammals) and = & : _ HOLOCENE _
placentals (babies develop = oc EPOCH |
in the mothe? and are mi 10,000 years ago to today
nourished by a special 3 ~
organ called a placenta.) Ss oe EES Aue
All modern mammals are ~ = PLEISTOCENE
descendants of these sg in ~ EPOCH
OURS. y & 2 million to
Key mammal features ‘O fe OC 10,000 years ago
Specific physical features Espo MLAN LS a ea e
distinguished mammals from Early Oligocene epoch; 8 feet tall PUG ENe een
the reptiles they evolved This giant animal is known from fossils found in North < 5 million to 2 million
from. Most modern America. It is a relative of the modern rhinoceros. The heavy oc yEsTe cue
Lu
mammals share these traits: nose horns are thought to be ornaments or weapons. ) MIOCENE EROCH
® Hinged jaw with one large © fo) 23 million to 5 million
EUSMILUS N
bone on each side of the fe)
lower jaw Oligocene epoch; 8 feet long Zz 8 Bee ege
Li
® Teeth on the rim of the One of many examples of predatory saber-toothed ) cr SINE OE Ne eran
jaw; teeth in the cheek cats. They had stabbing teeth and a lower jaw that a 36 million to 23 million
more complex and with opened almost 90 degrees. = years ago
more than one root =
® Three bones in the ear Pioneers: Mammals and iP EOCENE EPOCH
@ One bony nasal opening mammal-like reptiles ofthe Mesozoic 53 million to 36 million
By waigedibrain case The earliest mammals had to compete with dinosaurs, so they were generally YEAIS.E0
@ Warm-blooded small and secretive. Discoveries of these animals are rare, so the fossil record PALEOCENE EPOCH
© Adiaphragm muscle to from this period of mammal evolution is poor. 65 million to 53 million

E ee” THRINAXODON CRUSAFONTIA 5 abo

ee bored heart Early Triassic Period; 20 inches long Early Cretaceous Period; 4 to 8 inches long 2 eeaeeaiiece on
cele This Therapsid was the first to show a distinct This tiny animal is known from a nearly a
& Give birth to undeveloped | givision between the chest and lower back. complete skeleton that was found in G 144 million to 65 million
young (monotremes lay Scientists believe it was one of the first animals Portugal. Scientists believe it was a years ago
eggs) to develop a diaphragm muscle. marsupial and ate insects and fruit.
JURASSIC PERIOD
® Mothers produce milk to
feed young. Marsupials 208 million to 144 million
from a vent or in a pouch. years ago
Placentals from special-
TRIASSIC PERIOD
MESOZOIC
ERA
ized mammary glands.
248 million to 208 million
years ago
54

During the Mesozoic, EES ——

Water world several groups of reptiles returned Aa

All life on Earth came from the to aquatic life. Marine turtles like
sea. Scientists believe life was Placochelys had knobby armor
present in oceans more than and a horned beak to capture fish.
3.5 billion years ago — shortly
after the oceans formed. F Placochelys
Spathobathis Mid to late
At the time, the Earth was water,
Late Jurassic; Europe Triassic; Europe 142 to 65 million years ago
bare volcanic islands and an
atmosphere thick with carbon Ebon eO ted 3 feetlong During the late Cretaceous period,
dioxide. Marine fossils of bacteria sea levels were higher than they
filaments date to the early seas The ancient relatives of the dogfish, chimaeras, are today, and most of North
of 3.2 billion years ago. sharks, skates, sawfish and rays first evolved about America was under water.
400 million years ago. Spathobathis is the earliest Ammonites, relatives of squid,
One-celled organisms appeared known ray and is similar to modern guitar or banjo became extinct at the end of the
in the oceans first. Scientists fish of the North Atlantic ocean. Cretaceous period, 65 million
continue to debate how life
years ago, around the same time
began and how it evolved.
as the dinosaurs. They had large
Stromatolites are structures shells and were capable of
formed from communities swimming, often hovering just
of micro-organisms (mostly those above the sea floor.
capable of photosynthesis).
A look at About 70 million years ago, the
These odd sedimentary structures
are one of the earliest signs of life of the Earth’s continents and oceans
Mesozoic began to resemble the shapes we
life. Scientists believe they are
responsible for large amounts of gai are familiar with today. The Atlantic
oxygen being released into the
Ocean separated the Americas
from Europe, Asia and Africa.
atmosphere, paving the way for
modern life.
Ammonite species
Late Silurian to Cretaceous; worldwide
9 inches average; some species to more than 6 feet.
Triassic world
Ammonites are index fossils — different species
link rock layers to specific geological time periods.
Their closest living relatives are octopus, squid
and cuttlefish. Their spiral shells resemble rams’
horns, and Plinius the Elder named them ammonis
cornua (horns of Ammon) after the Egyptian god
Ammon, who was depicted wearing horns. :
Permian
248 to 212 million years ago
to late
During the Triassic, the super- Cretaceous;
continent Pangea expanded to worldwide
reach its maximum size. A small Average 6 feet
tongue of ocean reached into
Pangea, forming the Tethys
seaway. Increased distance One of the most
from the ocean dried the interior common fossil sharks,
continent, and it became very Hybodus, had two
arid. Merging world land masses types of teeth. Like
and evaporation of the inland modern sharks, males
seas allowed animals to colonize had “claspers” on the
the entire supercontinent. pelvic fin to assist
Mass extinctions, called the with mating.
end-Permian event, opened
evolutionary niches for creatures
to evolve into. Because of this, an
evolutionary race led to the rise of How fossils form
dinosaurs and many animal
groups, including crocodilians, Opthalmosaurus 1. An animal dies. Fossils form best
pterosaurs, turtles and mammals. Late Jurassic; Europe if the carcass is covered with water
In the sea, relatives of nearly 11 feet long and mud.
every group of modern fish 2. The flesh rots away, and the bones are
thrived, along with invertebrates, The Opthalmosaurs evolved covered slowly with layered sediment.
the great marine reptiles and from a land-dwelling reptile
some amphibians. 3. Permineralization occurs if the bones
that returned to the sea. They
decay and are replaced by minerals
were streamlined, fast-swim-
dissolved in the water.
ming and abundant. A strong
tail and flexible spine allowed 4. Petrification occurs if the bony structures
Jurassic world : are replaced entirely by minerals.
them to flourish into the Macropoma is closely P a!
Cretaceous. related to the “living 5. Earth movements cause the fossil to
fossil” fish named become exposed.
coelacanth. Like the
modern fish, it had a
3-lobed tail.

211 to 143 million years ago

In the Jurassic, dinosaurs

dominated the land and birds
had evolved. Ichthyosaurs and Macropoma
plesiosaurs shared the seas with Late Cretaceous;
giant crocodiles, sharks and rays. Europe
Cephalopods — early relatives of 22 inches long
squids, nautilus and octopi of
today — filled the shallow seas. Pycnodus
They included ammonites, with Pycnodus was Middle Cretaceous
coiled, external shells, and a deep-bodied to Middle Eocene; Asia
belemnites, which had heavy, fish with blunt, 5 inches long
bullet-shaped, partially internal grinding teeth.
shells. Plankton diversified and This fish
were numerous. Pangea began to probably
break up during Jurassic times, preyed on
and the North American and mollusks and
Eurasian landmasses formed. hard-shelled
The North Atlantic ocean began reef dwellers.
to open due to rifting.
 55

PRIMATES
Location, location, location Ring-tailed lemurs are
With a few exceptions, such as - unusual prosimians
humans, mountain gorillas and because they are active
Japanese macaques, most primates during the day and they
live in the tropical or subtropical forests spend much of their
of Africa, Asia and South America. Of all mammals, primates are the ones that most time on the ground.
Due to habitat loss and hunting,
almost one-third of all primates are at
resemble humans in both appearance and genetic The blackhanded
spider monkey
risk of extinction. makeup. There are more than 350 species of primates has a long tail that
Big and small (some have only recently been discovered). acts like a fifth limb
when swinging

The family tree

The smallest among trees.
primate is the
pygmy mouse
lemur. This tiny Fossil evidence suggests that the earliest primates appeared about 65 million
mammal can fit in years ago. The first known primate-like creature was Purgatorius. It lived in what
the palm of your hand is now North America at the end of the Cretaceous Period and the start of the
at 4 inches long (10 cm) Paleocene Period. During the middle to late Paleocene Period, Plesiadapiforms
and weighs about 1 ounce : evolved. These mammals lived in North America and Europe. Modern primates
(28 grams). The largest primate first arose during the Eocene period.
is the gorilla, which can ¥
stand more than 5 feet
(1.5 m) tall and weigh ai Y Millions of years ago Pliocene
more than 400 pounds Pygmy Pleistocene
(181 kg). In between is a mouse Paleocene Eocene Oligocene Miocene
great variety of primate ‘lemur Recent
shapes and sizes. ‘ times called a
60 50 40 30 20 10 snow monkey,
The same ... mainly lives in a
cold climate.
Primates share many characteristics. SEITE :
The early primates were arboreal (tree Modern
dwellers). Life in the trees resulted in
the development of forward-facing eyes
that resulted in excellent vision and a coo ese
greater ability to judge distances. Most : EE
primates have better vision than a New
sense of smell or hearing. Long limbs =
and grasping hands, feet (and some = World
tails) enable them to move through the monkeys
forest canopy with great agility.
Generally, primates have five fingers
and nails instead paaneenil
oe 0,
of claws. SEE Ye
& i
1) Y

Relative to : aig va a
body weight, (3 Bi SET ae

the brains of The baboon is

| Early 8 fp | , Old World the largest monkey.

St ea monkeys
_ prosimians —
ee
Primates are ; : Gibbons
among the most Gorilla brain 2 use their
intelligent and social of all : arms to
animals. Smaller species are generally Scientists who study Gibbon swing from
solitary foragers, but larger primates non-human primates are branch to
often live in large groups and exhibit called primatologists. branch.
complex social behavior. Orangutan
Goer edliolother mammals, primates Taxonomy is the scientific method of
: : classifying and grouping animals.
have long pregnancies. Infants are Z
usually born in a more mature state It is estimated that 10 percent of all primate Gorilla ;
than other animals and they rely on species are acutely endangered and will likely ae Chimpanzee
their mothers for longer periods. become extinct during the next 20 years.

Many primates look cute and it can be tempting Orangutan

to want one as a pet. But primates are difficult to
care for, are extremely active, messy and they
can be very aggressive

... but different

Despite their similarities,
primates are a diverse group
of mammals. The most
primitive of primates are called
prosimians or lower primates.
The word prosimian means
“before monkey” because
these animals more closely
resemble their early
primate ancestors. Most
prosimians have wet Orangutans
(dog-like) snouts and a long Ne in he
claw on the second toe for rain forests o
grooming. Lemurs, lorises, The arms of the Borneo and
galagos (bushbabies), Humans chimpanzee are peeks
pottos and tarsiers belong are the longer than its legs. ae ogging is
to this group. most highly quickly destroying
; : developed these long haired
One of the biggest differences aid Cast The gorilla apes’ habitats and
between monkeys and widespread is the largest 4 if the situation
apes is that most apes of ail primate. It does not improve,
are larger and don’t primates. spends most they will face
have tails. Apes have of its time on extinction.
broader snouts and_are the ground.
capable of making tools. —
56

Prosimians
Life in the trees PRIMATES
Almost all prosimians are arboreal and i. \...-” are
live in the trees. They represent the Prosimians Anthropoids
most primitive or earliest primates on (monkeys and apes)

The lower primates

the evolutionary family tree. This
group includes the tree shrew, lemur,
loris or bush baby, the potto, the rare
aye-aye and the tarsier. (Some There are six families of prosimians Indri and
scientists question whether the tree Tree Sifakas 4

shrew and the tarsier are true and about 50 species. One of the shrews
_ Tarsiers
prosimians, but they are included in
this article.) most interesting things about these
mammals is their highly specialized
Where in the world? hands and feet. Lorises and
Most prosimians are native to Bush babies
Madagascar, an island off the south- The indri is the largest of 77 Today, the
east coast of Africa. Some species can
ne Se % The slender loris
be found in Asia and on the continent Snare
weighs about
of Africa. Prosimians are not native to more often
2 ounces.
the Americas. seen in zoos.
It creeps
a
slowly
2
through
_¥
the trees,
eating a
% variety of
Lorises, insects.
tree
shrews,
Tarsiers
Lorises g
(pottos, Lemurs, AUSTEN eS
angwantibos, indris, sifakas,
galagos) aye-ayes

Tree shrews
Tree shrews have been around for
about 70 million years, and they *
have not changed very much in all “==
that time. Most are 6 to 10 inches
long, with a tail that is just as long.
They resemble rodents and have Bush babies are also
long snouts and small ears. known as galagos.
Although the tree shrew shares many There are several
characteristics of a squirrel, its large species, each with
brain suggests it may belong to the
its unique food
primate order. preferences. Generally
SN they feed on insects,
Lemurs pws fruit and tree gum.
)\ Some can leap up to
There are 22 species of lemurs, (\) 15 feet; others prefer
divided into three families: Lemuridae to scramble along the
(true lemurs and dwarf lemur, tops of branches.
Indriidae (indris, avahis and sifakas),
and Daubentoniidea (aye-ayes).
Lemurs vary in size, from as small as
a mouse to as large as a cat. They live The aye-aye is an
in the trees and are graceful when extremely rare and
jumping from tree to tree. They use solitary creature. It lacks
their long, bushy tails for balance as the dental comb and
The potto
they navigate the forest canopy. grooming claw of other
moves very
Lemurs have projecting front teeth that prosimians. This
slowly to avoid
serve as a “tooth comb” for grooming nocturnal omnivore
predators. It can
and a special grooming claw on the feeds mostly on insects
stay still for hours
second toe of each foot. Some lemurs - and eggs.
if it has to. This
are diurnal (active during the day);
endangered primate
others are nocturnal (active at night).
lives in Western and
Central Africa.

Lorises and galagos Aye-Aye

There are about 11 species in the loris Getting a grip on things Western
family. They are arboreal, nocturnal . C_
The shape of a primate’s hand can reveal how it lives. tarsier a
and omnivorous. (They eat plants and
Indris and tarsiers cling and leap through trees,
meat.) One way to distinguish between
while tree shrews and aye-ayes climb.
species is to observe how they move.
Lorises and their close relatives, the
pottos and angwantibos, move slowly,
creeping through the treetops, while No bigger
their close cousins, the African galagos than your hand,
(bush babies) are known for their the tarsier sleeps
speed and long jumps. in the trees in an
upright position. But
don’t let that cute face
fool you. The tarsier is
Tarsiers a skilled killer. It is
Tarsiers are found in Southeast Asia. carnivorous and feeds
These small (rat-sized), nocturnal on insects, lizards,
The tree The loris has a The Indri’s The aye-aye The tarsier’s enaiae tidstene
animals have huge eyes (bigger than shrew has short index large thumb digs into a large pads hak Th tarsi
their brain). They have large hands to long, clawed finger anda helps it cling tree limb give ita als. . me Sigel
aid in hunting and large feet to assist fingers. wide hand span. to branches. with its stronger grip. ee ee
with aerial leaps. claws. 360 degrees.
 57

Anthropoids
Monkey business
More than 90 percent of anthropoids
are monkeys. (The rest are apes and
humans.) Most anthropoids are larger

Old World New World

and smarter than prosimians. There
are two main groups or orders of
anthropoids: New World monkeys
(platyrrhini) and Old World monkeys
(catarrhini).

Two worlds
New World monkeys evolved
separately from Old World monkeys
20 million to 30 million years ago.
They are found only in the tropical
forests of Southern Mexico, Central Brown capuchins live
and South America. in groups of about 12.
The proboscis monkey is named These monkeys have been
Old World monkeys inhabit a more for the large, hanging nose of the observed using a stone as
diverse range and can be found in male. They are found only on the a tool to open nuts.
Africa, South and East Asia and even island of Borneo, with a population (They were the classic
the southern tip of Spain. They can be of only 3,000. organ-grinder’s monkey.)
found in tropical forests, dry deserts, The red
arid grasslands and in mountains. colobus will The black-handed
sometimes join spider monkey is
What’s the difference? in cooperative very agile in the trees.
activities with It has long limbs and a
Apart from where they live, many other monkey prehensile tail. A group on
things distinguish a New World species. the move tends to travel
monkey from an Old World monkey. in single file.
New World monkeys tend to be \ Entellus
smaller and almost all are arboreal. \ langur The red howler is known
Some New World species have for its distinctive and loud
prehensile tails that can grasp call. They are the largest
branches like a third hand. No Old of 12 species of howler
World monkey has this kind of tail. monkeys.
New World monkeys have flattened
noses with nostrils farther apart and The Diana f The pygmy marmoset
facing sideways. Old World monkeys monkey has / is the smallest of
have larger noses with narrow, a pouchin its monkeys. It is about 15
forward-facing nostrils. In general, cheek (like Ly inches (38.1 cm) long,
New World monkeys have smaller en \ including its 7-inch
a
thumbs than their Old World cousins, uses to 5 (17.78 cm) tail.
and some species have no thumbs store ion
VvWaa
at all. food). y

Most Old World monkeys have a

hairless, callous pad of skin on their
rumps. Itis not unusual for Old World
monkeys to be semi-terrestrial
(living in the trees and on the ground).
When you see a monkey traveling on
the ground, you can be sure that it is
an Old World monkey.

Squirrel monkeys live in

The hanuman troops of 50 or more.
langur lives in They are quite small,
the forests weighing up to
and mangrove 3 Ibs. (1.4 kg).
swamps of fa They eat
Tibet, Nepal, insects.
Old World New World India and
monkey with monkey with Sri Lanka.
narrow face and wide face and
prominent nose flattened nose There are
about 1,200
Old World monkeys golden lion
tamarins left
There are about 78 species of in the wild.
Japanese
Old World monkeys. They are macaque
divided into two families or groups:
cercopithecinae and colobinae. Sometimes called
Cercopithecines are the larger group snow monkeys, the
and include baboons, mangabeys, Japanese macaque
mandrills, guenons, patas monkeys lives farther north
and macaques. The colobinae family than any other
are herbivores (plant eaters) and nonhuman primate.
The night monkey is
include the colobus, langurs and They are famous for
also known as the owl
proboscis monkeys. making snowballs
monkey. This species
and for washing
is the only nocturnal
their food.
New World monkeys monkey. They bond in
monogamous pairs, and
There are at least 53 species of Manarill the male is the primary
New World monkeys. They are caregiver for infants.
divided into three families: The mandrill is the
callithricidae, cebidae and atelidae. largest of all monkeys.
The callithricidae family consists They are very vocal and
mostly of smaller monkeys and live in noisy groups of
includes marmosets and tamarins. 15 to 50. The troop
The cebidae group includes the often sleeps in the
squirrel, capuchin and owl monkeys. trees. This species is
Atelidae are generally larger and threatened, due
include the spider and howler to hunting.
monkeys
58

Hominoids
Where in the world?
Chimps

Lesser apes
The hylobatidae, or lesser apes, include gibbons and
Ts A siamangs of Southeast Asia. They are called lesser apes
X because they are smaller than other apes. Gibbons and
Gibbons WEE siamangs have extremely long arms that allow them to
and move through the trees in a special hand-over-hand motion
siamangs called brachiation. Lesser apes are monogamous, which
means they choose one mate for life.

Gibbons, White-handed
Chimps
and gorillas
siamangs and
orangutans Great apes gibbons live almost
entirely in the trees,
but they walk erect
The pongidae, or great apes, include
All in the family orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees and
when on the ground.
Gibbons are the
Apes and humans belong to the bonobos. Great apes are more like smallest of apes and
Hominoid family of primates. humans than lesser apes. They do not range in height from
Hominoids do not have tails and have sitting pads on their rumps like 15 to 36 inches
lesser apes and some monkeys. The °
their skeleton has evolved to allow (38 cm to 91 cm). siamang
for standing upright. They have inflates a
barrel-shaped chests and flexible large sac
shoulders and wrists. Scientists have under its
divided hominoids into three groups: chin to make
hylobatidae (lesser apes), pongidae loud calls.
(greater apes) and hominidae
(humans).
The skeletons below show how
different the bodies of apes are
when compared to humans.
Humans have a curve in their
backs, which makes walking
on two legs possible and
allows for an upright __..(ye%
posture. sms, ? Gibbons, siamangs and some infant apes
use brachiation (hand-over-hand motion) to
swing through the trees. A gibbon can leap
20 feet (6 m) with one swing and travel at
speeds of almost 35 miles (56 km) per hour.

Despite their differences, humans

and apes share many characteristics: The orangutan is the only great ape that lives in Asia. It has
good grasping ability; excellent vision, strong hands and feet with long digits, but a short thumb and big
but a poorer sense of smell; a large toe. Orangutans are the largest of all arboreal mammals and are
brain and increased intelligence; a rarely seen on the ground. An adult male can weigh more than
prolonged period of dependence for 150 lbs (69 kg) and be 4.5 feet (1.4 m) tall. Orangutans are in
young; and complex social behavior. serious danger of extinction due to hunting and habitat loss.
DNA studies have confirmed our place
in the order primates. Gorillas can be found in East-Central and West Africa. Bonobos and chimpanzees are closely related and they
There are three kinds of gorillas: the Western-lowland can be confused with each other. One way to tell the
The largest of the gorilla, the Eastern-lowland gorilla and the mountain gorilla. difference between a bonobo and a chimpanzee is to
apes, gorillas are look for the pink lips and the large hair part on the
shy vegetarians that forehead of the bonobo. Bonobos are less aggressive
2004 gorilla population estimates:
spend 90 percent of and spend more time in trees than their close relative
700 mountain gorillas,
their time on the the chimp.
5,000 Eastern-lowland gorillas
ground. A male can
94,000 Western-lowland gorillas.
grow to 6 feet
(1.8 m) tall. Bonobo
Chimpanzees
They can and bonobos
weigh share more
characteristics
with humans
than any
other
animal.

Did you know?

@ Humans and chimpanzees are 98.5 percent identical when it comes to
DNA.
@ Gorillas and chimpanzees are so similar to humans that it is possible
for them to catch diseases from us (and vice versa).
H Chimpanzees and bonobos have similar blood types to humans.
 59

Rabbits and hares

What’s the difference? The March Hare from Alice in Wonderland, the Easter bunny, Bugs Bunny
Antelope
jackrabbits have
long ears that act
like a kind of air
conditioning for
their blood in the
and Peter Rabbit are just a few of the famous long-eared, fuzzy characters so hot desert climate.
Hares and rabbits look a lot alike, but popular in children’s stories. Rabbits are cute and can make great pets, but
there are differences. Rabbits usually
have smaller bodies, legs and ears than they can also spell trouble for farmers. Rabbits and hares are not rodents.
hares. Many rabbits dig burrows; hares They belong to the order of lagomorphs, in the leporidae family. There are
do not. Most rabbits prefer to hide when about 50 species of leporids, and half of these live in North America.
threatened, while hares are built for Where they were not found naturally, rabbits and hares were introduced by
running. The surest way to tell a rabbit humans — today leporids can be found on every continent except Antarctica.
from a hare is to look at their newborns.
Baby rabbits are born furless and
blind. Hares are born with fur and Anatomy 101
their eyes are open. Rabbits and hares have excellent hearing and a keen sense of smell. Their strong
Female hares are called jills and back legs allow them to move by hopping. The eyes are located on the side of the
head, which allows them a wider view of the world.
males are called jacks. Baby hares
are called leverets. Rabbits and hares need to chew There is a deep slit on the upper lip. This
constantly to wear down their incisors, harelip allows the upper front teeth to
which never stop growing. — show, even when the mouth is closed.
The term “mad
as a march
. Rabbits Incisors hare” originated
's@» \ andhares, with the spring
K | chewwith (~~ mating rituals of
COTTONTAIL / asideways d jacks fighting.
RABBITS motion,
a4 not up
and down.
Home sweet home
Smaller Cottontails Snowshoes
RABBITS incisors
Rabbits develop quickly and are a
A female rabbit is grown at 2 months of age.
doe, the male is ab
Baby rabbits are cal
kits, kittens or
One day 1idays 20days 28 days old 7 weeks old
LAGOMORPHS
old old old
What’s for dinner? Wild species The pika
Rabbits and hares are herbivores Rabbits and hares seem to live just Pikas don’t look much like rabbits or
(plant eaters).* In the spring and about everywhere. They can be found hares — they look more like hamsters.
summer they like to graze on grasses, high in the mountains, on arctic plains, But they share many of their cousins’ Most hares and cottontail rabbits sleep
clover, sometimes garden flowers and in deserts, meadows, swamps, forests habits. Pikas can be found in the moun- in shallow depressions called forms.
and even some city parks. In North tains of the northwest United States and The European rabbit often
farmers’ crops. Rabbits and hares do
not hibernate or store food in the winter. America all truly wild rabbits are cotton- Canada, also in the northern lives in large groups,
During the coldest months they survive tails, but there are many kinds of hares. | regions of Russia, Asia and sharing an under-
on buds, twigs and bark. Leporids eat y Europe. Pikas are vegetarians ground burrow
There are several
their meals twice. They have two kinds and spend the sum- called a warren.
species of cottontails
of waste pellets (droppings). Moist found in North and >, mer collecting and
pellets are soft and eaten and digested Cottontail storing food for the
South America.
a second time. (This helps the animal rabbit winter. They are
Named for their
get all the nutrients it needs.) Hard fluffy white tail, 4 shy, vocal animals
pellets are true waste and not re-eaten. they make } with a high-pitched
grassy nests squeak.
* Arctic hares reportedly will eat meat. above ground.
European hare
Jackrabbits are common in the Baby
western United States. They have
Arctic hares Rabbits and people rabbits
change color
very long ears and legs and can depending on Since ancient times, people all over the are born Se
Ss move at speeds up to 45 mph. the season, world have raised domestic rabbits for without fur
brown in meat and fur. They are also bred for
summer, white scientific research. Many breeds of Baby cottontail
in winter. domestic rabbit have been bred for rabbits in nest
show and for pets. The lop-eared rabbit
is a popular pet breed. Rabbits make
great pets. They are quiet and friendly.
Wild rabbits rarely live long in captivity
and it is best to leave
seemingly orphaned
Enemies everywhere wild bunnies alone.
More than likely,
Rabbits and hares play a vital role in Black- WA
their mother is
natural ecosystems. Because they tailed 7 a hiding nearby.
breed so profusely and have few jackrabbit
Mg
defenses, they are a plentiful food
source for many animals. Coyotes,
foxes, bobcats, minks, weasels,
snakes, hawks and owls all depend
on rabbits and hares as food for
survival. The average life span of a wild The arctic hare is found in the far north.
rabbit is less than a year. Humans are They often live in herds or colonies of French
probably the leporids’ greatest enemy 100 or more. lop-eared rabbit
— rabbits and hares are often hunted
as agricultural pests, for sport, food or The snowshoe or varying hare is found in
for their soft fur. Domestic cats and the forests of central and southern Canada
dogs are also a danger. Rabbits are and the northern United States. Like the arctic
usually very quiet animals, but they do hare, they change color-from brown to white. Snowshoe hare tracks.
scream when in danger or pain. Some Unlike the arctic hare, they prefer to live An unusual feature of rabbit
rabbits warn of danger by thumping alone, not in groups. They run fast and hare footprints is that the
their back legs on the ground. (up to 30 mph) but not far. ; hind leg precedes the front.
 60

Tropical rainforests
What and where
Equatorial evergreen forests
are located near the equator,
where temperatures rarely fall
below 80° F and the annual
rainfall is over 160 inches.
Because of this hot, wet
Tropical rainforests are one of the oldest and most valuable ecosystems in the world. weather, these forests stay
green and lush. Tropical moist
Nearly half of the world’s plants and animals live there. These forests are being forests differ in that they have
wet and dry seasons. Cloud
destroyed at a staggering rate, and in 50 years there may be nothing left. forests grow in the mountains
of the tropics where it is cooler.
The emergent layer Because their moisture comes
from clouds, they are not
dependent on rain.

S602
The emergent layer consists Tropical rainforest area
Layers of a rainforest Other forests
of the tallest trees in the R
Emergents 250 ft. Mangrove forests grow along
rainforest. Because of the sun
the sea and are sometimes A 4s
and strong winds, this is where called flooded forests. The
the rainforest is hottest and long roots of mango trees help
driest. Among the animals that to anchor them so they don’t fall
(Bs Equator
live here are eagles, monkeys,
butterflies and bats. Many of
over. In cooler areas of the
world where the seasons are mk
more pronounced, the forests : or of Capricorn
them never leave this layer.
are called temperate forests. go
Life at the top
Because of the abundance Diversity
of sunlight and moisture, Scarlet macaw
rainforest trees grow quickly Ornithoptera alexandrae A four-square-mile area of
Ara macao rainforest may be home to
and to great heights. Some (Papua, New Guinea)
(South America) The world’s largest 1,500 species of flowering
reach 250 feet and have Macaws are the
trunks measuring up to 16 feet butterfly with a wingspan plants, 750 species of trees,
largest bird up to 10 inches. It is 125 mammal species,
around. Most are broad-leaved mire Slow loris
parrot family. endangered due to over- 400 species of birds,
hardwood evergreens. A single Nycticebus coucang
region in a rainforest may (Asia) collecting and habitat 100 species of reptiles,
contain as many as 2,500 destruction. 60 species of amphibians
species. and 150 species of butterflies.
One study found that a square
Sun conure meter of leaf litter contained
Aratinga solstitialis 50 kinds of ants.
(South America)
Conures are a type of parrot Toco toucan
originally from Brazil and the Rhamphastos toco
northern Amazon. They travel (Brazil)
in playful, noisy flocks, feeding The toco is the largest of the
on buds, fruits, seeds and toucans. Its bill can be up to
insects. 7.5 inches long. Tocos are
plentiful in the Amazon forests,
living in noisy flocks and eating
fruit and sometimes insects
and reptiles.

ampire bat
Desmodus rotundus
(Central and South
America)
More myth than fact,
vampire bats do feed on
Tawny rajah blood, but they won't attack
Charaxes a human and suck blood.
bernardus
(India, China, Transpiration
Malaysia)
The tawny Rainforests create their own
rajah spends rain, using transpiration. In
its entire life high this process, plants and trees
in the treetops of _ Guereza absorb rainwater
the emergent layer. monkey into their
Colobus leaves. The
abyssinicus sun heats
Two-toed sloth (Africa) this water
Choloepus didactylus
and turns
(South America)
it into
Two-toed sloths are
vapor,
slow-moving, nocturnal plant
which
eaters that sleep up to
then
15 hours a day. Their
evaporates
algae-covered fur is
into the air.
green-tinged and
Rainforest
excellent camouflage.
transpiration
Often they are infested with
has a major effect
moths found only on sloths.
on the world’s climate. While
about half of the water vapor
falls in the rainforest, the rest is
Aye-aye carried by warm air currents to
Daubentonia Humming- provide rain in cooler, drier
madagacarien birds parts of the Earth. Rainforests
(Madagascar) Potto usually return large amounts of oxygen
This rare, nocturnal, cat- Perodicticus | prefer red and carbon dioxide to the air —
sized lemur has sensitive ears potto flowers. elements that are essential for
that help it locate grubs. (Africa) a healthy atmosphere.
 61

The canopy Primates

There are two kinds of
Starting at about eight feet
primates: anthropoids
from the ground and rising to (humans, apes and monkeys),
over 150 feet is the canopy, a and prosimians, such as
permanently green umbrella lemurs and tarsiers. Most have
that protects the ground and excellent eyesight and
absorbs both rain and sun- climbing skills.
light. Thousands of animals
live in the canopy, including Gibbon
Hylobates
monkeys, bats, sloths, tree
(Southeast Asia)
frogs, ants, beetles, parrots, __ Smallest of the apes,
hummingbirds and snakes. = apes build nests for gibbons have no tails
Many spend their lives here | Li sleeping high in the and use their arms to
and never leave the canopy. | ‘ treetops and rare swing through the
come to the ground.\_ branches. They live in
Movers and shakers families, and hoot and
call to warn others away.
Fruit and flowers grow in
abundance in the canopy, Seeeynthesis Golden lion tamarin
even on tree trunks, and Energy from Carbon Leontopithecus rosalia
photosynthesis is a the sun dioxide (Southeastern Brazil)
continuous process. The Glucose oy 4 Endangered because
colors and smells attract (sugar) is urban growth has
birds and insects. destroyed their habitat,
these beautiful
little monkeys are
Air plants being reintroduced
Plants that grow on other through captive ~
plants are called epiphytes, breeding. Today, |
or air plants. They cling to there are about
stems, trunks, leaves. 400 in the wild, #7
Orchids are epiphytes and 500 in zoos. //
there are over 30,000
different kinds in the world.
Asingle tree may be
home to 300 orchids.

Lizards and snakes

Staghorn fern Green iguana
Platycerium Iguana iguana
bifurcatum (Central and South
(Australia) America)
This large Active during the day,
epiphytic fern these large (4 to 6 ft.)
uses its fronds lizards eat mostly plants.
to make a hollow: They live in trees and like
to collect debris to bask in the sun. Wild
and water. iguanas are endangered
by habitat destruction, the
Insects lured by the pitcher
plant’s color and scent
become trapped in the plant’s
tube-shaped leaves and are
eaten for dinner.

Climbing plants
Lianas or bush ropes
climb up branches and
trunks to the top of the
canopy, seeking sun-
Argema
light. Their thick cable-like
Taalianressteoy
vines dangle down in the Chameleon
CANatere))
understory, sending out Chameaileonidae
shoots that root in the forest (Africa and Madagascar)
floor and branch out to support These slow moving,
other lianas. color-changing lizards live
mostly in trees and catch
Strangler fig insects with long, sticky
Ficus walkinsiana tongues. They have
(Most rainforests) grasping feet instead
These plants grow thick and of claws.
twisted, forming a woody
trunk around a host
tree and cutting Clouded leopard
off nutrients Panthera nebulosa
until it dies (Asia)
and Called mint leopards in
decays, China, these cats hunt day
leaving a or night. Good climbers,
hollow they drop from trees onto
place small mammals and birds,
inside the but often hunt larger prey
strangler on the ground.
fig.
White-lipped tree frog
ladder vine Litoria infrafrenata
(Costa Rica) (Australasia)
y . Lianas that look The largest frog in the
like steps are world, these sticky-toed
sometimes called hoppers can reach up to
monkey ladders. 14 centimeters.
62

Small primates
The understory Monkeys belong to the same
order of mammals as humans
The lower canopy gets less and apes. Most have tails to
than 5 percent of the sunlight help them balance themselves.
received by the upper canopy. New World monkeys are
The plants here have Tarsier Tarsius tarsius always arboreal (tree-dwelling)
developed unique ways to
(Southeast Asia) and some have prehensile
Tarsiers have huge eyes tails with bare skin at the end
survive. Often they have that help them see in the
that allow them to grip objects.
dark. They can eat up to
large, dark green leaves that 40 grasshoppers Lemurs usually live in trees
function as solar collectors. in one meal. and travel in family groups or
Many insects, snakes and troops. They eat fruit, leaves,
frogs make their home in this birds, eggs, insects and
small animals.
middle layer, as do parakeets,
leopards and jaguars.
Bush babies
Franquet’s
Galagonidae
epauleted bat
(Africa)
Epomops franqueti
Galagos or bush babies
(Ghana, Africa)
sound like crying human
These bats have big
babies and use their hind
heads and roost in
legs like frogs to jump
small groups. At night,
distances up to 12 feet.
they gather in large
numbers to feed on Marmosets
fruit trees. Callithrix jacchus
(Central and South America)
The common marmoset is a
The people
small squirrel-like monkey that
For thousands of years, feeds mainly on insects, fruit
tribes of indigenous or and tree sap. Used for pets
native people have made and medical research, they
their homes in rainforests are endangered.
around the world. Some
still live in traditional ways,
finding all they need for Food and furniture
survival within the forest.
Many products that we use
Sadly, since colonists began
every day come from tropical
arriving more than 500 years
rainforests. Some are grown on
ago, their numbers have
plantations, while others are
steadily declined.
found in the wild. They include
avocados, sugar cane,
bananas, coconuts, pineapples,
and citrus fruit, as well as
papaya, coffee and many kinds
of nuts. The chicle in chewing
gum comes from a rainforest
tree, as does the cacao seed
used to produce chocolate.
Wood from rainforest trees
such as teak, mahogany,
Not discovered until the
rosewood and sandalwood is
20th century, the Waorani
used for furniture and
Indians are a fierce nomadic boats, as well as for
tribe in eastern Ecuador who many other types of
can build a shelter in a few construction work.
hours and a house in 3 days.

The Kayapo Indians of

east central Brazil are
hunter/gatherers who
practice the initiation
ritual of lip-stretching.
Some lip plugs measure
4 inches wide. Although 73am Periwinkle
they use modern devices Catharanthus roseus
such as canned foods and (Madagascar)
the radio, the Kayapo adhere
The rosy periwinkle from
closely to a traditional lifestyle Madagascar is one of many
and resent interference from
medicinal herbs that grow in
outsiders. Leaping lizards the rainforest.

Tribal life & tradition

Medicine
Rainforest children do not go to Some creatures
regular schools. Instead, they have adapted to The rainforest is the source of
learn forest survival in a family rainforest life by approximately 25 percent of
setting, mastering skills such developing their today’s medicines. Quinine
as hunting, fishing, and the ability to glide from from the chichona plant is a
Green
: cat-eye snake
2 treatment for malaria and a
selection of plants for food and one branch to
medicine. Often they know another. Lizards Boiga cyanea (Asia) tropical vine (strychnos tox-
more of the rainforests’ and geckos This nocturnal snake is ifera) provides us with curare.
secrets than the botanists and have special poisonous and usually no lity To Ts Once used by natives to tip
biologists who study them. membranes that lives in trees, close SS OF poison arrows, it is now an
Some of these indigenous they can open to water. -_- = Br ; ingredient in anesthetics
people have started making and use like > . and muscle relaxants.
efforts to protect their land and parachutes. The ae The rosy periwinkle
culture. However, although a webbed feet on ~~ Pr “} has been found to be
tribe may have lived in their flying frogs serve Ginger ~ extremely useful in com-
rainforest for hundreds of a similar function. Zingiber officinalis bating leukemia. Today,
years, not all governments (China, India, Malaysia more than 1000 tropical
recognize this as proof of ; plants are being considered
ownership. for potential cancer treatment.
 63

The floor ioe [EE Under threat

: % ; : Over the last 100 years, more
On the floor, except around Jee phate toe : than 50 percent of the world’s
rivers, and in areas where rainforests have been
light breaks through the : destroyed and every minute,
f . lant Malachite butterfly about 100 acres and 2,000
aoe Pes Siproeta stelenes trees disappear forever.
grow. Less than 2 percent of ¥ — biplagiata (Amazon Basin) : d Ihe i P :
the sunlight shining on the One of more than 2,000 / gf’) It is estimated that more than
canopy reaches the ground, LovUnCeraihy, sjelevel(orsyce)P larenlahat Zz: : © 50,000 rainforest plants and
PNgatev4o)aheatalisycelglen ll csssitonniotere| : 4 | gp animals become extinct each
and the humidity reaches (oypire(elgg)
ole)<lalehcoltialehiiaulie S «e A\\ year. Many species will
100 percent. Insects, fungi, ie disappear without ever having
bacteria and worms burrow been recorded or studied.
Red-kneed tarantula
and feast on debris. Ce pet Ss : Brachypelma Salita s Slash and burn is an ancient
Large animals such as «x — ey ((WWLexa Tere) : =| form of agriculture that results
tigers, anteaters and tapirs "5a. Frog Malayan Tapir in vast areas of rainforest
roam in the darkness. x beetle. fone wees being destroyed. A farmer cuts
& : Sagra: outneast Asia down a few acres of forest :
pene ee See These large animals have burns the trees and plants a
Because of the heat and . poor eyesight but are crop. The soil is made fertile by
moisture, leaves disintegrate Za good swimmers. the ash from the fire and
in less than six weeks. It is initially crops grow well. But
the few inches of this rotted within 2 or 3 years, the soil is
vegetation, rather than the soil, worn out and in order to get a
which provides nutrients to better crop the farmer repeats
most of the rainforests’ plants the process, destroying yet
and trees. another area of the rainforest.
In the Amazon basin in particu-
Roots lar, the introduction of cattle
ranching has caused major
Many of the largest
damage. Vast acres are
trees have thick
burned and turned to pasture
above-ground
for grazing beef. Logging and
supports called
mining also soa
peng contribute to the
buttress
roots. These estruction of rainforests.

PMB v So dee e
sey Some rainforest
mushrooms glow .~ afflesia arnoldi
wedges pre-
in the dark. : : : : (Sumatra, Malaysia and
vent erosion by : Borneo)
holding the thin soil This stemless, leafless
around the tree in flower can grow to 3 feet
place. Although shallow, the wide and is the largest in
root systems are wide reach- the world. They feed on the
ing, they absorb rainfall and stems and roots of woody
help replenish ground water vines and are sometimes
supplies. By storing and slowly called carrion flowers or
releasing the water over time, corpse lilies because they
they also assist in regulating smell like rotten meat.
the water levels in the rivers. Their scent attracts flies
and aids in pollination.
In the water ne
Riverbanks get lots of light Making a difference
and are rich with silt nutrients The Amazon water lily Bm, | Many individuals and
left by receding floodwaters. eee organizations are trying to
:
The edges are lush with Can ; grow tO 5 leet
; across j ; ; : p revent further destruction of
and is valued for its seeds. ¢ F ;
foliage. The streams are full ee | Bs < : \ the rainforest. Logging
Be companies and governments
of living creatures and many are setting aside special
animals come out from the reserves where only trees of
forest to feed and drink. a certain type and size can
be cut down, leaving the
The Amazon es \ remainder to replenish the
; (Central and SouthAmerica) forest. Extractive reserves
BO tiles long Jaguars hun lyatnight we allow a percentage of fruits
and in some places 6 miles and plants to be harvested.
wide, the Amazon is South
In addition, many education
America’s chief river. It is the programs are being introduced
second longest river in the around the world to keep
world — only the Nile in Africa people informed of the
is longer. The Amazon carries importance of conservation.
more water than any other river
and holds two-thirds of the
world’s fresh water. Its basin What can you do?
contains the world’s largest
Make rainforest-friendly food
tropical rainforest and spreads
decisions. Drink U.S.-grown
over 2.7 million square miles.
citrus fruit juice. Consider beef
The river itself supports a huge
alternatives. Each fast-food
diversity of life and contains
hamburger using Amazonian
more than 5,000 known
beef equates to destroying a
species of fish.
kitchen-sized patch of rain-
forest. Recycle paper and try
Estate Be to use less. Use less gasoline
nig and plastic. Much of the oil in
(South America)
these products is extracted
Although they
from rainforest resources.
usually feed on
Ride your bike or take the bus
fish, piranhas
instead of the car. Use glass
sometimes attack
bottles and containers instead
in schools and
of plastic and recycle when-
can remove the
ever possible. Contact an
pot from ns me organization involved with
e ee aL rainforest conservation and
in minutes.
find out how you can help.
64

What is a rodent? There are many kinds of

Rodents are gnawing animals with rodents, from the often
front teeth that are well-suited to
chewing hard objects. Rats, mice,
disliked street rat to the
hamsters, gerbils, guinea pigs, cuddly pet hamster. These
squirrels, beavers, marmots furry mammals come in
(groundhogs), gophers, lots of shapes and sizes.
porcupines, chipmunks, lemmings,
muskrats, prairie dogs and voles
This page looks at just a few.
are all rodents.
Rodents have two top and two Capybara
bottom front teeth called incisors.
The incisors grow throughout a
rodent’s life time.
Rodents are found all over the
world and there are a lot of them.
Most rodents are herbivorous
(plant eaters), but rats will eat just
about anything.
These animals are both helpful
and harmful to people. Many eat

el
harmful insects and weeds.
Others are prized for their fur.
Scientist use rats and mice in
research. But some rodents
damage property and crops or Chinchilla
Black
carry diseases like the plague LEE Sek = x8
rat
and typhus. se <& = fa =e = 3
« = Sea
Squirrel =
Desert
skeleton DBDvie
kangaroo
rat

Molars
Capybaras
Incisors The capybara is the largest of all
Deer mouse
rodents, growing up to 4 feet (1.2 m)
Pacas long and weighing more than
There are about 120 kinds of rats.
Porcupines 100 pounds (45 k). It is found in
Pacas are large rodents that eastern Panama and in South
We are most familiar with the Porcupines have long, soft hairs grow to about 24 to 32 inches
black rat and the brown rat Kangaroo rats and strong, stiff quills on their (62 to 82 c) and can weigh
America east of the Andes.
Capybaras resemble small pigs or
because they often live near backs. The sharp quills are used between 14 and 22 pounds
people. Black rats are sometimes Named for the way it jumps like a as defense; the porcupine strikes giant guinea pigs. They have a coat
kangaroo, the kangaroo rat has (6.3 to 10 k). Pacas live from of coarse hair that ranges in color
called roof or ship rats. They tend attackers with its quilled tail and
central Mexico south to
to be found in coastal areas. long, powerful legs, short front the quills stick into the skin of the from reddish-brown to gray with a
legs and a very long tail that Paraguay and in the Andes yellow-brown underbelly. This
Brown rats, also known as sewer attacker. Porcupines grow new Mountains of Venezuela,
rats, are common in North ends in a tuft. Found in the quills to replace lost ones. rodent has webbed toes and is an
deserts of the Southwestern Colombia and Ecuador. They excellent swimmer. For this reason it
America and can pose health Despite the myth, porcupines
United States and Mexico, these are excellent swimmers and is sometimes called the water pig or
risks to people. cannot shoot quills at enemies.
usually live in forests near water.
rodents have a kidney that is four Some porcupine quills have water hog. People, alligators and
Rats are larger than mice and Pacas tend to live alone. They
times more efficient than sharp hooks at the end called jaguars often eat this animal. In
have a long scaly tail and sharp feed at night and eat plants, prehistoric times capybaras lived in
humans’ and they never drink barbs that make removing them
claws. They live in large groups or roots, seeds and fruit. These
water. Their large eyes help them painful and difficult. The North southeastern North America.
colonies. Rats generally feed at rodents nest in burrows, caves,
find food at night. And like its American porcupine lives
night and will eat just about any- woodpiles and rock crevices.
cousin the hamster, the mostly in coniferous forests.
thing. Rats can mate year-round Beavers
kangaroo rat has pouches in its They have brownish black fur
and may have several litters.
cheeks to carry food. This rodent and grow to about 3 feet (91 C) Beavers have soft, shiny fur,
nests in burrows (tunnels) and Hamsters \ which made them one of
Mice long and weigh about 20 pounds
eats plants. (9 k). the most hunted animals in
There are about North America from the
The word mouse has its origins in
15 kinds of
an old (Asian) Sanskrit word that Agouti hamsters. The best
} 1500s through the 1800s.
means thief. In the late 1600s, one
Brazilian agouti known are the
The female house mouse can beaver pelt would buy four
golden hamster and pounds of shot or a kettle. By
give birth every 20 to 30 days, common hamster.
with an average litter of four to Golden the late 1800s North American
Originally from Asia beavers were in danger of extinc-
seven babies. Born furless and - Hamster
and Europe, these tion and the U.S. and Canada
blind, these rodents are fully furry creatures are popular pets.
grown in three weeks and will passed protection laws.
Most hamsters have special
begin to mate when they are cheek pouches that they use Beavers vary in color from dark
about 45 days old. House mice, to carry food in. brown to yellow brown. They have
like their cousin the rat, will a stiff, flat tail that is covered with a
The golden hamster is also black scaly skin and a few hairs.
eat just about anything and
North American known as the Syrian hamster. They use their tails like a paddle, to
prefer to make their homes
porcupine It has reddish-brown fur on its steer when swimming. When in
near people, in houses,
back with white fur on its belly. danger, they slap their tails on the
sheds and barns. The
average life span of a house Grasshopper mouse Tree squirrels The common hamster is also water to warn other beavers.
called the black-bellied hamster
mouse is two or three months; Beavers are well-known for their
Tree squirrels are found in (for obvious reasons). These
in captivity they have been House _ [he agouti lives in thick forests ability to cut down trees with their
forests all over the world. The hamsters are most active at night
known to live six years. sharp teeth and for building dams
mouse __ fom southern Mexico to north- Eastern and Western gray and and prefer to live alone. They dig
The American harvest ern Argentina and in the fox squirrel are common to North burrows with separate rooms for and lodges in waterways.
mouse has large ears, a West Indies. They grow America. Many tree squirrels sleeping, food storage and body
hairy tail, and is smaller = _,10 be about 2 feet build nests called dreys made waste. Hamsters eat seeds, fruit
than a house mouse. =o,
“<5 long and have small, up of leaves, twigs and vines and vegetables. The average
They build ball-shaped round ears, long legs woven into a ball shape. life span of a pet hamster is
nests 6 to 12 inches off and a stubby tail two to three years.
Flying squirrels live in trees
the ground, on bushes (some have no tail at and are nocturnal, searching
or on stems of grass. all). These animals for food at night. They have a
Grasshopper mice are move with little jumps special fold of skin between
found in dry regions, like the (sort of like a deer) and feed on their front and back legs that Beaver
deserts of the Western United fruit, leaves and roots. Unlike allows them to glide from
States and northern Mexico. mice and rats, they are born with tree to tree. Most ye
Most active at night, these animals fur and their eyes open. In the species are from Asia,
like to eat grasshoppers and tropics they are hunted for their but two small flying
scorpions. They hunt in a similar meat. In North America they squirrels live in North America. ) Guinea
manner to cats and are the only have been known to make pig e
mice known to how! at night. affectionate pets. Eastern gray squirrel *27 (Cavy)
 65

What are they? Polyp cross-section

Coral reefs are rich Coral anatomy Tentacles
communities with a Coral reefs consist of many
diversity of sea creatures. diverse species of corals.
Most coral reef systems Coral is made up tiny organisms
form in shallow, tropical called polyps. Polyps and
ocean waters. In most structure of the coral skeleton
reefs, the predominant combine in one of two ways,
organisms are stony forming perforate or imperforate -<—— Coenosarce
corals, which produce corals. The perforate corals have Gut
rigid formations by porous skeletons with connections Mesenterial filament
secreting exoskeletons between the polyps through the Septum
of calcium carbonate skeleton. Imperforate corals have
(limestone). solid skeletons. Basal disc
Although corals are found
both in temperate and POLYP STRUCTURE THE CORAL SKELETON
tropical waters, reefs are Each polyp has a circle of tentacles Corallite is the part of the coral skeleton
formed roughly in the around the mouth, a tube-shaped gut, deposited by a polyp. A skeletal wall of a
equatorial zone, from the wedge-shaped mesentery, and thin, polyp is called the theca. Skeletal
about 30°N to 30°S. skeletal walls called septa. material around individual corallites is
Reef-forming corals do called the coenosteum.
Australia *
not grow at depths of
over 100 feet (30
Types of Reefs
@ Coral reefs
meters), or where water Different types of reefs » Bank or barrier reefs > Coral atolls are rings of
temperatures fall below form depending on the grow parallel to shorelines, coral growing on top of
The regal
72°F (22°C). conditions. Here’s how farther out. They are sunken volcanoes in the
angelfish is a
Corals are not the only, reefs differ: usually separated from ocean. They begin as
beautiful reef
or the major, reef-forming » Fringing reefs form land by a deep lagoon, fringe reefs surrounding a
dweller. Angelfish
organisms. Other sea along a coastline, growing and get their name volcanic island. As the
have a distinct
creatures, like coralline on the continental shelf in because they form a inactive volcano sinks, the
spine at the base
algae, protozoan shallow water. They form barrier between the lagoon reef continues to grow.
of the gill covering.
foraminiferans, some on the hard surfaces of and the open ocean. Eventually only the circular
mollusks, echinoderms, rocky shores and are reef and calm central
and tube-building annelid exposed at low tide. lagoon remains.
worms deposit calcium
carbonate. But, any reef
formed by a biological
community is traditionally
called a coral reef.

The largest coral reef

The Great Barrier Reef off Northeast Australia is
the largest known complex of coral reefs. It is 10
to 90 miles (16-145 km) wide and about 1250 The zebra firefish is a Coral growth forms
miles (2010 km) long. A lagoon 10 to 150 miles member of the lionfish family. Corals are anthozoans, one of three hydrozoans (one of the other classes
(16-240 km) wide ‘separates it from the shore. Many lionfish have toxins in classes in the phylum cnidaria. The of cnidaria), they are critical to the
Here’s a look at some of its inhabitants: their spiny fins. anthozoans are roughly divided into two formation of coral reef communities.
subclasses: alcyonaria, the soft corals, The reef-building corals grow in many
or zoantharia, the anemones, black shapes and sizes.
outermost layer of stony corals is living. The polyps and stony corals. Together with the
deposit layer after layer of limestone as they grow, Large-cupped
resembling the layers of an onion. Depressed Brain coral fungus corak\\\\ ?
Branched ‘
corals whi 4,
Lettuce corals form shelf-like %» Staghorn Vz
Ze
q
projections from the reef. Fish and Ve coral a
We
eels often hide in the overhang.

Brain and rose corals

i a70
NZ
Boke |

form winding grooves Star, flower,

in the skeleton that fungus and orange
resemble a brain corals form in a loaf-
shape or solitary cup

Fire and lettuce

corals are either
very smooth, or
Sponges plate-like
are hollow
_ filter-feeders.
_ They grow in
many shapes —
an

Boulder, encrusting and

Sea anemones are cousins of coral. Their polyps do not deposit limestone. cactus corals are massive
and rounded Tan lettuce-leaf coral
Most have stinging tentacles to capture prey. Spiny
candelabrum Soft corals
Danger to reefs are notrigid § Reef environment
In ideal conditions, coral reefs can grow up aquarists, all threaten valuable Ideal reef conditions are somewhat rare. The best
to a little over 3 feet (100 cm) per year. reef systems. places are in tropical waters along western coasts
But, reefs are sensitive to environmental of ocean basins, and around oceanic islands. Reefs
During the 1990s, many previously
change. Heavy rainfall and runoff from the are usually only found within 30 degrees north or
unknown diseases began attacking coral
mainland can kill a reef because of south of the equator.
reefs worldwide, causing widespread
increased sediment and decreased salinity death of coral polyps. Reef formation conditions
in the seawater. Another danger is the
Crown-of-thorns The Great Barrier Reef is threatened by a > Growing at or slightly below sea level
absence of waves, because silt will
accumulate and suffocate the coral. population explosion of the crown-of- > In shallow water with strong wave action
~ Water pollution, dredging and careless thorns starfish, which eats coral polyps,
> In a salinity level of 30-40 parts per thousand
boating, or collecting by divers or leaving limestone skeletons behind.
» In temperatures of 73-80 degrees fahrenheit
66

Domesticated reindeer
What’s the difference?
Nomadic people of the north have
Reindeer and caribou belong to a been herding and taming wild caribou
species called Rangifer tarandus of the for at least 2000 years (possibly 5,000
deer family cervidae. Scientists have years). Today reindeer continue to be
divided the species into 7 subspecies. herded by many Arctic people,
Caribou (KAR uh boo) is a French- especially those in Europe and Asia.
Canadian name for a large deer. The native people of Alaska and
The wild caribou of North America are Canada hunt caribou.
generally larger than the domesticated
reindeer of Europe. The Sami (or Lapps) of northern
Scandinavia are famous for their way
of life, which has centered around
Born to run migrating herds of reindeer for
Reindeer and caribou are one of the centuries. The Lapps train reindeer to
most migratory of all animals. The herd carry heavy packs and to pull sleds.
needs to keep moving in order to find They depend on reindeer for food,
enough food and to protect itself against shelter and clothing. They use reindeer
predators. During migration, several skin for their boots, coats and tents.
thousand reindeer may gather into one Reindeer bones and antlers are used
giant herd. Different migration routes to make needles and knives. They eat
are used to prevent overgrazing. reindeer meat and drink reindeer milk
Caribou and reindeer can run at speeds and some even keep reindeer as pets.
up to 50 mph. (80.5 km) and cover Some people use snowmobiles, trucks,
more than 3,000 miles (4,828 km) in helicopters and radios to herd the deer.
a year. But others maintain tradition and travel
with the herds, carrying their goods on
Favorite foods sleighs pulled by reindeer.
In summer, caribou eat the leaves of
willow and birch trees, various shrubs,
sedges (grasslike plants), tundra plants
and mushrooms. In winter they eat
mostly lichens (reindeer moss), small
shrubs, twigs and dried sedges.

Did you know?

Male reindeer and caribou are called
bulls and females are called cows. A
baby is called a calf. Adult caribou Do reindeer really
stand 4 to 5 feet (1.2 m 70 1.5m) high
and can weigh up to 700 Ibs. (320kg).
know how to fly?
Adult reindeer stand about 3 to 4 feet If you have ever seen a deer leap
(90 to 120 cm) high and weigh up to across a road, you know how much
400 Ibs. (180kg). they look like they are flying. But
Reindeer and caribou are the same species. In Europe they unless you have sone acqeemet
are called reindeer and in North America they are called reindeer don’t really fly.
caribou. They are large members of the deer
-
family and
ws
Santa's reindect ale very ie a
which makes it difficult for scientists to
belong to the group of mammals called “ungulates, study them. Several theories have
been presented to explain how Santa’s
Barren-ground which means hoofed animals.
reindeer fly. Perhaps they are a unique
caribou bull
and endangered species. Maybe air
Made for snow moving through their antlers helps to
Caribou and reindeer live in the create enough lift when leaping to
far north, in the arctic tundra make them airborne, while their large
and boreal forests of Europe, hoofs allow them to row through the air
Asia, North America and (much like regular reindeer swim
Greenland. Caribou have through water). Others suggest that
large, wide, flexible Santa’s reindeer have a special
Antlers hoofs. In winter the digestive track that creates lighter-
hoofs are hard and than-air methane gas which is stored
Female caribou and reindeer are in a balloon-like bladder. When
unique because they are the only deer sharp, ideal for
traveling over snow released, the gas acts like rocket
in the world that have antlers. Males propulsion and allows the reindeer to
have larger antlers than females, but and ice. The hoofs
make good shovels reach supersonic speeds. All of these
they drop their antlers in November and hypothesis have merit, but the fact is,
December. Females keep their antlers for digging in snow
to reach mosses. In we really don’t know how Santa’s
until they give birth in the spring. This reindeer manage to fly.
means that Santa’s reindeer are summer the hoofs
probably all females or immature males! soften and become
(Or maybe, the magic dust used to more broad to make
make Santa’s reindeer fly also keeps traveling on the spongy
them young forever.) tundra easier. The hoofs
also serve as paddles for
New antlers grow from knobs on the swimming — caribou are
top of the head. Each year a new strong swimmers. Caribou and
branch grows, so the more branches, reindeer have a special winter hair
the older the deer. that is hollow and traps air to provide
Antlers are made of a hard, bone-like insulation against the cold. These hairs
substance. As antlers grow they are also help them stay afloat in water. Rudolph
covered with a smooth hair called In deep winter, when food is scarce, (Santa’s
velvet. In the fall rutting (breeding) caribou reduce their food intake. ninth
season begins. During this time bulls reindeer)
fight with each other in order to mate. hit the
Sometimes the fights get very violent mainstream
and a rival is injured or killed. in 1949
when Johnny
Marks wrote
the song a
Reindeer “Rudolph the Red 1
tracks Nosed Reindeer.”
Sung by a cowboy
named Gene Autry, the
‘song became an instant
success and Rudolph
became famous.
 67

SALAMANDER
What are salamanders? Parotoid gland
Salamanders are slim-bodied,
short legged amphibians with Nasolabial fold
long tails. Salamanders resemble Dorsal Ventral
lizards (reptiles) in their body shape VI€W Coastal groove view
but are identified by their lack of
Coastal fold
scales. Amazingly, they have the
ability to regenerate lost limbs. Salamanders have moist skin and live
Notable traits either near water or under protective
Adults who retain external gills moist cover, usually in a forest. They are
are called perennibranchiates. generally nocturnal creatures. Some Vent
Some salamanders retain their species are permanently aquatic, some
juvenile gilled form but become occasionally take to water, and others are
exclusively terrestrial (living on land) Tubercles
sexually mature — a process Mental Gular fold
called neoteny. Scientists think as adults.
gland
this happens as a form of protection,
keeping them in the relative safety Metamorphosis means “change of body form Classification and families
of the water. and appearance.” Amphibians are the only Cryptobranchidae Dicamptodontidae
quadruped land vertebrates to undergo Not all scientists agree on the Giant salamanders Pacific giant
Salamanders ahi between metamorphosis. In salamanders, juveniles classifications of animals. Sirenidae See
ee; 0 are similar in appearance to adults. Here is one salamanders.
method of
herpetologists (scientists who classifying Sirens Plethodontidae
study reptiles and amphibians) Salamandridae Lungless
i ae salamanders
Bie
ials ssriotion Twotypes ieee Le Pa a ee
of gaits (walking styles) have been Phylum Chordata chs Mudpuppies
identified in salamanders. Class Amphibia salamanders or waterdogs
Sal beabded Sel one Subclass Lissamphibia Amphiumidae Rhyacotritonidae
P
(1.5 m) long. The hellbender and
Order Caudata_ Congo eels Torrent
: salamanders
mudpuppy can grow to a foot long a Suborders Cryptobranchoidea, Hynobiidae
or more. In Japan and China, the ss Salamandroidea, —_Asiatic
giant salamander reaches 5 feet New larva~ Sirenoidea —_salamanders
(1.5 m) in length and weighs up Mature larvae
to 67 pounds (30.4 km).
Reproduction
Female salamandroidea have GIANT SALAMANDERSe Cryptobranchidae
glands in their cloacal chamber
called spermathecae, used to
store sperm. *
Cryptobranchoidea and sirenoidea
have external fertilization.
As with all amphibians,
salamanders undergo
metamorphosis, beginning life
as an egg, growing as a larvae Hellbender
and finally maturing into an adult. 12 to 29.25 inches long (30 to 74.3 cm)
Long-term survival of this rare animal is threatened
Habitat - by both dam building and pollution. They live in
Salamanders are found in moist or fast-moving streams and never leave the water.
aquatic habitats, such as brooks

STREN FAMILY ® Sirenoidea

and ponds. Most live in the northern
hemisphere; a few live in the
northernmost part of South America.
They are common on the European Sirens do not metamorphose, and they retain their
mainland. larval, external gills. If their habitat dries out, they
Habitat destruction aestivate — surviving embedded in a cocoon of
threatens many mucous and mud.
amphibian species
worldwide.

Dwarf siren
Mudpuppy 4 to 9.75 inches long
8 to 17 inches long (20 to 43 cm) (10.2 to 24.75 cm)
Mudpuppies have large, bushy gills When captured, most sirens
and a large fin fold on their tail fin. make yelping noises.

NEWT&SALAMANDER FAMILY 8 Salamandroidea

California newt Newts are members Eastern newt
5 to 7.75 inches long (12.7 to 19.6 cm) of the 10 genera in 2.75 to 5.5 inches long (7 to 14 cm)
This species has a warning the Salamandidrae Tiger Adults are aquatic; land-dwelling
posture — revealing its belly family that are salamander newts can be found
when threatened. entirely aquatic or 6 to 13.5 inches long foraging on the
party aquatic as (15.25 to 34.3 cm) forest floor.
adults. World’s largest land-dwelling
Red salamander Salamanders are salamander <a
3.75 to 7.25 inches —_—smore often than not
long (9.5 to 16.4CM) terrestrial.
Most often found in
leaf litter of spring-
fed brooks
 68

ASSO Sea pret tt eel

Sargassum triggerfish
A vegetarian, unlike other
triggerfish that eat coral, sea
urchins and other animals.
A ball-and-socket joint in the
dorsal fin locks it erect,
giving triggerfish its name.

Where is it? Discovery

The Sargasso Sea lies When early navigators
roughly between the West found their ships becalmed
Indies and the Azores and in the sea’s still waters,
is encircled by two major they mistakenly believed Freshwater eel Why it is
ocean currents. These the ships were tangled in Born in the Sargasso Sea,
currents, the Gulf Stream Serrated frond tightly curled larval eels, important?
the Sargassum weed.
and the North Equatorial Early Greecian, Arabian, called leptocephalli, drift About one-third
Current, cause the Phoenician and Portuguese for up to 3 years across of the Atlantic’s
Sargasso to move ina mariners sailed the edges the Atlantic. When they plankton — a
slow, clockwise drift. of the Sargasso. In the reach shore, they undergo nutrient-rich mix-
Waters of the Sargasso 15th century, mariners metamorphosis, becoming ture of tiny and
are clear, calm, and filled named the sea “sargaco,” elvers. These transparent one-celled plants
with seaweed. The the Portuguese word for juveniles swim into fresh and animals — is
currents keep the water grape, after the seaweed’s water where they live for produced in the
quite warm. It rarely rains bulbous floats. The Bladder 6 to 20 years. Adults grow Sargasso Sea.
and the weather is calm, Sargasso congregates in to 52 inches and are Many marine
humid, and very hot. clusters, and migrates to known as yellow or brown animals rely on
The Sargasso has been the middle of the sea, eels. As they grow, the the weed for
called “the floating desert.” where it is the thickest. undersides turn silver or food and asa
The Sargasso ranges in Modern motorized ships Se oe aN bronze. At this stage, they habitat. The
depth from 5,000—23,000 can sail through it easily. — I et ai . are known as silver eels. Sargasso Sea is
feet (1,500—7,000 m). ‘ y When sexually mature, an international
hey journey back to meeting place for
pur currents of the Atlantic Ocean m y \) Sargasso breeding
grounds. Spawning
eels. Unknown
forces draw the

ead_ winter and spring.

Foi e takes place in late snakelike fish
* Greenland — : sees.
from waters
Canada North Atlantic KE around the world
to the Sargasso.
P E
EURO
® Gulf Stream oS Here they mate,
spawn and die
Sargassum fish and their larvae
U.S.A.
Sy) This 2-to-5-inch long make the journey
fish has armlike front fins and back to ancestral
soft, flabby skin and a flattened waters.
body. It sometimes drifts north
with the Gulf Stream. Swellings
of flesh called illicium function
as lures for prey.
' Brazil
Sargassum
nudibranch
Nudibranchs resemble
Pelagic sargassum slugs. The Sargassum
nudibranch has two
Sargassum is a type of Sargassum also is pairs of flattened lobes
brown algae. Its golden- important to coastal =< which bear small,
green fronds are serrated habitats. Fish and turtles Caravels were ships used
~ branched gills. The
and feel like plastic. Most feed on shrimp and crabs by the Portuguese
irregular body shape is
seaweeds are anchored near the seaweed. When good camouflage
to the ocean floor, but the stranded on the beach, amongst floating
seaweed of the Sargasso the weed holds sand so
is free-floating, or pelagic. that land plants may take
Sargassum, where Freaky stuff
the nudibranch feeds
It stays afloat by growing root, slowing beach on tiny animals Because a portion of the
gas-filled bladders. erosion. called hydroids. Sargasso lies within the
Accumulated mats of More than 50 fish Bermuda Triangle, stories
Sargassum support of ghost ships mired in
species and about
barnacles, sea anemones, seaweed are often told
145 invertebrates are
worms, crabs, shrimp and alongside mysterious tales
linked to sargassum.
fish. The plant produces from the triangle.
Four kinds of sea turtles
asexually (without seeds)
and several marine birds
and multiplies when Another strange thing
depend on the seaweed
broken by waves. Broken about the Sargasso is that
for food or shelter.
seaweed is sometimes it acts as a “catch basin”
carried by currents to the for the Atlantic Ocean.
Gulf of Mexico. Warm Objects enter the sea
waters there accelerate circle and are drawn to its
growth, and the Gulf has center, where they sink
the second largest or float forever. This
quantity of sargassum phenomenon has become
in the world. Many apparent due to pollution.
sargassum leaves are Currents carry congealed
covered with organisms Sargassum pipefish balls of oil from spills (tar
called bryozoans, a Pipefish are relatives balls) into the Atlantic and
community of animals of the seahorse. This they become trapped in
attached to the seaweed. brownish-green fish the Sargasso. Unlike
As they multiply, they has flaps of skin that biodegradable waste, they
weigh the weed down, resemble the blade- do not sink. The impact
pulling it toward the shaped leaves, or this has on the sea life of
bottom, where it dies, fronds, of sargassum. the Sargasso is being
decomposes, and closely watched.
becomes food.
Pelagic sargassum
 69

What is a scorpion? Life cycle

Ascorpion is an arthropod,
ANCIENT NOCTURNAL PREDATORS In order to survive
a member of the class of
animals called arachnids, & scorpions’ mating
and a relative of spiders, behaviors have evolved
mites, ticks and harvest- so that reproduction is
men. All arachnids have ensured.
four pairs of legs. There The breeding season
are approximately 1,300 occurs in late spring
species of scorpions. All through early fall. Males
have elongated bodies may travel long distances
= Emperor scorpions (below)
and a segmented to find mates. The male
abdomen that is tipped
i fe are from Africa. They can be 4
hee to 8 inches long. Although and female scorpion enter
with a venomous stinger. into a complicated and
Xk they look menacing, they are
As you read the following characteristic courtship.
‘<== J ~\ often kept as pets.
anatomy section, refer to wh \ \ ; During the courtship, the
the diagram to the right. Aculeus
>. \ al
5) == male leads the female in a
e eS 7) Mesosoma sideways and backward
Scorpion anatomy eG Telson | dancelike motion. After
& Prosoma this instinctive ritual, the
Arthropods have an
pair mate.
exoskeleton (an outer
supportive covering), Pedipalp Both males and females
segmented body and may mate
jointed legs. Most repeatedly. Some
arachnids have two females will mate
Metasoma
body segments. while carrying
The first segment, newborn scorpions.
or prosoma, has
special mouth- Female scorpions
parts called
chelicerae. Median Eye \ are good mothers.
Unlike almost all
The mesosoma: Chelicerae other animals,
This section has one pair female scorpions
Lateral Eye retain the fertilized
of pedipalps (pincerlike
eggs in their body for an
limbs) and four pairs of Scorpion venom Rear leg extended period of time
legs. The legs, pedipalps Femur
and body are covered with Scorpion venom is used to (from several months to a
thick hairs called setae capture prey and for defense. year before the young are
that are sensitive to the Venom is a complex mixture of Third leg born alive), during
touch. The body regions neurotoxins (toxins that affect the which time the
are protected by a victim’s nervous system) and other embryos are
carapace, or head shield. substances; each species has a nourished.
unique mixture. Only one species
The metasoma: Second leg Front leg ‘ Birthing lasts several
in the United States and about Baby scorpions
The scorpion’s body has 20 others worldwide have venom hitch a ride on hours to several days.
12 segments. The last potent enough to be dangerous to their mom’s back
On the average, a female
five, called the metasoma, Patella gives birth to about 25
humans. The world’s most
form the curled “tail.” At dangerous scorpions live in North Chela young. They are born live
the end is the telson, a Africa, the Middle East, South and instinctively climb up
bulb-shaped structure America, India and Mexico. on their mother's back as
containing venom glands soon as they are born.
and the sharp, curved They will remain there for a
aculeus to deliver venom. period ranging from one to
Ascorpion’s pedipalps are Astrological symbol 50 days, until they molt
used for defense and to (shed outgrown skin) for
In astrology, Scorpius (or
capture prey. The tips of the first time. Then they
Scorpio) is the eighth sign of
the legs each have a climb down to live an
the zodiac. The sign is related
small organ to detect Big and bad to the Greek legend of the
independent existence.
vibrations in the ground. The long-tailed South scorpion that stung Orion to Scorpions periodically
On the underside, a African scorpion reaches death. The story was used to molt to reach adulthood.
scorpion has a pair of a length of more than explain why the star Orion sets Typically, five or six molts
sensory organs called 8 inches. Some of the as the Scorpius constellation over two to six years are
pectines. In males, these African and Asian Stripe-tailed scorpions (above) are from rises in the sky. required for them to reach
emperor scorpions grow the Southwestern United States. They can maturity.
are usually larger. The Generally speaking, Scorpios
to 7 inches. The largest grow to 2 inches in length, and can create
pectines sense the texture are said to carry with them an
scorpions in North burrows in desert sand up to 3 feet deep. Scorpions can live
of surfaces, and are instinctive understanding of the
thought to help detect the America are members of from three to five years,
seriousness of life, but they
scent of a mate. the genus hadrurus Earliest scorpions also have an excellent sense
although some may live
(giant desert hairy for 10 to 15 years.
Scorpions first appeared 430 million to of humor.
Range and habitat scorpions). They can 395 million years ago. They may have
obtain lengths of about evolved from the Eurypterida (water
Although scorpions are 5 inches. ;
thought of as desert scorpions). The earliest scorpions Eat or be eaten
animals, they exist in apparently possessed gills and
were relatively large. The first Scorpions are nocturnal
other habitats as well. (active at night), predatory
Yellow fat-tail terrestrial (land) scorpions
Grasslands and animals that feed on
scorpions (right) are probably appeared 350 million
savannahs, deciduous insects, spiders,
from North Africa. They to 325 million years ago. @
forests, some pine forests, centipedes and other
rain forests and caves
grow to 4 inches long
The scorpion’s body
Antares @
and have venom as Constellation of scorpions. Larger
are homes to many has changed very little On, : scorpions may feed on
strong as a cobra’s. — Scorpius
species of scorpions. in 430 million years. vertebrates, such as
They are thought to be
Scorpions have been the most dangerous small lizards and snakes,
@
found under snow- scorpion in the world. or mice.
covered rocks at
The sign of Scorpio Although they are
elevations more than
12,000 feet in the Andes Birthdates Oct. 23 — Nov. 21 equipped with venom
Mountains of South Symbol The Scorpion to defend themselves,
America and the scorpions fall prey to
Element Water many creatures, such as
Himalayan Mountains
of Asia. Colors Red & black tarantulas, lizards, birds
Ruling planets Pluto/Mars (usually owls) and
About 90 species exist mammals (including
in the United States, and Gemstones Ruby & opal
shrews, mice and bats).
all but four'of these are Usually, the Teadiicst Notables Pablo Picasso, Like scorpions, their
naturally found west of scorpions have the Hillary Rodham Clinton, predators are usually
the Mississippi River. smallest pedipalps. Theodore Roosevelt nocturnal.
70

The harp seal, named for the Threats and dangers

harp-shaped mark on its back, is Seals have few defenses against
the third most abundant seal in the natural predators. In the water,
world, with a population of about sharks and killer whales prey on
4 million. Baby harp seal pups are seals. On land, polar bears hunt them.
famous for their beautiful white fur

sea lion
(which they have for only a couple Commercial hunting of seals in the
of weeks). 18th, 19th and early 20th centuries
severely damaged pinniped popula-
Harp seals migrate year round,
tions. Harp seals, especially the white
but generally inhabit the North
pups, were hunted for their fur. In the
Atlantic and Arctic oceans. During
late 1980s, public outcry stopped the
the summer, they migrate to
clubbing of harp seal pups.
Greenland and the eastern arctic Seals, sea lions and Habitat destruction is an ongoing
islands. In the fall they move to
more southern regions. walruses are ideally suited threat to seal populations today.
Coastal development and commercial
These seals can live 35 years
or more. They feed mainly
for life in the frigid waters fishermen contribute to population
declines. Seals often get caught in
on herring, cod and of the North and South fishing nets or tangled up in plastic.
crustaceans.
Plastic is not biodegradable, so it does
poles. A thick layer of not go away, and over time more and
™” Harp
seal blubber helps keep them more of it ends up in our oceans.
(Phoca
groenlandica)
warm, and their streamlined Where pinnipeds live
body shape allows for speed
i
and grace in the water.
Earless seals Bineionied friend
There are 18 species of phocidae Seals, sea lions and walruses belong to a scientific order of mammals called
(earless seals). Earless seals are pinnipeds, which means “fin-footed” in Latin. There are 34 species of pinnipeds.
sometimes called true seals. These All are warm-blooded mammals with torpedo-shaped bodies. Pinnipeds can be
seals do not have ear flaps, but they divided into three families: Earless seals (Phocidae) like the hooded seal;
do have ears. Unlike other pinnipeds, Eared seals (Otariidae) like the harbor seal; and Walruses (Odobenidae). Most pinnipeds are found in coastal
the hind flippers of the seal are angled Insulating layers
waters, and the majority of them
toward the rear and cannot be rotated Seals are expert prefer colder climates. The Northern
Blubber serves as divers, and some Hemisphere is home to many species.
forward. This means that they cannot
insulation against the can dive 200 feet.
use their rear flippers to walk on land. Seals and sea lions come ashore to
cold and provides
Instead, they use their front flippers rest, breed and give birth.
and strong stomach muscles to pull
Blubber =
themselves along. Endangered species
All pinnipeds
The hooded, or bladdernose, (except for Species Status

Na
seal is the largest of Arctic true the walrus) Detail of teeth
seals. They lead solitary lives have
Caribbean Monk Seal __Endangered
on drift ice and eat mostly fish hairy Seal teeth are Guadalupe Fur Seal Threatened
and squid. Males inflate bodies. sharp and pointed, Hawaiian Monk Seal Endangered
their black hood or ideal for catching North Pacific Fur Seal Depleted
blow up the ocean prey.
Steller Sea Lion Threatened
lining of Skeleton of a fur seal
their * This species is probably extinct; the last
True seal flippers known sighting was in 1952.
a When swimming, seals use their front
flippers to steer. The rear flippers are Walruses
attract Hooded used in a side-to-side motion (like most
mates, fish) to propel them through the water. The walrus is the only pinniped that
seal
or when In the waters, seals can reach speeds of has tusks. Both sexes have ivory
(Cystophora
threatened. up to 15 mph. tusks, which they use for digging,
\\ cristata)
defense and raking ocean floors for
shellfish. Their scientific name,
Seals need to breathe Odobenus, means “tooth walker,”
air, but when swim- reflecting how they pull themselves
ming under the ice onto the ice with their tusks. Walruses
there is not always a eat mostly mollusks and fish, but have
Ribbon seal (Phoca fasciata)
Eared seals ‘ convenient spot to been known to eat small seals. A large
Banded, or ribbon, seals are found take a breath. So walrus can eat up to 4,000 clams in
only in the North Pacific. These rare There are 14 species of fur seals and seals chew tunnels up one day.
animals are thought to give birth on sea lions. Eared seals have small ear through the ice to
ice floes, far from the coast. flaps that cover their ears and rear A male walrus can can weigh up to
create breathing holes.
flippers that rotate forward and down- 2,700 pounds and grow to 12 feet
Seals generally need
Bearded seals are named for their ward. long. Females are about half that size.
to surface every
abundant whiskers. Their main food Fur seals have fur to protect them 7 to 9 minutes, but Walruses use their hind flippers for
sources
ie are crustaceans and mollusks. from the cold, while sea lions have can stay under water swimming and to walk on land, but like
extra layers of blubber. Sea lions are for 15 to 20 minutes. the eared seal they can bend their hind
larger than fur seals and have wider flippers forward. Like the earless seal,
noses. Sea lions are very vocal and the walrus has a small ear opening,
are sometimes called “sea dogs” but no ear flaps.
because of their unique bark.
Bearded seal
(Erignathus barbatus) These are the seals
you see most Californian
often at sea lion
zoos and (Zalophus
marine parks. californianus)
Captive sea
Ringed seal (Phoca hispida) lions often
Ringed seals inhabit the far north and bond with their
are the smallest of seals. They feed trainers and A walrus uses
on small fish and crustaceans. seem to enjoy its whiskers to
performing. help locate
In the wild, eared clams and
seals live in the mussels.
northern Pacific They live in
Ocean and the Arctic,
Harp seal (Phoca groenlandica) along coastal North Atlantic
Harp seals gather in huge groups to regions Walrus
and North
breed. Adults can be more than 6 feet in the Southern (Odobenus rosmarus)
Pacific oceans.
long and weigh up to 400 pounds. Hemisphere.
 71

Parts of a bivalve
apex F
Hinge i Inside auricle Outside
Spire :
a oi [3 /) spines Eight articulating The scaphopods, of unite igament eae
spiral ribs Sareea plates make up the tusk shells, lie buried in tooth spines
ae) ee 4 shell of the chiton. the sandy seabed. () &
ee Ip =) About 500 species A cone-shaped h > AL Y
teeth ®, live worldwide in muscular foot
Body ) pee a 5 ee va the Y |, pallial line Saics : ventral
whorl |, Amuscular ban ollow base. margin
lirae =<<=(7 surrounds the | Tentacle-like | escutcheon adductor muscle radial concentric
columnella 3 ! i : :
folds 3 9 plates and firmly ||| filaments help the impression ornament ornament
base anterior attaches the chiton mollusk capture Ripeememmemenme. SARI RRREREDE
canal to algae-covered small prey and
What is a seashell? rocks. feed. Native
Americans used
Seashells are natural objects. shells to decorate The only
They are the exoskeletons of their clothing. cephalopods to
a group of animals called produce true external
mollusks. The exoskeleton is shells are the Nautiloids.
important to mollusks The shells are large and
because it provides shape, lightweight. Inside,
rigidity and protection closed chambers are
from predators. filled with gas, allowing
the shell to float. All of
What is a mollusk? the Nautiloids live in the
Indo-Pacific region.
The phylum Mollusca includes ~
clams, snails, slugs, octopuses,
squid and chitons.
The Latin word mollis means Pecten albican True Heart Cockle
soft. The term malacology Pen Shells
All scallops “swim” by When the shells are gg
(study of mollusks) comes These shells are
rapidly ejecting water
from “malakos,” the Greek viewed from the side, \ thin and brittle.
from their shells.
word for “soft.” they resemble a heart.
Sometimes the term
conchology is used for the
Thorny Oyster
study of shells alone. Several

eee Thay
features are common to pales Doce Hammer Shell
a’
ee Secreres rocks or coral and grow MONUSKS Creates
calcium carbonate
: in the to 6 :inches long. aeeshell with
form of spicules or a shell. projections along
2. A mantle cavity where the hinge.
respiration occurs through
gills (aquatic) or through the
mantle wall (terrestrial).
3. A body divided into three
regions: the head, foot and
visceral mass.
4. Three body cavities for
kidney, heart and gonad.
5. Aribbon of teeth (radula)
used in feeding. ay
es

LU Humpback Cowrie
How are they classified? Black Murex Green Turbo All cowries are
According to the characteristics Most murex shells are Turbo shells are highly polished
: : . Xe Tri and shiny.
of their shells, mollusks are heavy-walled and spiny. common worldwide. Perry’s Triton Hebrew Cone
organized into major groupings. All Triton shells are
Most seashells fall within these Volute imperialis ecarnve Markings on the
groups: Volutes are among tooth-like grooves oe ee
Gastropods (snails) have the most popular, on the outer lip. guage:
a single shell, which spirals beautiful and
outward and to one side. expensive of shells
collected.
Bivalves (oysters, clams, _
scallops and mussels) have
two-part shells that enclose Sundial
the body. These are small
Scaphopods (tusk shells) Lettered Cone to large shells
have a single shell that does Some Pacific cones from warm,
not coil, but grows in a narrow, have venom so tropical seas.
slightly curved cone. poisonous that it
Polyplacophores (chitons) can kill humans.
have a row of eight
overlapping plates.
Cephalopods (octopus and
squid) have no shell, although
the chambered nautilus does
have a shell which coils flatly,
in a single plane.
Neopilina are deep-sea
creatures that have a single
shell which fits over the body
like a cup. |
gs v
Aplacophora are also deep- ns : :
sea mollusks with no shell. Spider Conch Tiger Cowrie Pacific Triton Marlin’s Spike Auger Venus’ Comb Blackened
Small spines cover their bodies. ph:stivctive finger-like Only five species Triton shells are Auger shells are Murex Frog
we spires project from of cowrie are large and were used . very pointed. The A very rare and Members of this
the shell of these found in as horns by ancient mollusks inside eat delicate shell family live on or
zi conches. North America. peoples. marine worms. from Japan. near coral reefs.
Life at the seashore
Plankton is the basic food of the
sea. These tiny, often microscopic,
organisms travel with the currents
and tides. They provide more than
90 percent of the food eaten by fish
and other marine life.
The best way to find out about seaside plants and animals is to visit The two main types of plankton are
tiny plants called phytoplankton and
the shore and observe them yourself. Go up and down the beach, lift up fragile swimming animals such as
rocks, look inside the piles of seaweed and dig beneath the sand water fleas, called zooplankton.

and mud. Look carefully and you may find creatures such as these. Phytoplankton use the sun’s energy
to make food out of sunlight and

Upper beach
minerals in a process called
photosynthesis. Scientists estimate

AY
Sand bugs Sand hoppers or that phytoplankton make more than
Fiddler and sand or mole crabs beach fleas are tiny 60 percent of the Earth’s oxygen.
crabs are burrowers. always move crustaceans. Some
They like dry, sandy backward. make their homes
beaches near salt They live in in sand and rotting
marshes and move Sandbug the sand and seaweed.
with an unusual follow the tide
sidewise gait. as it rises and Herons seek their
retreats. prey along fresh
and saltwater
beaches around .
the world.
Eastern
sand hopper Small animal plankton (zooplankton)
A horseshoe crab has the feed on plant plankton (phytoplank-
shape of a horse’s hoof. This
ton). Then larger zooplankton eat
harmless creature is not really a
crab and its closest relatives are
Mermaid’s purse the small zooplankton and these in
Skate egg case turn provide food for fish. Some
scorpions and spiders.
zooplankton stay as plankton all
their lives; others turn into larger
Barnacles are crustaceans adult sea creatures.
Hermit crabs live in tide pools and that attach themselves to
shallow water all over the world. hard surfaces and never
They make their home inside empty leave. Their hard shells
shells and exchange these for larger BB protect their soft bodies.
ones when they have grown too big. Sand dollar . barnacles
(alive) CHE Sand dollar Gooseneck 2

Middle beach
: cue (dead) barnacles Sandworms
: make their home
Sand dollars or sea biscuits live inside a thin tube
Sea urchins have moveable under the sand in shallow water. They _ buried in sand or
spines. Some live on rocks in look like large white coins and are mud. They can
shallow water, others live often found washed up on the beach. 2 reach 12 to 18
near coral reefs. inches in length. —
_ Male worms are
bright greenish
Purple Clam worm blue and females
one 4 or Sandworm $ are reddish
urchin= sia) eS orange. Catching plankton
(living) ay S
You can catch plankton by sub-
merging a bucket in the sea and
dragging it. Pull it up and put the
Sea anemones are contents in a glass. Take a look at it
small, slow-moving through a magnifying glass or use a
sea creatures that look Moon microscope to see it even better.
like flowers. They jellyfish
attach themselves to
rocks and other hard
Jellyfish or medusa
a large kelp Marine algae
, surfaces, and move
live in the sea, but are Blue = Large marine algae are referred to
their tentacles in order
often found washed mussels aS as seaweed and help purify the air
to attract shrimp and
up on beaches and in and water through photosynthesis.
tide pools. Their jelly- ch, Se Here are some algae that can be

©
1

Green like, umbrella shaped =3 \ 7G SY found on wharves and beaches:

anemone bodies are transparent — Pao
and their tentacles :

Lower beach ax contain a stinging yl

poison, so be careful AY .
not to touch them! RZ
Sea horses are spiny, fishlike
creatures that resemble tiny horses
and swim standing up. They live in
all the oceans of the world and are
related to sea urchins and sand crab
dollars. Found on the Atlantic Coast
Rock crabs like sandy bottoms
and the Gulf Coast of Florida in
and rocky beaches. They feed on
summer, they disappear in winter
small plankton-eating sea crea-
and we don’t know where they go.
tures, Young crabs like tide pools,
mature crabs prefer deeper water.
Codium
Sea cucumbers have a long fleshy
body and are related to sea urchins
and starfish. Those that live in the
cooler regions of the Atlantic and
Pacific are much smaller than Sea
ofan {ropical sea cucumbers. lettuce

Eastern Star
Most starfish have five arms lined
with rows of tube feet suckers. They Coral is a limestone
have no brains and a new arm grows growth made from the
when.an old one breaks off. Sea cucumber skeletons of tiny animals.
Sargassum
 SHARKS
What is a shark? Shark sense
A shark is a fish, but a fish Sharks have highly developed
unlike any other. There are senses. In addition to taste,
about 360 species of sharks. sight, touch, smell and hearing,
Sharks are closely related to sharks also have an “electrical
skates and rays, and are sense” that can detect small
cartilaginous. Cartilaginous fish electric signals of prey. Sharks
have a skeleton made of Sharks are one of the oldest vertebrates living on Earth. Sharks were can also detect vibrations
made by animals moving
cartilage instead of bone.
Cartilage is a strong, flexible living in the oceans 400 million years ago, 100 million years before through the water, using a
material — human noses and sense called “distant touch.”
earlobes are made of this.
dinosaurs evolved. Sharks are found in waters all over the world.

Great Shortfin
white mako
All in the family ® RU et
shark
Kingdom Animalia _

Peek inside
Selachii The mouth of most Blue Horn-
sharksislocated | 4a mm shark shark
Did you know? beneath the snout.
The jaw is
* Most sharks can detect blood connected to the
and animal odors from many skull by ligaments
miles away. and muscles. When
Sharks don’t blink. a shark begins to.
Small, tooth-like scales cover
a shark’s body, making the Goblin Mega-
skin of a shark very rough. shark mouth
Dried sharkskin was once shark
used as sandpaper.
Most fish have a “swim Great white shark Carcharodon carcharias
bladder,” an organ that helps Matters of size 16.5 ft. (5 m) long
them maintain certain depths Caudal fin
Sharks come in many sizes First dorsal fin
in water. Sharks don’t. They and shapes. Some are as Gill slits Second dorsal fin
have a large liver filled with small as 6 inches, others are
oil that is lighter than water. as big as a bus and weigh Salmon Tiger
This helps sharks float a little, more than two elephants. shark shark
but most still need to swim
constantly or they will sink. NOTE: Great <f Anal fin
* Many sharks have long life |
white shark not Teeth
Whale shark drawn to scale.
spans and can live for 12 or Sharks have several
Rhincodon typus Pectoral Pelvic fin
13 years. Some can even live rows of teeth; many
40 ft. (12 m) long
for 100 years or more. have five to 15 rows.
Most sharks are cold- Some sharks have as
blooded. Their inner body many as 3,000 teeth at
temperature matches that of one time. New teeth
the water surrounding them. move forward to replace
old or lost ones (a
Thresher shark missing tooth can be
Alopias vulpinus replaced in about
20 ft. (6.1 m) long 24 hours). Most sharks
Smooth hammerhead shark
Sphyrna zygaena
do not chew their food
13 ft. (4 m) long very much — instead
they swallow large
chunks whole.

Gills
Water enters the shark’s
Tiger shark Sand tiger shark Basking shark mouth and passes
Galeocerdo cuvier Odontaspis taurus Cetorhinus aggee Sandy over the gills, where
Human
respiration takes place
Interview with TO ft (oi)
long 33 ft. (10Was
m) long Ene
eitaGan)iona cere Homo sapiens
(oxygen in the water is
6 ft. (1.8 m) long
a tiger shark exchanged for carbon
Q. You are a pretty big shark, Feeding frenzy - Reproduction Who is the threat? dioxide in the blood), and
then passes out of the
aren’t you? Sharks are carnivores (meat One of the ways that sharks Sharks are born predators, gill slits. Most fish can
A. I'm 18 ft. (6.5 m) long, about eaters). Most sharks eat fish differ from most fish is that the but that doesn’t mean they are pump water over their
average for my species. (often other sharks), squid and majority of sharks fertilize their man-eaters. There are more gills, but the majority of
octopus. Larger sharks like the eggs inside the mother and than 6 billion people on Earth sharks have to swim in
Q. Where do you live? great white shark eat just about give birth to already-hatched and about 100 shark attacks order to force water
A. In oceans all over the world, anything: seals, turtles, small live young (instead of laying each year. About a fourth of
but | like tropical, warm through their mouth and
whales, garbage and, very eggs). About 40 shark species those attacks turn out to be over their gills.
waters best. rarely, people. The whale lay eggs outside the body. fatal. Humans are much more
Q. You are considered to be shark, the largest.of sharks Baby sharks are called pups. dangerous to sharks: 30 to Water Filaments
a dangerous shark. Why? and largest fish in the world, Some sharks will give birth to 100 million sharks are killed by
A. Well, it’s my nature to survives primarily on plankton more than 100 pups, but that is people each year. And 80
scavenge and | will eat just (tiny ocean animals). Shark an exception. Most sharks give shark species face exctinction.
about anything. Can | help feeding behavior is stimulated birth to much smaller litters — Large sharks are suffering the
it if people fall off boats? when three or more sharks some as small as one or two. most from over-hunting. But
Seriously though, I’m not appear in the presence of food. Pups begin to swim and hunt there is hope. Some countries,
that fond of human meals; They can become very excited almost immediately after birth. including the United States,
| would be just as happy and vicious, attacking not only © Sharks do not look after their - have begun to make laws that
with a seal or a nice turtle, the food but each other. This is young. Some will even eat protect sharks, instituting sport
and | love spicy jellyfish. called a feeding frenzy. their pups. and commercial fishing limits.
74

What is a shorebird? Piping Plover

Shorebirds are a diverse group of birds that 7-inches
include avocets, oystercatchers, plovers, Uncommon and Lesser Yellowlegs
phalaropes, sandpipers, stilts, snipes, and endangered, the
turnstones. About 49 species of shorebirds delicate Plover 10.5-inches
are common visitors to North American nests on sandy Larger birds with yellow
wetlands and beaches. beaches, dunes legs and straight bills.
and lakeshores. They nest on tundra or in
woodlands Most winter in
South America.

Red Knot
10.5-inches
Seasonal plumage is pale gray
and white in winter, chestnut
brown and black in summer.
Feeds on sandy beaches
and mudflats. Rare in

iN
Purse crab
interior wetlands.

American Atlantic
Oystercatcher Flyway runs
C 18.5-inches from offshore
vet Age Distinctive orange bill. waters of the ms
characteristics Feeds in small flocks hese pee ibe
i i on coastal beach ppalacnian Mountains.
Shorebirds typically have esas endings: Birds using this flyway
small bodies, thin legs and
usually begin migration from
webless feet. They range in
size from a few ounces to a
the southern tip of South
pound or more and have America or the coast of
plumage in many colors. Chile. Typically, they travel
Shorebird species are
Help through the interior of South
America and cross the
residents of wetlands but do conserve Caribbean, reaching the U.S.
not swim. Intertidal mudflats,
salt marshes, and estuaries
shorebirds in the mid-Atlantic states.
are their habitats. Many > Support the From there, they move to
species are found on ocean Federal Duck James or Hudson Bay. This
beaches, but many use fresh Stamp flyway is divided into two
water wetlands in the interior Program regions: Northern Atlantic
American Avocet Revenues and the South East Coastal
of North America along their
migration paths and for 18-inches from the Plain/Caribbean.
breeding habitat. Feeds by sweeping the bill from sale of Duck
They exhibit a wide variety side to side through the water. ples provide The American
of bill shapes and sizes. Habitat is Lakeshores, marshes unds to buy Central Fl
These differences allow and shallow ponds. Bole the region ‘exter ieee ll
many species to forage on Sanderling 8-inches zaner the peste Rock :
dry land or in shallow water. es Shorebird y
Plumage is extremely pale in winter. Sister Mountains to the western
All shorebirds migrate over Feeds on sandy beaches, running back Schools edge of the Appalachian
vast distances. Migratory and forth with the surf to capture small Program is Mountains. It includes the
PRUE Seah ean crustaceans exposed by the waves. designed to Midwest, Mississippi River,
the wind determine the educate and ee! ol Mexeo aa f
sitachontaken students about divided into four geographic
4 ey. shorebird regions: Northern Plains and
Ornithologists migration from Prairie Potholes, Central
(scientists who study birds) Spotted wintering Plains and Playa Lakes,
Se ee ee Sandpiper grounds to Upper Mississippi Valley and
nee Ne 7 Sumiches nesting sites Great Lakes, and Lower
shorebirds. The birds’ ability to in the arctic. Mississippi and Western
navigate may depend on the Breeding plumage is S Bea Gulf Coast
sun, moon and stars. Or light, beautifully barred. In winter, tland ;
the Earth’s magnetic field, spotted underparts are pure ee ms .
wind, day length, and smell white. Found in sheltered ania as The American Paciie
may influence how a bird waterways, marshes, ponds OMpanyon a FI foll th
finds its way. and lakes. can to help ihe Mack
eastern Pacific coastline. It
conserve and
protect all wet- extends from the western
lands for birds Arctic and includes Alaska
: Shorebird populations Delaware Bay: 600,000 South American bird counts :
Pore) ser shorebirds consisting mostly of |show the following populations: and other-wet- and ine aleuues Sane
Though some _ Because they travel so much, lands inhabi- From there, it travels down
:
of these it is hard to measure shorebird Red Semipalmated
and Knots, Ruddy Turnstones,
Sandpipers Mar Chiquita
nn: Cordoba,fen tants ; he RRocky MMountain and
the
numbers populations. Estimates put
put the
| : Argentina: 500,000 Wilson’s > Get Pacific coastal regions of
may seem members of some species in San Francisco Bay, Phalaropes and 20,000 ranmnedt Canada, the United Sime
high, studies the millions, others at only a California: 930,000 Golden Plovers Ruan aha ae Mexico it blencaiena
carticate i at
icate ; few thousand. shorebirds,
Bay.of FunutmanyCanada
species Bigi
; aePan,
AG Suriname:
Senipalnaied ird issues.
bird i other flywaysoe in Central and
e popula- pi : ,UUYU, | isi i
tions of many _Efforts to census shorebirds 1,000,000 shorebirds, the Sandpipers | Te hee es into
species of are takenat specific staging majority being Semipalmated —_wia Wia, Suriname: refuge to four geographic areas:
shorebirds areas during migration. Sandpipers 2,000,000 Semipalmated view shorebirds Alaskan. Northern Pacific
are in serious Censuses in recent years Sandpipers and 50,000 and learn Intermountain’ West enki
decline. report the following numbers Short-billed Dowitchers about them. Southern Pacific Regions.
in North America:
 75

Many people are afraid of snakes. This may be an ancient

and instinctual reaction, because some snakes are deadly.
But most of these scaled reptiles are harmless and they play
an important role in nature. Snakes are invaluable to people as
rodent and pest control aids. There are approximately 2,700
species of snakes around the world, and about 250 of these
live in North America.

All in the family Snake senses Snake lore — did you know?
Reptiles are animals with a backbone Sound: Snakes have no ears and use During the American Revolution, before the official
and scales. Reptiles breathe air and vibration instead of hearing to locate Stars and Stripes flag, the colonies used a flag with a
usually lay eggs. Snakes are reptiles, prey and avoid danger. They make no rattlesnake on it. It had 13 rattles representing the
distantly related to the dinosaurs of vocal sound, but they do hiss and 13 colonies and the words “Don’t tread on me.”
old. Today, the snake’s closest relative some rattle. Some ancient people thought that
is the lizard. Crocodiles, alligators, Hissing is the result of air being earthquakes were caused by giant snakes
turtles and a rare creature from rapidly forced out of the lungs. Hissing moving underground. Others believed
New Zealand called a tuatara are and rattling warn that the snake is that the earth was born from the egg
all reptiles. frightened or annoyed and may strike. of a huge snake.
Sight: Snakes have no eyelids, so The ancient Greeks believed
What’s for dinner? their eyes are always open. Most see snakes had powerful healing
Most snakes will eat any animal they well enough at close distances and powers. The early Greek and
can swallow, so what they eat depends some have excellent night vision. Roman gods of medicine
largely on how big they are. Snakes Taste: The long, forked tongue of the often held a rod with a
are carnivorous (meat-eaters), snake is harmless and serves as a snake coiled around it. Mambas from Africa
feeding on a variety of live animals: feeler and also aids with smell. Today, the caduceus are very poisonous
insects, worms, bird and reptile eggs, (a winged staff with two and very fast.
Smell: The tongue carries particles to
frogs, rodents, lizards and even other snakes) is still used as
special smelling organs in the mouth.
snakes. Water snakes will eat fish and a medical symbol.
other marine animals. The largest Anatomy 101
python is capable of eating a small
goat. Some snakes catch their food Snakes have long internal organs to match their long and slender bodies.
by striking and grabbing, others by They have more than 300 small, riblike bones attached to a backbone.
constriction (suffocation by Snake eyes are
squeezing) and some use poisonous usually red or
venom. Snake jaws are elastic and yellow. The color
double-jointed, which allows them to acts like
Po
eat their meals whole. sunglasses, Skeleton Vertebrae
Unkeeled Keeled Home sweet home
filtering the consists of a Keeled scales have a Snakes live just about everywhere in
Pt ETERS
sun’s rays. skull, vertebrae rougher look than
J the world, except for New Zealand,
and ribs Be the shiny | Ireland, polar regions and some
LE unkeeled | jsolated islands. Most prefer the warm
‘, scales. | temperatures of the tropics, but many
have adapted to the cooler climate of
the Northern Hemisphere. Depending
on the species, they live on and in the
ground, in trees, in water and in sand.
All snakes can swim, but only a few
Wl (like the giant anaconda) live mostly in
the water. Snakes like to bask in the
Snakes have ae Intestines sun to warm up and if they live in
only one lung colder regions they hibernate in
the winter.
Tail
Locomotion
There are about Poisonous
Different snakes move in different ways 30 species of
and experts can often identify a snake rattlesnakes living
snakes
by its track. ; in North America. Snakes almost
never attack
Concertina or
climbing motion is Mating and babies people unless
threatened Open for
similar to the way an Snakes find their mates by smell and or surprised. »* bite
inch-worm moves. each species has its own mating ritual.
The snake pulls its There are about
Some male snakes will fight each other
body along with its 600 species of
Snake constricting for the right to mate. Scientists do not
around a rodent head and upper venomous Vipers have
know very much about snake
muscles. snakes. They use long, poisonous
courtships.
a poison called fangs that retract
Enemies and defense Most snakes lay eggs, but some venom to kill their when the mouth
Sidewinding is used mostly by (garter snakes for example) give birth prey. The venom is closed and
Snakes have many enemies, desert snakes like the viper. to live snakes. Some species lay as
The snake touches the ground is injected through jut out when
including humans. Hawks, eagles, many as 100 eggs, while others lay sharp, hollow attacking.
owls, raccoons, skunks, bears, at only two points, leaving only a few. They nest in warm, damp
parallel tracks on the ground. ~ teeth called
weasels, hedgehogs, rats, crocodiles and shady places, under leaves or fangs.
and other snakes are just a few of rocks, or in hollow logs. The parents do
their natural enemies. not linger at the nest, leaving the eggs Poisonous snakes
can be divided
Hiding is one of the snake’s best and babies to fend for themselves.
Snake eggs are small and not hard like into three groups:
defenses, and many snakes use Caterpillar crawl or
bird eggs, but soft and leathery. rear-fanged,
camouflage to avoid predators. Many rectilinear motion
elapids and As the name
are similar in color to their habitats. is preferred by large, Baby snakes stay in their eggs for two vipers. suggests, the
Some species use bright colors to heavy snakes. Scales or three months. They use a special
act like treads, pulling Rattlesnakes fangs of rear-
warn that they are poisonous, and egg tooth to break out of the egg.
the body along. belong to the viper fanged snakes
others use color to pretend to be When they are born they look just like
family. They are are at the back.
poisonous. Many snakes will hiss or adults, only smaller. Throughout their
play dead. Some, like Serpentine, S-shaped or famous for their
lives, as snakes grow they shed their
the cobra, try to look lateral undulation rattling tails.
old skin. This is called shedding,
bigger by puffing out a The snake pulls and pushes against sloughing or molting. Vipers strike
special hood near the rocks and pebbles. Medium sized very quickly. Their
head. And rattlesnakes snakes use this movement. long fangs move
use their famous rattles forward for the
to scare away trouble. bite then retreat.
Elapids have
Garter snakes let off a The largest poisonous teeth
nasty smell that venomous snake at the front of
discourages most _ is the king cobra their upper jaw.
enemies. from India.
76

A few good spiders Bigger is better

Spiders come in many shapes, Tarantulas are the largest
colors and sizes. They also spiders and despite a nasty
have many different ways of reputation, are quite harmless
life. Scientists classify spiders to people. Many dig burrows
into groups that make studying and live in the ground, but
them easier. some live in trees.
Hunting spiders tend to lie in Mexican
wait and jump out on their red-knee
prey from a good hiding place. tarantula
They generally have large
eyes and powerful chelicerae
Many people do not like spiders, but they are actually very helpful creatures because to help them find and over-
they eat insects that might otherwise become pests. Spiders are not insects, but eight- power their prey.
legged animals belonging to the arachnid family. There are more than 30,000 kinds of The Lynx spider is a type of
spiders. All spiders have the ability to make silk, but not all spiders spin webs. hunting spider. It will lie in wait
They are carnivorous (meat-eaters) and most are venomous, using their fangs and or chase its prey, which often
consists of other spiders.
poison to catch food. Only a very few spiders are actually dangerous to people. Some
tarantulas
can grow
The life cycle Garden as large as
; : spider an adult’s
Spiders are generally solitary
hand.
creatures who come together
only to mate. Males are smaller
than females and need to be
careful not to be eaten when SA Spiderlings
they come courting. ws . Wesy
Jumping spiders are aptly Most females lay about 100
How long a spider can live \ named because. they like to eggs, but large tarantulas will
depends on the species. Some pounce on their victims. lay up to 2,000 eggs.
live a year, others have been There are more than 4,000 Baby spiders are called
known to live 20 years. kinds of jumping spiders. spiderlings. They hatch inside
a special silk sac that their
Molting mother spins before laying her
Trapdoor
Spiders do not have eggs. Spiderlings stay in the
spiders
bones. Their sac until warm weather arrives.
There are
bodies are During this time they grow
about 20
contained in an larger and molt. When the time
species of
outer skeleton is right, they tear a hole in the
trapdoor
covered in hairs sac and greet the world. Most
spiders. They
and spines spiderlings travel by balloon-
live in burrows rapdoor ing; soon after leaving the sac
called an with trapdoor spider
exoskeleton. As they they spin silk draglines that are
entrances.
grow they shed their outer skin caught by the wind. The young
in a process called molting. Water spiders spiders are carried by the wind
You may have noticed these Beginning Extra support The orb Dinner time make silk nests to new areas. Some species of
empty skins hanging around. The spider More thread The web gets _‘The spider underwater that spiderlings will stay with their
spins and is added to stronger as it —_waits for its Water they fill with mother, sharing her web and
strings a the web. takes shape. dinner to fly air bubbles. food for a period of time before
Anatomy 101 Y-shape. into the web. They leave moving on.
the nest only
Some spiders see better than others. Hunter spiders depend on
keen eyesight, while many web-building spiders use a highly
Making silk to catch food Spiderlings
ballooning
Female with
egg sac
or get more
developed sense of vibration to detect their prey. Most spiders Spiders use their silk in air bubbles.
have eight eyes, but some have six, four.or only two, and some many ways. Some spin They are
cave species have no eyes at all. Spiders do not chew; they suck. webs or drop lines to found only
Their mouths have special appendages that act like straws. catch prey in. Silk is also in Europe
used for nests. Spiders
Body of a garden spider *
leave a trail of silk, calleda —~=="y)
dragline behind them. This is
Spiders have two main body parts: the cephalothorax and the
abdomen, connected by a thin waist called the pedicel.
used as a lifeline. Gossamer Avoid these spiders
is another word for a spider’s
Abdomen Stomach Pedipalp areclaws silk thread. There are only six spiders
used to catch and in North America that are
Spinnerets Spiders make silk using their dangerous to people: the
crush prey
silk glands. Most spiders brown recluse, the lynx,
ee Chelicerae have five silk glands, but some Fisher spiders live near
are pointed the black widow, the brown
organs have as many as seven or as marshes, ponds and slow widow, the red widow and
clawlike few as three. Each gland moving waterways. They eat the varied widow.
limbs with produces a different kind of insects, but also will catch
fangs, used silk. Spider silk does not small fish and tadpoles. Their
Za to capture dissolve in water and is light bodies make it possible
a 3———_ and paralyze considered to be the strongest for them to walk on water.
—— prey natural fiber. Some ancient
Leg <on POS people used spider silk to Wolf spiders have hairy
wrap wounds and help bodies and often look and act
XX A healing. like other kinds of spiders.
Poison XY Fe
ee They are very quick when
Silk glands produce gland Sew
\\ Types of webs chasing down prey.
the web threads is connected \
to the Sse
chelicerae Wolf
and fang spider
Ya
Mh

Male
ladybug
spider
Wolf spider Tarantula Jumping Ogre-faced Black widows like warmer
Lycosa Lasiodora spider stick spider Ladybug spiders are one.of climates, but can be found all
carolinensis Phidippus Deinopis 20 spider species threatened over North America, except in
variegatus spinosus with extinction. the extreme north.
 77

All in the family Dinner time

Squirrels are a kind of rodent Squirrels spend
(gnawing animals), closely a great deal of
related to mice, rats and time eating and
beavers. There are about collecting food.
270 species in the Sciuridae
(squirrel) family. Squirrels can be \ They like to eat nuts, seeds,
divided into three main groups: pine cones, bark, sap,
tree squirrels, flying squirrels and nsects, eggs, fruit, plant
ground squirrels. These cute and lively rascals can be found just about everywhere ) shoots, buds and fungi.
Tree squirrels have bushy tails except Australia and Antarctica. Some people think of them as pests What they eat
and live mostly in trees. They depends on the
can be found in forests all over
because they sometimes nest in places they are not welcome (houses, season and what
the world. These animals spend sheds) and they have a knack for getting into bird feeders and taking is available.
most of the day searching for
food. The common Eastern and
more than their share. A few species have been known to damage If they live ina
place with cold
Western gray and fox squirrel are farmers’ fields. Most people like squirrels enough to share the back winters, squirrels
found in North America.
yard and parks with them, but worldwide, the biggest threat to these store caches of
The Western gray little animals is the destruction of their forest and grassland homes. food in the ground and/or
squirrel is also under leaves near their nests.
known as the Squirrels usually remember
California Squirrels molt (shed their fur) where they have hidden food,
squirrel. twice a year, usually in the spring
but if they forget, they have a
and fall. Squirrel fur is multi-
keen sense of smell to help
layered; the inner layer is short
and thick to trap air and keep the them locate a lost meal.
animal warm. The outer layer is Many squirrels share much of
longer and makes up the visible their habitat with humans.
coat. Tree squirrels in North They have adapted by nesting
America have many color patterns Squirrels have very close to bird feeders and they
and variations are often regional. strong upper and lower can be quite bold if they are
incisor teeth that grow
Flying squirrels live in trees used to people feeding them
continually throughout their
and are nocturnal, searching in the park. Some
lives. The incisors are well-
for food at night. They have a have even
suited for cracking nuts,
special fold of skin between developed a
while the back molars grind
their front and back legs that taste for human
The tail food into smaller bits.
allows them to glide from tree garbage.
helps
to tree. Most species are from
with
Asia, but two small flying
balance. Squirrels are helpful to forests when they bury nuts and when they
squirrels inhabit North America.
nibble on a certain underground fungus. Unclaimed buried nuts
often grow into young trees, helping forest growth. When squirrels
Flying ° eat a fungus called mycorrhizae they help distribute the fungus
squirrel spores through the forest. This fungus is beneficial because it aids
in the exchange of water, minerals and energy from the sun
The Eastern between soil and plants.
gray
squirrel is
not always Home, sweet home
gray. It can Squirrels generally build more than one nest, so that they
be tan, can move easily if a nest is damaged or threatened. The nest
brown or provides essential shelter from
black. the elements and enemies. It
Ground squirrels have short gx
tails and tend to be more is also a safe place to
compact than their cousins. The front feet have four digits and raise young and to store
They burrow in open fields. the back have five. Sharp claws and food. Nests are
hairless foot pads (Some squirrels grow padded with leaves,
Chipmunks are a kind of ground
fur on their pads in winter) help the grasses, chewed
squirrel. So are marmots
(groundhogs) and prairie dogs. squirrel climb vertical surfaces and give bark and other
the animal superior gripping control. materials. The
summer nest is a
Marmot prairie
ball of twigs,
Having babies leaves and vines
woven into the
Squirrels that inhabit the far north fork of a tree
tend to mate once a year and have branch. In milder
litters of four to eight offspring. climates some
Those that live farther south may have squirrels use a leaf
a second litter, but the number of offspring is nest year-round.
much smaller. The female is These leaf nests are
pregnant for 36 to 43 days. called dreys.
The newborns are blind and
have no hair. The mother
raises the young alone.
Most tree squirrels become Territories
independent in about 8 Most squirrels establish a home territory and some will fight to
weeks. Flying squirrels can defend it. Territory size depends on food resources and the
take 10 or more weeks; this number of potential mates. Most tree and flying squirrels live
may be because they have alone, but some live with a mate or in a small family group.
to learn how to glide before In winter, some squirrel species will gather in temporary groups
leaving the nest. = called aggregations. Aggregations help the animals survive the
Chipmunk
cold by combining body heat.
Comparing squirrel sizes By 5 weeks old, baby

8 $55
squirrels have fur and
begin to explore.
Old age
How long a squirrel lives depends a great deal on how large it is.
Larger squirrels tend to live longer because they are less likely to

Fox Y Abert’s Gray Red -

WhNorthern
=p
Southern
be eaten by a predator. Smaller squirrels have shorter life spans,
but they compensate by having larger litters more often. Squirrels
may live up to 10 or 12 years in the wild, but most die much
younger. Hawks, cats, foxes, weasels and snakes are some of
squirrel squirrel squirrel squirrel _—_flying squirrel flying squirrel the squirrel’s natural enemies. Squirrels are also the victims of
17 to 37 0z. ~ 18to 33 0z. 12to340z. 5to11 oz. 1.5to50z. 1.4 to 3.5 oz.
automobiles and habitat destruction.
(504-1 ,062gm) (681-908 gm) (338-964 gm) (338-750 gm) (45-140gm) (40-98 gm)
 What are wetlands? :
According to the U.S. Fish and water and land. Some wetlands development or agriculture in
Wildlife Service, wetlands are are isolated, and most are low- the past 100 years. Many of the
defined as areas where lying. They are areas of great remaining ones have been
“saturation with water is the biodiversity, providing habitat used as dumping grounds and
dominant factor determining the for plants and animals. Most are poisoned by toxic metals,
nature of soil development and North American wetlands are chemicals and pollutants.
the types of plant and animal endangered. There were an Continued disregard for these
communities living in the soil estimated 220 million acres of vital areas will negatively affect
and on its surface.” wetlands in the continental U.S. water supply, flood control,
in the 1660s. More than half of tourism, commerce, and
In general, wetlands are most
U.S. wetlands have been lost to species diversity.
often areas between bodies of

Turtles can be seen basking on

roots and logs in swamps. The
Like marshes, swamps are populated by slider turtle below has a wide red
grasses, but they also include hardwood and , stripe behind its eye, identifying it
conifer trees and shrubs. The baldcypress as the red-eared subspecies.
grows in the south. Its trunk is wide at the
base, forming buttresses that stabilize the
tree in wet soil. Knobby projections called
knees help the tree to get air.

Bogs
Carnivorous
Bogs are acidic wetlands populated by plants
sphagnum mosses, sedge grasses and heath are common
shrubs growing on nutrient-poor soils with rain or snow to bogs and
as their only water source. Thick accumulations of supplement a
decaying plant materials called peat give nutrient-poor
bogs their characteristic spongy texture. soil with
insect food.

Fens Amphibians were once

Alkaline wetlands that are nutrient-rich. common to wetlands, but now are
Dominant plants are sedges, shrubs, and herbs critically endangered worldwide.
that thrive on calcium. Peat also accumulates in fens, and Below is a tiger salamander, the world’s
their bottoms are usually made of limestone. There are two largest land-dwellingsalamander, reaching
types: Rich fens, fed by flowing surface and ground waters, lengths of 13 inches long.
and poor fens that are sealed off from flowing
water, becoming acidic, and
transitioning into bogs. ene Ry
me Bal t2
= z., E
3

Marshes Waterfowl depend

Mineral-rich wetlands dominated by grasses, on wetland habitats,
rushes and cattails. Freshwater marshes often thousands of birds have
transition to swamps. Saltwater marshes form a vital, adapted to the plants a
protective barrier between the ocean and the land. Marshes shelter found there. An
are shallow wetlands, with water depth of 3 feet or less. American bittern pair (right)
\\.\, hides in the tall marsh grass.
They usually form adjacent to rivers, lakes and
ponds. Marshes exhibit a high species
at) —
diversity and are some of the
most productive habitat on
earth. The rate of photo-
synthesis is very high, and
plant grow this rapid. Here, a water- Rodents
meadow of wild rice, bulrushes and are common
pondweeds transitions into a pond. in wetlands. This
rodent is a
muskrat.
Their homes
Shrub-carr have one
or more
Wetland thickets populated underwater
by shrubs like red-osier entrances.
dogwood, willow, alder and
chokeberry. Shrub-carr forms
between wetlands and uplands and can
invade marsh, fen or bog. Here, alder trees
and red cedar have established in a grassy marsh.
Small rivulets are all that remain of the once open water in
this transitional marsh, soon to become a damp meadow with BS
small trees and woody shrubs. The Leopard frog
was once a biology
class dissection animal.
Food chains, webs and ecological pyramids This frog, like many other
amphibians, is in serious
Wetlands are usually eaten by consumer Usually, producers measure the amount of
dominant in producer organisms. greatly outnumber stored energy or mass of A decline across North
America. They were
organisms, like plants, consumers, but the creatures at each Second-order consumer —
Food chains are a abundant in most wetlands
bacteria and microscopic method of showing who disruption on any trophic level, you would notice Aquatic insects as few as 20 years ago.
protists. Producers are eats whom in a habitat. level can negatively that it reduces with each
the basis for all food They can be incredibly impact the balance of upward step, forming a
chains, and have the wide-based pyramid. First-order consumer
complex and interwoven an entire food web.
ability to convert raw Each consumer feeds Zooplankton
because many creatures Each layer in this food
material (soil nutrients) eat many things. chain is called a trophic from one or more of the
and energy (solar power) level. If you were able to layers beneath it. Producers
into food, which is in turn,
Phytoplankton and plants
 79

Northern Hemisphere Southern Hemisphere

Wwalhs
Swans are water birds
Mute swan closely related to geese Black swan
Cygnus olor and ducks. There are Cygnus atratus
seven species of swan. The black swan is
The mute swan is
Swans are flightless during Four of these are found in originally from
also known as the
European swan. their an nual molt and while the Northern Hemisphere Australia, where it
Native to Europe their young are still and three live in the gathers in huge flocks
and Asia, it can now incapable of flight. Southern Hemisphere. of up to 50,000 birds.
be found in many parts Male swans are called
of the world. The mute swan is cobs. The females are
named for its silence; it is a quiet bird
called pens, and baby
compared with its swan cousins. This
bird rarely migrates and tends to live and young swans are
on the same lake or pond year after take off in called cygnets.
year. Efforts to reduce populations sudden flight.
have been introduced in places where Because of their large
the bird has become competition for bodies, swans must run until
native species. they get up enough speed to take off.
Black-necked swan
Cygnus melanocoryphus
The black-necked swan
is from southern
South America.
When it honks it
sounds a bit like a
small trumpet. This
swan has been hunted
Whooper swan almost to extinction.
Cygnus cygnus
The whooper swan
is about the same
size as the mute
swan, but has a
straighter neck. The
noisiest of swans, the Whooper
whooper is named swan
for its loud, bugle-like call.
Hunting this bird is against
the law in Great Britain.
a ae rsoe

Coscoroba swan
Tundra swan
Coscoroba coscoroba
Cygnus columbianus
Like the black-
The tundra swan is
necked swan, the
named for where it
coscoroba
likes to live — the
is also from South
Arctic tundra. It is
America. It is small
the most common
and white with a shorter
swan found in Cygnet neck than other swans.
North America. It
SG ms It is also the smallest of the swans.
breeds in the Arctic es
This swan sounds a lot like a goose
tundra and winters on the On average, when it calls.
swans in the wild
live about 20
years, but they
can live 50 years Family units
in captivity. Swans are very loyal and most stay with
the same mate for life. They build huge
ca Ge ~ Swans often nests of grass and other plant material.
y ae fly at night An average swan Clutch (a nest or brood
~ and can of offspring) consists of 4 to 6 whitish
Interesting facts: eggs. The eggs hatch in 30 to 35 days.
Trumpeter swan .
reach
speeds The young emerge with a thick gray
Cygnus buccinator
+ Swans are messy eaters and will often leave a down (small, soft feathers). Cygnets often
i of 30 to feeding area littered with torn-up vegetation.
The trumpeter swan 50 mph. ride on their parents’ backs. They can fly
is one of North * Swans have special glands that allow them to at 7 to 14 weeks of age. Young birds
America’s largest drink saltwater. often stay with their parents until they
birds and the - Aswan’s neck has 24 to 25 vertebrae — more have reached full maturity (2 to 3 years).
largest of all the _ than any other warm-blooded animal. Geese
swans. It has a have 18 or 19, and mammals, including
loud, deep, trumpet- humans and giraffes, only have seven. Myths and legends
like call. This bird was on * The Greek god Zeus sometimes
the verge of extinction in the early assumed the form of a swan.
1900s, but conservation efforts have Dinnertime * The ancient Celts associated swans
helped population numbers improve. Swans feed primarily on underwater with healing waters and the sun. Many
There are about 6,000 trumpeter vegetation, but they also eat land myths tell of swans changing into
swans today. Reintroduction into é grasses. They do not generally use human form, and vice versa.
former ranges is continuing. their whole bodies to plunge below
water for their food. They instead use * It was once believed that the swan only
their long necks to reach lake and sang right before its death — hence the
pond bottoms. They can keep their origin of the expression “swan song.”
heads under water an average of * Swans were often used as figureheads
10 to 20 seconds. on ships. As swans don’t plunge below
the waves, sailors believed the swan
ire COCs FER
Pe OR,Nae NRG See eS
brought good luck.
80

The miacis lived in

European forests
during the Eocene
period. It was
about 8 inches long.

Tiger habitats Critical situation

Today, tiger territory is severely limited in the forests and
What are tigers? 2 moncoun =
“—~ Russia grasslands of Asia. They can range from tropical areas of the
Far East to the Arctic Ocean, roaming the snowbound forests
Like many carnivores, in Siberia.
tigers descended from a &‘a4 Korea
small prehistoric animal called There were once eight subspecies of tigers. Only five live
a miacisd. The miacisd lived CHINA today. Balinese, Javan and Caspian tigers are all extinct.
millions of years ago and ene Korea The five remaining subspecies are critically endangered and
evolved into bears, dogs > efforts are being made to preserve what few thousand cats
and cats. of remain. Despite efforts to preserve them, poaching, habitat
9 loss and loss of genetic diversity threaten tigers worldwide.
Approximately 2 to 3 million Scientists predict the tiger will survive only with human
years ago, in Central and { intervention and complete protection.
East Asia, an early group of ie Philippines
cats,began to develop
characteristics that exist in
my ‘ys
‘ .a easy
sina
today’s tigers. These traits
include tawny fur and black
stripes. From this region, the smo oeerAS
striped cats moved north into
Russia and south and east
into the Indonesian islands.
Eventually, they reached as
far south as Bali, southwest
throughout India, and west as
far as the Caspian Sea.

Tiger classification
Scientists use a system
called taxonomic
Classification to arrange
animals into progressively
smaller groups based on
their similarities. Each
group contains the groups
beneath it in the hierarchy. Indochinese South China
Here’s how tigers are Centered in Thailand, this This tiger is
classified: subspecies can also be on the very
found in Myanmar, brink of
Cambodia, Vietnam, Laos, extinction.
Malaysia, and southern Only a few
China. Population sightings have
Cats are animals, not plants,
estimates are based almost been reported over Sumatran
protists or bacteria. Kingdoms
exclusively on secondary the last 10 years. Optimistic
are the largest groups. The smallest in size of the five living
evidence. It is believed that estimates place them at two or
1,000 to 1,700 survive in three dozen. Even if protected tiger subspecies. For over a million
the wild. Sixty live in zoos completely, such a small wild years, they have lived in the once
throughout Asia and the population is unlikely to survive. extensive tropical jungles of Sumatra,
Animals with backbones. United States. Indonesia. Wild populations are now
heavily fragmented and estimated to
Class mammalia Tiger skull be around 600.
Mammals give birth to live
young, have fur, are warm- The largest of all the tigers,
blooded, and nurse their Siberians are the biggest
young with milk. cats on Earth and can
exceed 9.8 feet in length.
a
eo Canine teeth Members of this subspecies
Order carnivora Ss are found along a strip of
Carnivores eat meat. ~~ } : Carnassial teeth land in far eastern Russia,
~ sy along the coast of the Sea of
Family felidae Cats have = Japan. As many as 400
special teeth Se Siberians live there, with
Felidae are felines. Three called “carnassials,” some still inhabiting the
sub-families are included. for shredding meat. northern portions of Korea
Tigers have and China.
Subfamily Acinonychinae four sharp
canine teeth.
The Cheetah is the only
member of this subfamily.

Subfamily Felinae
The “little cats.” Although
some can grow quite large,
they are called little cats.
They cannot roar, and
most of these cats have
pupils that form slits when The most commonly known tiger
they are closed. subspecies. Estimates range
between 3,000 and 4,500 across
Subfamily Pantherinae India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar
and Bhutan. Several hundred are in
The “big cats.” In bright light,
Captivity, primarily in Indian zoos.
their pupils Sappear round,
rather than slit.
 81

TREES
Tulip poplar
_ Photosynthesis
= Carbon dioxode

the leaves
to feed
Trees are the largest plants on Earth and the oldest the tree
in
living things. They can be taller than skyscrapers and Axillary bud
some live thousands of years. Trees make up our ee tiga ih

forests and they shade our houses and gardens. Terminal

Oxygen bud
They help clean the air we breathe and keep
soil from washing away. We use their wood Young
leaves
for shelter, furniture and paper, and they are
Bud scale
also a source of food and medicine. Five Payee ae Apical
¥=¢ Chloroplasts : yi meristem
thousand years ago, trees covered more FG iE £9) $ g = “growing
than three-quarters of the world's land; ‘ § joint” &
/ Vascular ; -
now as much as 90 percent are gone and | Bark Y bundle :
more trees disappear every minute. “vein”
Cortex
4 Petiole
Phloem
Looking at a tree Leaves Xylem
There are five basic tree groups. Needle Leaves contain many cells, — Bes,
leaf trees (conifers) such as pines and each with a unique purpi “
firs, and broadleaf trees, such as oaks, Stomata are minute bréathing pores on <p?” _ 2
maples, eucalyptuses and palm trees, the underbelly of the leaf. They take in air _ Se
are the most common. Unusual tropical and release moisture.
and sub-tropical species include the tree ¥a vital life-support system that
fern, the ginkgo and the cycad. Tree Two guard cells protect the stoma.
arries water and minerals from the
ferns can reach over 70 feet and look They expand and contract in order to adjust @
roots up to the branches and leaves
like slender palms topped with fronds. the amount of water the tree releases.
through a unique plumbing system
The ginkgo or maidenhead tree has a The cells on the upper side of the leaf are called chloroplasts. of small tubes called xylem.
silhouette similar to an elm or willow They contain chlorophyll and act as solar panels, using the sun’s
and is often found in parks and botanical energy to convert carbon dioxide and water into food in the form of Bark offers protection from harsh
gardens. Cycads are cousins to the sugars and starches. This process is called photosynthesis and elements and gnawing animals, as
conifer and resemble squat palm trees means “putting together with light.” Photosynthesis also produces well as from birds and insects that
with large red or yellow cones. the oxygen that helps to keep the air clean. might bore and drill the tree’s
surface. Bark grows and stretches;
Leaf litter is the dead and rotting leaves and its seasonal rings and cracks are as
twigs that collect beneath a tree. Insects use individual as a fingerprint.
it for food and refuge. In turn, they help with
its decomposition.

Outer bark

Broadleaf Coniferous Tropical <NX

trees are trees trees like a (0) ar-lalem ale)|Om (em (1-10
deciduous, generally the palm rslalolialomel eae A : Inner
they lose have leaves are broad- ele eC O . bark
theirleaves Knownas igaved 0): Balct> ‘elele e S| Cambium
eve scales or & layer
ry di trees. ® a ele) mie eeye
autumn. ee mes: and e webds of na . Sapwood
alled feede aca SG,
Redwoods, eucalyptus and sequoias
can grow to giant size. The General ) | nNj > \

Sherman Tree, a sequoia in California’s and are replaced a =

Sequoia National Park, is over 275 feet =\> 0]£0) A tree eye) Heartwood
and one California redwood has reached eC eeds tertile SO
368 feet. The tallest tree on record was 0)£0(=) a (oer-|e}s10)40
a eucalyptus. Over 430 feet high, it was =)9(0)0 (e|ame).aV/e(> ate
cut down in Victoria, Australia, in the alate e y
19th century. ; eat

A tree’s outward growth occurs in the cambium layer. Most mature trees grow wider
by an inch a year. The cambium produces a ring each year, which you can count to
Every year get a tree’s age. The circumference or distance around a tree is called the girth.

Germination Pollination Autumn Food for thought

In order to grow, a tree needs the right Flower pollination is important to a In fall, as daylight decreases, leaves on The fruit of a tree is its seeds. The
combination of sunlight, oxygen and tree’s reproductive cycle. Once a deciduous trees change their color. The type and shape of a seedcase will
temperature. Seeds start sprouting with blossom has matured, the anthers of its chlorophyll manufacturing process, which determine whether a seed is dispersed
the coming of spring. They take in water stamen open to release pollen grains. uses sunlight to make carbohydrates, by mammals, birds, wind or water. Often
and feed on shell-stored nutrients. When Anemophilous trees are pollinated by shuts down, revealing leaves in glorious seeds, such as walnuts and pecans,
the seed cracks its coat, minuscule roots the wind. Others, called entomphilous autumn shades. Temperature, light provide food for people as well as small
stretch into the earth to hold the plant trees, rely on small animals and insects. and water supply determine their color animals and birds. When planted, or left
firm and to suck up more moisture. Fertilization is a result of pollen touching intensity, so for brightly colored leaves on the ground in the right conditions,
the flower’s stigma, making it possible the best weather is clear, dry and cool. seeds will germinate and a new tree
Germination for the male and female cells to join. Leaves fall or are blown off because a will grow.
of seedling special layer of cork cells grows between
the leaf and the tree, leaving a protective
Apple blossom Pistil detail
scar. This process allows the tree to save
its energy over the winter.

Seed coat fe
82

What are trout? Trout anatomy

Trout are freshwater
History of trout
The fins of trout are entirely
fish belonging to the It isthought that Salmonidaes earliest ancestors appeared without spines. All trout
salmon family, about 100 million years ago. By the end of the Miocene have an adipose (fatty)
Salmonidae. They epoch (24 million to 5 million years ago), major branches fin along the back, near
usually live in clear, of Salmonidae were established in the fossil record. the tail. Many isolated
cool streams and populations have become
lakes, but many morphologically different.
species are Many distinct populations
anadromous, show no significant genetic
Migratory fish Nare Lateral Dorsal fin Adipose fin Caudal
meaning they differences, so what may
line fin
ascend rivers from Salmon are migratory appear to be a large
the sea to breed. and return to their natal number of trout species is
Trout are native to streams to breed when actually considered to be a
North America, mature. Dams built by smaller number by most
northern Asia and man prevent the fish ichthyologists (scientists
Europe. Several from moving upriver. who
species were Declining wild study
introduced to populations have led Fun fact fish).
Australia and New to the development of
Zealand in the 19th Animage Trout
fishways, or fish
century by of a trout will of the
ladders. These
amateur fishing be struck eastern
structures are placed
enthusiasts, where on or around man- Gill Pectoral Axillary Pelvic Anal Caudal onto the United
they have displaced made barriers to aid cover fin process fin fin peduncle Washington States
several native state are a
migration. Most fish-
species. quarter. good
ways enable fish to Life cycle of E example
pass around the barrier ie trout 99 AGE 0 of this.
Classification by swimming and The brook, aurora and silver trout display very different physical
There are five types leaping up aseries of | Water temperature characteristics and coloration, but, genetically, they are one
of fish in the large relatively low steps into determines the ay. Green egg
species ~ Salvelinus fontinalis. Trout color and patterning
Salmonidae family the waters on the other time most trout le 1-2 provide camouflage. Coloration changes as a fish migrates to
(whitefishes, side. For successful and salmon breed. SPe"™ seconds new habitats. Trout newly returned from the sea appear silvery,
graylings, trout, migration, the water’s It also determines while another genetically similar fish that has been living in a
salmon and velocity has to be great stream or lake may bear pronounced markings or bright color.
how long it takes
char). Trout are enough to attract fish to Generally, wild fish appear to have more vivid colors
for the fertilized
members of the sub- the ladder, but not and patterns than those raised on farms.
eggs to hatch.
family Salmoninae: strong enough to wash
fish back downstream A sperm (milt) Holyoke fish elevator
Oncorhynchus or to tire them to the penetrates the On the Connecticut River
(Pacific salmon and Hoist lifts the
point where they can’t egg through the
trout) includes10 Fish trap allows counting and elevator to the
continue their journey. micropyle, leaving
species worldwide. There are five types of movement over dam opening into
the tail behind. the trap
fish ladders:
Salmon (Atlantic Asecreted enzyme
salmon and Brown Rock ramp fishways helps the hatching Crowding
Trout) includes two trout break through Fast moving
Pool and weir area draws fish
species in North the eggshell. water attracts into elevator
America. Vertical-slot fish fish
passages
Salvelinus (fish
Rainbow-trout fry
called Char) Denil fishways
develop purple or
includes five species
Fish elevators blue “parr’ marks.
in North America.

Pink or humpback salmon

18 to 24 inches long; the most Sockeye salmon Life and habits
abundant Pacific salmon species Chum salmon 21 to 26 inches long; the most Trout are opportunistic
24 to 31 inches long; a very important commercial salmon feeders and will eat aquatic
NOTE: All examples are male; spawning colors abundant Pacific salmon species species in North America invertebrates and insects.
In lakes, zooplankton is a
large part of the trout diet.
Genus salmo Important food fish Large lake-dwelling trout
Atlantic salmon Trout are sought recreationally by sport will become piscivorous
30 to 36 inches long; it is unlikely fishermen. They are often raised on (fish eating), preying upon
this once-abundant species will farms to stock waters that have been small fish.
overfished. They can be caught with a Trout dwell in cold water,
Brown trout regular rod and reel, but fly fishing was
10 to 12 inches long; and their body temperature
developed primarily for trout and has is the same as the water
a European species extended to other fish species. Trout are
introduced to around them. Their growth
capable of “learning,” and in catch-and- rate is determined by water
North America release fisheries, they become harder to
in 1880. temperature and continues
catch each time they are landed. until death. They can live
25 years or more, but the
average life span is six or
seven years.
Bull trout
All trout, salmon and char
8 to 10 inches long in streams;
begin and end their lives in
12 to 18 inches in lakes. The bull
fresh water. Most of them
trout is a predator of other fish.
\\ reproduce in cold, moving
water by creating excava-
Brook trout tions called redds.
Arctic char (Taranet’s char) 12 to 28 inches long; this species has Atlantic salmon can spawn
12 to 18 inches long; the most adapted to warmer waters; it is the more than once; Pacific
complex of the Salmonidsto classify least specialized form of char. salmon die after spawning.
 83

Where they fitin Traits — _ Anatomy - Turtle behavior

Turtles and tortoises are Turtles and tortoises are Turtles and tortoises are divided The shell of a turtle is the feature Being ectothermic (cold-
reptiles, and are related to members of the animal order into two groups based on the way that has allowed it to survive blooded), most turtles and
lizards, crocodiles and snakes. called chelonia. In 300 million the turtle withdraws the head. for millions of years. It is a tortoises must spend part of the
All of them have a skin, scute years they have changed little. specialized structure that is fused day basking in the sun to raise
Pleurodira are the side-neck
or scale covered shell. They are descendants of primitive turtles. They fold the head to the to the turtle’s bones. The shell is their body temperature and
They are cold-blooded, meaning “stem” reptiles called Cotylosaurs side as it is drawn into the shell, composed of two parts — the activity level. When it is cold,
their body temperature changes (now extinct). and are found in South America, carapace, or upper shell, and the they become sluggish, and in
as the air temperature of their There are 250 to 300 species. Africa and Australia. plastron, or bottom shell. winter, they go into torpor, a
environment changes. The spine is not flexible, meaning dormant state of inactivity
Tortoises are commonly Cryptodira are the hidden-neck
the only body parts a turtle can much like hibernation.
Even if they spend most of their land-dwelling, while turtles or turtles. They fold the neck into an
lives in the water, they return to terrapins are aquatic. S-shaped curve and have eight move are its legs, neck and tail. Females usually use the same
the land to nest and lay eggs. bones in the neck. spot every year to lay eggs.

and.
RED-EARED TERRAPIN (POND SLIDER)
5-11.25 inches long VERTEBRAL SCUTE
This turtle is commonly sold in pet stores and dime
stores. Millions have been raised on turtle farms,
but few survive to adulthood. In the wild, they CARAPACE
are usually seen basking, often stacking
COSTAL
on top of each other on sunny logs. th
SCUTE

NOSE
EYE
CHIN
EAR
JAW
NECK

FORELIMB

FOOT
SHELL STRUCTURE
Side view
PLASTRON NECK OPENING LATERAL Scutes Carapace
BRIDGE Shoulder
MARGINAL SCUTE
WEBBING
The inside story N a :
Amnion Embryo
Plastron’ 'Scutes Tail
___ Egg-xamination -
Front view
Tortoises and a few types of turtles pe Cara pace
lay eggs with brittle shells, like- Galapagos EZ ay
birds. Aquatic turtles lay eggs with giant tortoise Os IX — Ribs
Bones
soft, leathery shells. Most females Hard shelled eggs (‘used together)
make a hole in the ground, back up to 2.5 inches in
into it, and deposit the clutch. diameter Matamata Gopher Australian Scutes! | Plastron
tortoise snake neck

Freshwater turtles Land-dwelling turtles Marine turtles

DESERT TORTOISE
MATAMATA BOX TURTLE
9-14.5 inches long
15 inches long 4-8.5 inches long
This tortoise eats grasses,
This South American turtle SPINY SOFT-SHELL The box turtle has a hinged LEATHERBACK
and feeds during the early LOGGERHEAD
is the strangest-looking Males 5-9 inches long plastron that allows it to
morning and late afternoon 50-84 inches long
turtle on Earth. Along the Females 6-18 inches long completely withdraw its head, 31-48 inches long
to avoid the blistering heat
head and neck of the feet and tail into a tight fitting These giants hold all A night-nester from May until
Easy to recognize because of midday. During this time
Matamata are fleshy knobs package that cannot be pried records for sea turtles. They August, though coastal area
its shell is covered with soft, they hide in burrows
that sway in the current. Its open by even the most are the largest, heaviest, development has destroyed
leathery skin, not scales or excavated in the soil which
shell is often algae-covered, clever predator. Youngsters fastest and longest-living many nesting sites. In the
scutes. It has a long snout can reach up to 30 feet in
and the turtle lies in wait for hatch in fall and hibernate marine reptiles. Their bodies past, this species could
that is used like a snorkel length. During winter, many
prey at the muddy river all winter, growing to about are smooth, streamlined reach 1,000 pounds, but
to breath while remaining may group together ina
bottom. To catch fish, it 4 inches long. If they survive, and flexible, and they can these giants are gone now
submerged. single burrow, becoming
opens wide, sucking water ’ they may live to be 100 swim up to 100 meters in that marine turtle populations
active again in the
and fish into its mouth. years old. 10 seconds. are critically endangered.
early spring.
84

A new realm to consider

Go outside. Look down. Really look down.
In fact, squat down and consider what you’re
standing on.
There may be over a billion living things under
your left foot. Who knows how many more Exploring the world’s most expansive ecosystem
billion are under your right foot. And that isn’t
including the more obvious insects, plants, TYPES OF SOILS
|
toads, birds, worms and slugs you may observe Soils are constantly Mushroom
near your feet right away. being formed and SR
Every landmass on Earth is covered with some destroyed. Some < Soe
kind of soil. The uppermost layers of the soils of rocks are softer r=
the Earth are habitats for a large community of and more easily
living things. pulverized by
weather or
decomposition.
Unseen world
As rocks erode,
Soil is a complex, living environment. Five their mineral
factors contribute to the mineral, organic and content
moisture content of soil, and determine what determines the
type of life it can support: microbe action, kind of soil they
weather, topography, parent material and eventually will
time scale. become. Collection
Scientists have classified the world’s soils into The size of the jar
12 groups which, as a whole, form the world’s mineral particles
largest ecosystem. of an eroding rock é
also contributes
Activity corner
Consider this: Make a Tullgren funnel
to soil texture.
B® Each gram of soil can contain 1,000,000,000 What you need:
microbes or more. (Yes, that’s a billion.) Densely packed
microscopic @ Quart jar with wide mouth
li There are 10,000 known species of soil particles, such
microbes, exhibiting more biodiversity than @ Funnel that fits in the
as Clay, do not jar mouth
the entire Mammalia class. drain well. vorm,
@ You could fit 28 billion soil microbes in the Sieve, mesh or piece of
Sands are the CS Lucky | Japanese
space of just one pygmy shrew, one of the beetle larva screen that fits in the funnel
largest soil find
world’s smallest mammals. Here’s a pygmy particles. Their (grub) & A strong lamp
shrew at actual size: grains can be both B Asoil sample (compost
Pygmy
shrew seen and felt. piles provide the most fun)
How to do it:
SOIL’S BEST 1. Assemble the funnel as
FRIEND shown.
Know the lingo
Earthworms 2. Turn on the light.
@ The scientists who study soil are called constantly bur- DIATOMS 3. Leave undisturbed
pedologists. row through the Part of marine and for several hours.
SOIL MITES freshwater algae. Their shells
B An area of an individual kind of soil is called a uppermost lay- 4. Check the jar for your
polypedon. Polypedons can be very large, ers of soil. They Members of the are made of silica and form two
minute zoo by pouring the
like a prairie, or as small as a square meter. pull plant debris Acari order. halves that fit together like a
contents onto a white dish.
into their bur- They are eight- lidded box. When they divide,
H Mineral soils are those that contain less than Work quickly so you don’t
rows to eat and legged animals each offspring takes half of the
20 percent organic matter. damage your discoveries.
soften the soil that feed on leaf shell and then grows the other
H Organic soils are those that contain more by moving litter. Scientists half. Round diatoms cannot Record your observations.
than 20 percent organic matter. through it. Fertile estimate that move; elongated ones can.
H Particles in the soil are brought together droppings, there are When fossilized, they are called HOW IT WORKS
by soil organisms. This process Is called called casts, are 500,000 kinds diatomaceous earth. The Tullgren funnel uses
aggregation. the byproduct of Of mites. light to isolate small
this activity. CENTIPEDE invertebrates and insects
Its name means“100 feet,” but most have from a soil sample. Usually,
A closer look at some factors that influence soil formation only 36 to 40 feet. © soil-borne creatures flee
from sunlight, preferring to
live in damp darkness.
Microbe action
Soil biologists study the living creatures in the soil. Some are so tiny they can be seen only with a powerful microscope. These tiny creatures, The sieve prevents soil from
called microbes, are the most abundant soil organism. Bacteria, protists and some fungi are microbes. They must be surrounded by water to live. falling into the jar, but allows
the tiny animals to escape
Soil bacteria play a vital role in the Earth’s health. They are largely decomposers, helping to recycle dead plants and animals into nitrogen and the light.
carbon, the building blocks of life.
Be a responsible scientist
Protists are simple organisms such as amoebas, diatoms or ciliates. and return your sample and
Slime molds are a fungilike group of protists. They reproduce by,forming spores. its inhabitants to the area
where you found them.

FOR FURTHER STUDY

Time scale
Fine soils take a long time to form. There may be billions of microbes at work doing decomposition, Hi Try another kind of
but it still takes about 500 years for them to form an inch of topsoil. soil — how does it differ?
Bi Try another sample
from the same place in
a different season.
Wa leyersein)
B Horizon
FIELD GUIDE
Bi Identifying soil creatures
(om ale ar<oya) Weather can be difficult. A hand lens
Soil formation begins Soil organisms begin Soil horizons appear Soil development Temperature and moisture dictate how can help.
when rain, snow, ice, to populate the parent as the soil develops. continues over time. quickly the microbes can work.
freezing temperatures i Classify your critters by
material. Plantlike The uppermost, or Well-developed soils Generally, heat and moisture cause
number of legs:
and environmental lichens (the symbiotic A Horizon, contains can support a diverse microbes to move fast, reproduce in
forces erode rock. relationship of a fungus the most organic layer of vegetation. abundance, and consume organic 6 legs: Insect
The material that and algae) produce material. It is also Some soils may include material quickly. That’s why a compost 8 legs: Spider or mite
results is called parent acids that decompose known as topsoil. a middle layer, or B pile heats up and breaks down faster in
More than 8 legs: Isopod,
material, which breaks rock. When soil The deepest layer, or Horizon, that is rich in the summer. Rock and stone depend on
millipede or centipede
down further into organisms die, their C Horizon, is some- minerals that have water and wind to pulverize them into
mineral particles. bodies collect with the times called subsoil. been washed down- fine particles. Plants help hold the newly Jumpers: Springtail
mineral particles. ward from the topsoil formed soil with their roots, and worms, Wrigglers: Worms
with drainage water. small invertebrates and insects then
Slime trailers: Mollusks
begin their work.
 85

Ladybugs are
poisonous to
many of their
predators.

There are many poisonous creatures in nature,

all with varying degrees of toxicity. Most are not
deadly to people. Their poisons are used to
Gila monster
discourage attacks and to aid in hunting. Some
animal bites and stings can be life-threatening. If you are stung Leaping lizards
or bitten by a venomous animal, always seek medical treatment. The only poisonous reptile found in
There are anti-venom serums available that can save your life. North America is the gila (pronounced
heela) monster. These shy lizards live
in the Southwestern United States and
Poisonous snakes The lion
fish has Mexico. They use their venomous bite
Poisonous snakes can be divided into poisonous to paralyze prey. The poison causes
Tarantulas are three groups: rear-fanged, elapids and spines weakness and dizziness in humans,
oo ae generally vipers. Snakes can’t hear and they don't and very rarely, death.
armless. see very well. But they do have a keen
sense of smell and are sensitive to
vibration. Snakes almost never attack
people unless threatened or surprised.
Rattlesnakes belong to the viper family.
They are famous for their rattling tails.
Vipers strike very quickly. Their long salamander’s
fangs move forward for the bite, then bright colors
Creepy crawlers retreat, folding into the roof of the mouth. warn of its
The largest venomous snake is the poisonous skin.
Every one gets stung by a bee or wasp king cobra from India. It can grow up to
eventually and unless you are allergic 18 feet long and its poison is powerful The poison
it is more a painful inconvenience than enough to kill a person in 15 minutes. of the
anything else. But some bites are more | |t has been estimated that cobras kill poison-dart
dangerous than others... 10,000 people a year in India. or arrow
Cobras and mambas belong to Sand dollar frogs is
Brazilian butterfly caterpillar the elapid group. allen:
used to
There are Diamondback Under the sea make deadly
30 species rattlers are more : arrows.
of rattle- poisonous than The most venomous of sea creatures is
snakes <=. other rattlesnakes. the sea wasp found near the Phillipines
living in and in the Indian Ocean. If stung by one
of these jellyfish, death can occur in
minutes.
Many insects advertise that they
are poisonous with bright colors.
Many harmless creatures mimic the Sea anemones,
There are more
g
dangerous ones. ; a OS ~ \
we.
sea cucumbers,
Be didoleas than 50 colorful
= ak ‘ K ss
some starfish species of
and a variety of poison-dart
coral are toxic to | fogs in South
Jellyfish varying and Central
degrees. America.
Many frogs and
Closed Sea urchin \ salamanders warn
predators of their
The Australian bulldog ant has a poison with bright
poisonous stinger. colors, but others,
just as dangerous,

x)
All spiders are venomous, but only a have neutral or
few are dangerous to people. Just camouflage colors.
half an inch long, the black widow Many common toads
spider is one of the most poisonous (E~ Open for also have poisonous
of all North American spiders. a bite skin. The poison
Tarantulas are the largest spider. from one species of
Their bite is painful, but not deadly. poison-arrow frog
found in South
A : : Vi have | Starfish or sea stars use a America is toxic
Scorpions are relatives
y of the spider. Lod that poisonous digestive juice to :
They
i range
: in size from a quarter J eeu
when bec is
the mouth kill their prey. enor) eel
inch to 8 inches — smaller scorpions Closed 20 people.
are often more lethal. About 30 é Lots of poisonous fish Th d ]
species live in the U.S and of these can be found in tropical SOUS EN
only one or two are venomous. waters. Stonefish look The male duckbill platypus from
A poisonous sting causes severe fg very much like the ocean Australia is one of the few mammals
pain, vomiting and sweating in Rx y floor and more than half in the world that are poisonous.
humans, and if left untreated can bodonny SY) of those who are stung Hollow spines on the ankle of the rear
result in death. 2 die. Moray eels have legs are connected to a venom gland.
The scorpion’s long, snakelike bodies. The sting causes extreme swelling,
stinger is locat- The fangs of rear- They hide in rocks and followed by general weakness that
DA ed at the tip fanged snakes are crevices and many are can last for a month.
of its tail. at the back. poisonous. The lionfish
is the most poisonous of
all, but because of its
colors it is easy to avoid.
Pufferfish or blowfish
Mambas are called fugu in Japan.
from Africa The very foolish or brave
are very é order this sometimes
eho
poisonous Elapids have poisonous specialty in Me Poisonous
and very poisonous teeth at Japanese restaurants. “i spine of the
Scorpion |. fast. the front upper jaw. + male platypus.
86

Red-headed vulture
What’s the difference? E Sarcogyps calvus
There are two groups This large bird is
or families of vulture. becoming more and
New World vultures more rare. It can still
are found in North and be found in the
South America. Old World western Himalayas
vultures are native to Europe, and in central India,
Africa and Asia. Both groups but it is rarely seen
are carrion (decaying animal flesh) in Singapore
eaters and for many years scientists and Indonesia.
believed that all vultures were raptors
(large birds of prey in the order
Falconiformes). Vultures are large birds of prey that are often perceived as
In the 1990s, DNA tests indicated ugly, dirty symbols of death and destruction. But a vulture
that New World vultures were : :
actually related to.etGrie antlinicee in flight isé graceful and beautiful,
: p
often confused with
(this is still debated in some scientific the noble hawk. Vultures are largely misunderstood birds
communities). New World vultures are
now recognized as Ciconiiformes, that play a vital role in keeping the environment clean.
in the family Cathartidae. Old World
vultures are more closely related to King vulture The king vulture
hawks and eagles, and belong to Sarcorhamphus papa measures up to
the Accipitidae family. 32 in. (81.3 cm) and SSS,
h as a wingspan up Zag
Zyy)
California condor
The California Gymnogyps
condor is critically Californianus
endangered. Egyptian
In an effort to save vulture
the species, it is Neophron
being bred percnopterus
in captivity and
released into the
wild. The condor
has a nesting period
of five months —
the longest of any
bird. It can grow up
to 55 in. (139.7 cm)
long with a wing
span up to 9 ft.
(2.74 m).

This scavenger grows up to

27 in. (68.6 cm) long and has a
wingspan up to 5.5 ft. (1.68 m).

Beating a bad rap

Old and new The modern (Western) stereotype of
Black vulture
There are seven species of New World Coragyps atratus vultures depicts them as harbingers
Vultures. New World vultures have a of death and destruction. They are
special nostril hole in their beak. Most The black considered repulsive, and the word
of these birds have a well-developed vulture is some- Eurasian vulture is sometimes used in a derogatory
sense of smell. They also have a small times called a Se manner to describe a person who’s selfish
elevated hind toe, but their feet and legs carrion crow. This ake Aha and greedy. But vultures have not always
are weak and unsuitable for capturing ae iS ine, been so maligned.
prey. New World vultures are mostly aie sees: This powerful In ancient Egypt, the vulture was
silent because they do not have a voice i F
box (syrinx), but ne can hiss and sci States and has ae ee a anata ome Oe
They do not build nests, preferring to adapted to city and cliffs and
lay eggs on the ground or in rock and town life. The black In Greek and Assyrian mythology, the
can soar for
tree cavities. vulture cannot smell vulture is a descendant of the griffon,
several hours.
as well as the guardian of the mysteries of life and death.
There are 15 species of Old World turkey vulture, and
vultures: African White-Backed, will often let other In many Native American cultures the
Asian White-Backed, Bearded vultures find food vulture is an important tribal symbol that
(Lammergeier), Cape Griffon, Cinereous and then dominate represents the cleansing of the spirit and
(Asian Black), Egyptian, Eurasian Griffon, the feeding site. the strength to accept difficulty.
Himalayan Griffon, Hooded, Lappet- \ In southern Africa, because the Nubian
Faced, Long Billed, Palm Nut, Red- Vulture is always observed in pairs, it is
Headed (Pondicherry), Ruppells Griffon, associated with protection and love.
White-Headed. Turkey
Many Old World vultures build stick eee The turkey What’s for dinner?
nests. Most have very keen eyesight and Aura vulture’s : :
can spot a carcass up to 4 miles away. range ae force ane ye
. extends across : ;
Interesting facts Wager Or Hie Decaying and rotting carcasses
United States are their favorite food (some
* Most vultures are bald or have even eat the bones). But Old
into Central and Lappet-
very few feathers on their heads. South America. faced World vultures have been
This helps keep the bird clean and known to attack newborn
Itcanbe upto vylture
disease free when feeding on and wounded animals.
25 in. (63.5CM) —Torgos
rotten carcasses. Scientists estimate that
long, with a tracheliotus vultures can digest food
- Vultures regurgitate (vomit) to wingspan
feed their young. of 5 to 6 feet with 100 times the
(1.52 to 1.82 cm). microbial toxins
* Some species will gather (botulins) that a human
in roosts that number in could tolerate.
the hundreds, or even
thousands.
- Vultures usually have one NOTE:
mate a year. Both male Illustrations
and female share Up to 45 in. (114.3 cm) long are not drawn
parenting responsibilities. Wingspan up to 9 feet (2.74 m) to scale.
 87

We)

Woodland flowers usually Tall buttercup

emerge in early spring,
This flower was introduced to
before trees leaf out and North America from Europe.
shade the forest floor. Its bright yellow flowers are
Many die back after
abundant everywhere, but
flowering, storing energy
especially in wet meadows.
in large underground roots The plant can grow 2 to
or rhizomes.
3 feet high.

>:

Weeds are plants that grow United States, more than also serve as shelter or breed them with similar
where they are unwanted. $8 billion is spent by food for animals or insects. plants. To improve the
Any type of plant may be farmers each year to control Many flowering weeds, or flower or growth of the
considered a weed, but destructive weeds. wildflowers, have been original plant, breeders
weed plants are generally Some weeds can be Cultivated and improved by pollinate flowers using
thought to be those that beneficial. In most natural man to be used in gardens. scientific methods. Using the
have no use. Some weeds places, it is rare to see bare Some of the most popular science of genetics, it may
are destructive. They affect soil. In undisturbed wild varieties of garden plants take many years to create a
Jack-in- crops by competing for places, dormant seeds had humble beginnings as hybrid plant with the desired
the-pulpit sunlight, nutrients and water. will sprout and grow, quickly weeds in a field. Plant traits. You may recognize
This plant Weeds may also shelter filling any bare patches of breeders collect seeds or traits of some wildflowers
has an insect pests or diseases that soil. The plants protect the roots from wildflowers in and their hybridized offspring
unusual “flower” can harm crops. In the soil from erosion. They may order to grow and cross- in flower gardens.
called a club, which
is surrounded by a hood-
like bract called a spathe.
In dark woods the spathe Perfect Flower Composite Flower
ANNUALS BIENNIALS
is purple. The plant grows
Annual weeds sprout Weeds that sprout from Stigma Ray flower
to almost 2 feet tall, and
the its clustered, berry-like from seed, grow, flower, seed, and grow leaves in
Style
fruit turn bright orange in set seed, and die the first season. They
the fall. completely in each blossom, set seed and — Filament
growing season. die completely the
Dutchman’s next season.
breeches g
This spring fies : PERENNIALS
plant is named 3-2 AF Weeds that sprout from seed and grow from
for the shape Lf sturdy roots that do not die in the winter.
of the flower.
New growth returns each season.

ane & ; eS
Common
: :
thistle
Desert lupine Arrowhead This spik
All flowers of the pea family (which This aquatic plant (left) gee .
lupines belong to) have one petal on spreads in shallow bogs,
plant thrives in
Columbine top and two on the bottom. waterways and along the
The plant grows \ Often called Coulter’s edges teats ay leesmegegls * dt

lupine, this plant is entire plant sprouts from Fell deycoeehge aA de

along open a favorite among bees P
underwater P that
roots nectar is so sweet that
woodland areas bumblebees can become
and relies on take hold in the soft
and into fields.
several species, muddy bottom of , intoxicated after collecting it.
It ; ; cdl e :
Rained dire sali wetlands. ANGE The thistle is the national
: ees and honey- flower of Scotland.
“heal = bees, to pollinate it.
‘ moths “e . Chicory
by
and This flower is
butterflies. common along
road sides and in
pastures.
Early farmers
brought the
plant to North
America.
Indian paintbrush
The bright red bracts of ,
this parasitic plant hide
inconspicuously in the
flowers above them. They
lack a well-developed root
system and rely on a host
Trillium plant for water and
Some trilliums have nutrients. The This nuisance plant Y
Purple loosestrife
become endangered due seedlings cannot (below) produces massive
to overcollecting from wild grow until they Although admired as a amounts of pollen that
populations. The plant find a host. garden specimen this plant many people are allergic
needs rich soil in mature has escaped into many of North to. It is an annual and
forests to grow. There are America’s native wetland areas. grows 1 to 3 feet tall.
several species; most are It is an aggressive self-seeder,
found in forests east of the and can quickly overtake the
Rockies. The trillium is the natural vegetation of a wetland,
national flower of Canada. choking out all other plant growth.
It is originally from Europe.
Mesquite
Native peoples of the Southwestern Blue flag
desert used mesauite for food, shelter, This iris grows with its roots
weapons, tools, fiber and fuel. Today, (rhizomes) sometimes completely
cattle ranchers consider it a pest on submerged in water. Bright yellow
pasture, although cattle spread undigested “beards” can be seen at the top of
mesquite seed in their manure. each dangling petal.
88

WHALES
Baleen whales Toothed whales
suborder Mystceti suborder Odontoceti

Baleen whales are big — even The 69 species of toothed

the smallest reaches 17 feet whales are divided into five
when fully grown. There are families. These include dolphins,
10 species: blue whales, gray porpoises and sperm whales.
Whales are mammals that have adapted perfectly to life underwater. Scientists call Toothed whales have very
whales, right whales, minke
whales and humpbacks. them cetaceans and they have identified 79 different species, including porpoises sharp teeth and their main diet
Except for the minke whale, and dolphins. Many face extinction because of commercial fishing and pollution. is fish and squid. Toothed
most are endangered. whales often live in mixed
There are two types of whales: baleen and toothed. We celebrate them for their groups called pods.
great size and haunting songs, as well as for their intelligence and mystery.
Beaked whales
family Ziphtidae
Minke whale
Balaenoptera acutorostrata There are 18 known species of
beaked or bottlenose whales.
Baleen whales are toothless
Some of these rare cetaceans
and use baleen plates and
fringes to filter their food. have never been seen alive and
These whales eat mostly krill are identified only when their
(tiny, shrimplike crustaceans) Splish splash bodies wash up on shore.
and small fish. They filter these Breaching occurs when a
sea creatures with the sievelike whale propels its entire body White whales
baleen at the front of their head first out of the water family Monodontidae
mouths and then force the and then falls back, with a Narwhals and beluga both
water back into the ocean. loud thump and a lot of spray. belong to this family of toothed
Killer whales often breach in whales. The male narwhal’s
Water & krill Water & krill
order to stun their prey. They slender spiral tusk is really an
2 Mouth
>| opens to herd fish to the surface and elongated tooth.
od
250%
'
4 | So!2 sfzo take in use their bodies and tails to
water pound them to death. TEE
and krill.
Some scientists believe
that whales also use
Narwhal Monodon monoceros
Mouth breaching to communicate
Baleen plate
closes and with one another.
water is Dolphins
pushed out family Delphinidae
through Size and anatomy There are 32 species of
baleen
plates. Whales can grow to an enormous size because their bodies are supported by water. Sometimes dolphins, making this cetacean
whales become stranded on land because of illness or disorientation. Unless it is quickly returned family the most extensive and
In summer, most baleen to the sea, the sheer weight of its own body can crush a whale’s internal organs. The whales diverse. Common dolphin
whales prefer the cold waters below are shown to scale, illustrating their comparative sizes. Delphinus delphis
of the Arctic and Antarctic
oceans. A large one will eat Blowholes (two in baleen whales)
more than 4 tons of krill daily. Flippers
In winter they migrate and seek
Dorsal fin
warmer waters.

Right whales
family Balaenidae Sperm whales
Right whales were hunted by family Physeter catodon
commercial whalers for more Sperm whales are the
than a century and are now largest of the toothed
Ventral or throat pleats
very rare. Whalers called them (in rorquals only) whales. Their bulging
“right” whales because they Blue whale Balaenaptera musculus
skull protects an organ
were just the right size for Blue whales are the largest animals to have made up of weblike pipes
catching. ever lived on the earth — more than twice as containing waxy yellow
large as the largest dinosaur. They can reach oil called spermaceti.
Bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus
100 feet long and weigh more than 200 tons. Scientists think this organ
An elephant could stand comfortably on the helps with echolocation
tongue of an adult blue whale. and controlling buoyancy.

Rorqual whales Sperm whale

Babies and young
family Balaenopteridae Physeter catodon
In general, whales only have
There are six species of
rorqual whales and, except for Sei whale
Re one baby at a time. An infant
the humpback, they have a Balaenaptera Human whale is called a calf and its
similar shape, differing only in ee —_ A
borealis Homo sapiens mother is a cow. She has two
size and color. Female rorquals het
tS Lr .
nipples that deliver a fatty kind
are usually bigger than the of milk. At birth, a blue whale
ey calf is as big as an elephant.
males. These whales have White (beluga) whale
multigrooved throats and about
Harbor porpoise Killer whale It drinks about 175 pints of milk
Delphinapterous leucas Phocoena phocoena Orcinus orca
300 baleen plates on each side a day.
of their jaw. Beluga whales are called “sea Killer whales are the largest of the dolphins. They are Communication
canaries” because of their intricate highly skilled hunters that feed on fish and squid. They
Humpback whales sing highly singing. They live in the cold sometimes prey on seals and birds as well. However, Whales do not use vocal cords
complex songs. Their songs waters of the subarctic and Arctic. they have never been known to attack humans. to produce their famous,
can last for hours and are haunting songs. Like bats,
unique to individual whale most whales use a process
populations. Often the songs How they breathe A whale of a problem Diving depths called echolocation to help
change from one year to Although whales breathe less Years of commercial whaling Maximum diving depths them locate food and obstacles.
another. often than other mammals, and pollution have caused a and underwater times for This involves sending out high-
Humpback whale they still need air to live. They serious decline in present various whales: pitched clicking sounds that
Megaptera breathe through a blowhole or whale populations. 4 bounce off objects and send
novaeangliae Whale Depth Time back an echo. Whales use this
nostril on the top of their All whales listed on this chart
head. Baleen whales have Porpoise technique to determine the
are endangered.
two blowholes; toothed exact position of their prey.
whales have just one. When a Populations (in thousands):
whale breathes, it surfaces, Along for the ride
Gray whales spouts a spray of moist, stale
Whale Original* 1997 Threats

family Eschrichtidae Sperm 240 197. Hunting** Parasites such

air, takes in a fresh supply of
Gray whales have only 2 or clean air, closes its blowhole Blue 226 13 Hunting’ | as barnacles
Fin 643. «123-~—s~ Pollution | and whale lice
4 throat grooves, instead of and dives beneath the-surface.
attach them-
hundreds, like the right and The spray of each whale Humpback 146 4 Fishing selves to the
rorqual whales. species has a unique shape. Right 120 3. Nets, pollution” skin of whales.
Gray whale Eschrichtius robustus oe 4 og can
Sate 254 51 — Hunting Whales rub Whale
against objects lice
Minke Right Sperm
Gry 20.~—Ss 11_—«‘FFishingnets
Bowhead 20 2. Oil, gasdrilling such as ships in
whale whale whale order to get rid Boriacion
* Estimates for 150 years ago “*Illegal of them.
 89

Whale back when Conservation & conflict

Most historians believe that in The excessive killing during the 1800s
prehistoric times, coastal people from and early 1900s severely damaged
all over the world probably killed and whale populations around the world.
ate beached or stranded whales. The The International Whaling Commission
Norwegians are thought to be the first (IWC) was established in 1946 to
to hunt whales at sea. Four-thousand- regulate the whaling industry and to
year-old rock carvings in Norway protect whales from over-hunting.
depict whale-hunting scenes.
In 1982, the IWC voted to ban
commercial whale hunting worldwide.
Whaling was a dangerous By 1988, most nations had complied
occupation; some whales are with the ban, but in the 1990s, Norway
capable of smashing a small and Japan resumed whale hunting,
boat to smithereens. shielded by exemptions.
Nineteenth-century The IWC allows
whalers were often at sea whaling for
for up to four years. scientific
purposes and :
ae ee allows native
peoples who have
The Basques | eo traditionally hunted
whales for food to International
The Basque people of southern France 2 continue their hunts Whaling
and northern Spain hunted whales in under specific Commission
the Bay of Biscay in the 10th century. guidelines. Norway logo
These early whalers used small boats says that whaling is
and worked close to shore. They a vital part of their culture,
speared whales with harpoons and Japan claims it kills whales
attached to ropes until the animals for scientific reasons (but sells the
eventually died, and then towed them meat commercially).
to shore. By 1200, a commercial
market for whales was established, Illustration (above) based on an etching in the British Museum of Natural History
and larger ships carried the smaller
Population estimates
boats farther out to sea. Whalers Modern whaling Scientists use aerial surveys to track
carved up the dead whales in the Whaling techniques changed very and count whales in order to estimate
water and then lifted the whale little for about 700 years. But in the populations.
blubber (fat) and baleen (long, mid-1800s, commercial whaling Species
Original level Present level_
bony plates in a whale’s mouth) began to use modern inventions to Blue 228,000 11,700
up to the larger ship. assist in the hunt.
Basque whalers hunted a 1852 — The bomb-lance, an
particular kind of whale. explosive harpoon, was invented.
This whale was preferred This deadly harpoon allowed the
because it was the right size, whalers to keep a safer distance
slow moving, had large from the whale.
amounts of baleen and floated
1857 — Steam engines were
so 490,000
100,000
880,000,
when killed. It became known 3,200
as the “right whale.” Sperm oil incorporated into whaling ships. This
increased the speed and safety of
the ships. But traditional catchers, or 2,400,000 1,950,000
rowing boats, were still used.
1863 — The first steam Whalers with time
Jae
S catcher was built by Svend on their hands
Right whale Foyn, a Norwegian sea captain. sometimes etched
It was an 82-foot (25m) schooner pictures into whale
teeth or bone. This
Whaling’s heyday The demand for whales in the 19th century
was as overwhelming as the number of
that combined open rowing and the
steam engine. The speed and art form, called
By the 17th century, many nations products created from them. Bones and maneuverability of these boats scrimshaw, was first
competed for rich whale-hunting baleen were used to make fashionable increased the danger to whales. practiced by the Inuit
grounds. For the next 200 years, corsets, umbrella ribs, canes, brushes (Eskimo) people of
whalers expanded their operations and 1865 — The darting gun was a the far north.
and knickknacks. Blubber was refined
made huge profits. Dutch and English highly accurate harpoon that
into candles, lamp oil, margarine, soap,
whalers preyed on bowhead whales exploded when embedded in
cosmetics, medicine and motor lubricants.
around the islands of Svalbard (north of the whale.
Whale skin was used to make shoes, boot
Norway). Within about 100 years, they laces, saddles and suitcases. 1868 — The mounted harpoon
killed all the whales in this region and
gun was another invention of Svend
began to hunt elsewhere in Sperm
Foyn. Itfired from a cannon-like
the Arctic. whale device onboard a whaling ship. (A
modern form of this gun is still used
by whalers today.)
North America
1925 — The factory ship was
North American colonists hunted
Whales were food for the Inuits, home to a crew of about 400
whales off the Atlantic coast during the
American Indians, Japanese and natives men and a fleet of
1600s. At first, they favored right
of the North Atlantic and North Pacific. about 12 catcher
whales, but during the 18th and 19th
boats. As the name
centuries, sperm whales became the Scrimshaw
suggests, it was a
whale of choice. Whalers collected the Early whalers used a variety of floating processing plant,
pale yellow sperm oil from the head tools in their work — harpoons which allowed the whalers to stay The modern harpoon gun is usually
and blubber to make lamp oil and for catching, lances for killing out at sea for longer. These vessels mounted on the deck of a ship and has
lubricants. Spermaceti, a waxy oil and knives for carving. used aircraft, and later sonar, to find a cannon-like launcher. It has a deadly
found in the sperm whale’s head, was Sharp cleats or spurs were and track the whales. spear attached to a rope so that the
used to make candles. Ambergris worn over boots to prevent
came from the whale’s lower intestines. injured whale cannot get away.
slipping while on a whale’s back.
Ambergris was used in perfumes and
was worth its weight in gold. Harpoon, made
Whaling expanded to the Pacific of soft iron
Ocean, and between 1820 and 1850,
the American sperm-whaling industry
Lance, used for the kill
thrived on both coasts. The industry
had a fleet of more than 730 ships and
cleats/spurs
employed more than 70,000 people.
About 10,000 whales were killed each
year. By the, end of the 19th century, Due to these modern techniques, Mounted
petroleum replaced spermaceti and Flensing spade, for striping blubber more whales were killed between harpoon gun
sperm oil, and the whaling industry 1900 and 1940 than had been
took a dive. é f killed in the previous 400 years.
 OLVES
90

Gray wolf
Canis lupus A wolf resembles a
tundrarum German shepherd, but
it has a bigger head,
bigger feet and a
long, bushy tail.

The gray wolf

The gray wolf is also Known as the timber Wolves will trot at about
wolf or the tundra wolf. There are several 5 mph (7 km/h) and
subspecies of gray wolves in North sprint at speeds up
America: the arctic wolf, the Mexican wolf, to 45 mph (70 km/h). / 7
the eastern wolf, the Great lakes/western A wolf’s territory is,
U.S wolf and the Alaskan or Canadian wolf. depends on
There are two other wolf species: The red food availability.
wolf (found in the southeastern U.S.) and
the Abyssinian or Ethiopian wolf (found
only in Ethiopia).
Great ancestors =e |
Wolves are descended from a
carnivorous weasel-like animal called
the miacis. The miacis had five toes
and could probably climb. Dogs, cats,
bears, raccoons, civets, weasels and
skunks are also descended from
this animal.

Present-day wolf range

Reduced range
Gray wolves can be found throughout Red wolf
the northern hemisphere (generally Canis rufus
north of 15 degrees north latitude).
Wolves were once one of the most
plentiful mammals on Earth, but are now
Miacis listed as endangered. Man is the wolves’
(Paleocene period: main enemy. Habitat destruction and
65 million to 55 million years ago) hunting have decimated wolf populations.
They have been reintroduced in many The red wolf Canis lupus
The next ancestor in the wolf’s regions and in some areas are making a
evolution was cynodictis. The respectable comeback. The red wolf once lived throughout The scientific or Latin name for
cynodictis resembled the civet of the southeastern United States from the gray wolf is Canis lupus which
In February 2005 a U.S. federal judge Pennsylvania to Florida and as far means “the dog who is a wolf.”
today (a living fossil), but had some
struck down a 2008 ruling that down- west as Texas. By the mid-1970s, In Europe, the animal’s name is
doglike qualities.
graded wolf populations from endangered the red wolf populations were so spelled with an “e” (i.e., grey wolf).
to threatened and allowed ranchers to small that the animal was in danger In North America it is spelled with
shoot them if caught attacking livestock. of extinction. Between 1973 and an “a” (i.e., gray wolf). Traditionally,
1980 all known wild red wolves were scientific Latin names always begin
Dismal numbers captured and kept in captivity in an
effort to save them. Today, about
with a capital letter and are under-
lined or italicized.
Estimated worldwide wolf populations: 100 red wolves can be found in the
150,000 gray wolves wild (mostly in North Carolina).
AA.
Cynodictis
500—700 ALP
Abyssinian wolves
Misunderstood ~~ ¥
. \ A ey
(Eocene period:
250 red wolves
The Abyssinian wolf
55 million to 38 million years ago) e8
The Abyssinian wolf is also known Wolves are often * ©
Mexican , as the Ethiopian wolf, simien jackal, blamed for (a fo
About 10 million years ago, a creature wolf red jackal and simien fox. These loss of live: QO O @
evolved called the tomarctus. The wolves are found only in Ethiopia stock andthe WW a W
tomarctus looked very much like the and live primarily on rodents. They spread of Ee
wolf of today and is the direct ancestor rabies. Wolves :
of all members of the dog family. very young or very old. Ethiopian have also been Territories
wolf populations have suffered accused of taking range in size
serious blows in the past 20 years. babies and young from about
‘ Arabies epidemic in the early 1990s children as prey. 62 miles
and another in 2003 killed off more But wolves rarely (100 km) to
Abyssinian wolf than two-thirds of the population. kill people and 1.243 miles
Canis simensis With the combination of habitat when they do it is (2,000 sa.
destruction and hunting, this wolf is usually because km).
Tomarctus seriously endangered and is likely to they have gone
Miocene period become extinct. mad from rabies.
(25 million to 5 million years ago)

All in the family Hunting Folklore

Wolves are social animals that like Wolves are The wolf has played a role in the stories -
to live and hunt in packs. A pack is primarily and folklore of many cultures. Western
carnivores, fables like “Peter and the Wolf’ and “Little
usually made up of a
family of wolves eating mostly Red Riding Hood” portray the wolf as a
(parents and off- meat. They frightening creature. China has a nasty
spring) and rarely hunt in packs and wolf called Lon Po Po. But many Native
numbers more will take down large prey, but they American cultures revered the wolf as a
also eat smaller animals. Wolves symbol of bravery and loyalty.
than 10 wolves.
Within a pack also scavenge carcasses and-will eat According to myth,
there is a distinct insects, nuts and berries. A wolf can A Nordic myth tells of a wolf named
the founders of Rome,
go without food for an entire week, but Skoll that chases the sun goddess
social hierarchy Romulus and Remus
and every wolf when food is plentiful it can gorge itself Sol and a wolf called Hati that
(twins) were raised by
knows its place. on a meal of up to 22 pounds (10 kg). chases the moon.
a she-wolf.
 bentgrass 33
A leaf-cutter or parasol 63 balaenopteridae family 88
Bermuda Triangle 68
aardvark 2 apatosaurus 18 bald cypress trees 27
Big Cypress, Florida 27
acacia trees 29, 32 apes 55, 56 bald eagle 26
bighorn sheep 26
accipitidae family 86 aplacophora 71 balenoptera acutorostrata 88
biodiversity 7
Acipenser brevirostrum 26, Appalachian Mountains 74 Bali 80
biologists 62
acorn 29 apple blossom 29 bamboo 4, 33, 50
bioluminescence 47, 48
adapids 38 Ara ararauna 61 bananas 62
biomes 26, 33, 51
Africa 1, 3, 7, 14, 25, 32, 33, 35, 37, Arabia 10 bandicoots bilbies 40
birch trees 66
39, 45, 46, 52, 54-58, 60, 62, 63, 65, Arabian desert 10 banjo fish 54
bird of paradise 29
69, 85, 86 arachnid family 76 barley 33
birds 1, 3, 7, 51
Africa, Saharan 38 arachnids 69 barnacles 72, 88
flightless 28
Age of Dinosaurs 53 spiders 69, mites 69, ticks 69, gooseneck 72, rock 72
cassowaries 28, emus 28,
Age of Mammals 53 harvestmen 69 basidiomycota 42
kakapo 28, kiwi 28, ostriches 28,
aggregation 84 aralinga solstitialis 60 basil 29
penguins 28, ratites 28, rheas
aggregations (of squirrels) 77 Aratinga pertinax 51 Basques 89
28, tinamous 28
agouti, Brazilian 64 arbor vitae 29 Bast or Bastet, Egyptian goddess of
bivalves 71
Ailuropoda melanoleuca 50 arbutus 29 love and fertility 12
black swallowers 48
Ailurus fulgens 50 Arcea herodias 27 bats 3, 26, 44, 60, 61, 62, 69
black-footed ferret 26
Ajaia ajaja 27 archaeopteryx 18 fisher 3, flying fox 3, Franquet’s
blubber knife 89
Alaska 34, 66, 74 Archipélago de Colon. See Galapagos epauleted 62, fruit 3, hammer-
blue flag 87
Alasmidonta heterodon 26 Islands headed 3, hoary 3, horseshoe 3,
bluebell 29
Alcyonaria 65 archosaurs 16 kitti’s bag-nosed, leaf-nosed 3,
bluegrass 33
alder 78 crocodiles 16, flying reptiles 16, megabats 3, microbats 3, North
meadow 33
Aleutian Islands 74 thecodonts 16 American 3, Ozark big eared 26,
bluejoint grass 33
algae 2,84 ' Arctic 74, 79 Old World 3, red 3, roost 3, silt-
bobcats 59
Alliance for Zero Extinction 7 Arctic circle 66 faced or hollow-faced 3
Boca Raton, Florida 27
Alligator mississippiensis 14, 26 Arctic Ocean 6, 45, 46, 52, 66, 70, 80 bats, vampire 3, 60
bogs 78
alligators 26, 27, 63, 64, 75 Argema mimosae 61 hairy-legged 3, white-winged 3
Bolivia 4
allosaurus 18 Argentina 33, 64, 74 bay leaf 29
bomb-lance 89
allotheria 53 Arizona 3 Bay of Biscay 89
Borneo 4, 55, 61, 63, 80
allspice 29 armadillos 2 Bay of Fundy, Canada 74
botanists 9, 13, 62
almond blossom 29 arrowhead 87 beaches 1, 74
Bounty Islands 52
aloe 29 Arroyo toad 26 bears 1, 4, 12, 75, 80, 90
Bouvet 52
Alopias vulpinus 73 Artiodactyls 33 American black 4
brachiation 58
alpaca 10 Asia 1, 3, 4, 6, 10, 36, 39, 45, 46, 53- blue or glacier 4, island white 4,
Brachypelma smithi 63
Alvin 47 58, 60, 61, 64, 65, 76, 79, 80, 82, 86 Kermode’s 4
Bradipodicola hahneli
alyssum 29 Asia, South 38 ; ant bear (giant anteater) 2,
Bradypus tridactylus
amaranth29 Asia, Southeast 38 Asiatic black,
Brazil 7, 33, 60, 62
amaryllis 29 Assyrian mythology 86 Himalayan or moon 4
Brazilian butterfly caterpillar 85
Amazon River 21, 60, 63 aster 29 big brown 4
British Colombia 9
Amazon water lily 63 ateles Geoffroyi 62 Alaskan 4, grizzly 4
British imperialism 36
ambergris 89 atelidae 57 giant panda 4
British Museum of Natural History 89
ambrosia 29 Atlantic Coast 72, 74, 79 polar 4, 70
broadleaf trees, oak, maple, eucalyp-
Ambystoma californiense 26 Atlantic flyingfish 45 ice bear, sea bear, white bear or
tus, palm 81
ambystomatidae 67 Atlantic Flyway 74 walking bear 4
brome 33
American bittern 78 Atlantic football fish 46 sloth 4
brontosaurus 18
American Central Flyway 74 Atlantic loggerhead 26 honey bear 4, Indian 4
brontotherium 53
American Pacific Flyway 74 Atlantic Ocean 27, 45, 46, 54, 68 spectacled 4
bryozoans 68
Ammonis comua 54 atolls, coral 65 sun 4
Bubo virginianus 44
ammonites 17, 54 Atta cephalotes 63 Malayan 4
budgerigars 51
amphibians 7, 30, 54, 67, 78 Auckland Islands 52 beaver lodge 1
buffalo 33, 39
Anaplura 8 Australasia 61 2 beavers 1, 64, 77
Bulo microscaphus californicus 26
anatomist 16 Australia 7, 28, 33, 37, 40, 45, 46, 52, bees 8, 85
bulrushes 78
Andes Mountains 28, 64, 69 56, 61, 65, 77, 79, 82, 85 honey 8, bumblebees 87
Burma 4
anemones 48 Australian bulldog ant 85 beetles 5, 8, 61, 84
burrowers 1
green 72 aveneae 33 carrion 5, checkered 5, click 5,
burrows 1
anglerfish 48 avocados 62 Colorado potato 5, cucumber 5,
bushbabies. See galagos
Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus 51 azalea 29 dung 5, Eastern hercules 5, fire 5,
Buto hemiophrys baxteri 26
ant colony 1 Azores 68 fireflies 5, 8, 44, frog 5, 63, giant
buttercup 29
Antarctic 28 Aztecs 49 stag 5, golden tortoise 5, ground 5,
buttercup, tall 87
Antarctic Circle 52 Japanese 5, 8, 84, June-bugs 5,
B butterflies 8, 60
Antarctica 36, 37, 45, 46, 52, 77 ladybeetle 5, ladybug 4, 5, 8, leaf 5,
malachite 63, monarch 41
anteaters 2, 33 baboons 55, 57 lightning bugs 5, 8, long-horned 5,
silky 2 Babylonia 22 Northeastern beach tiger 26,
Cc
Antechinus 40 baby’s breath 29 predacious diving 5, scarabs 4, 5,
cacao seed 62
antelopes 33, 39 bachelor’s buttons 29 soldier 5, Southern pine 5, tiger 5,
Cacatua galerita 51
anthozoans 65 bacteria 7, 63, 84 tumblebugs 5, water scavenger 8
cacatuidae family 51
anthropoids 56, 57, 61 balaenaptera borealis 88 begonia 29
Cactaceae 9
antlers 66 balaenaptera musculus 88 Beijing Zoo 50.
cactuses (cacti) 9, 15, 29
ants 1, 2, 8, 60, 61 balaenidae family 88 belemnites 54
 92

Christmas 9, columnar 9, globular 9, chichona plant 62 Lightfoot 31, sand 72 parasaurolophus 16, stegosau
horse crippler 9, leaf 9, opuntia 31, chicle 62 ’ Cretaceous period 19, 53, 54, 55 rus 16, triceratops 16, 19
pincushion or thimble 9, prickly pear chicory 87 crocodiles 14, 27, 54, 63, 75 saurischians
9, saguaro 1, 9, segmented 9 Chile 74 Crocodilia 14 allosaurus 16, brachlosaurus 16,
caduceus 75 chimaeras 54 crocodilians 54 ceratosaurus 16, dromaeosaurus
caiman 63 chimpanzees 55 alligators 14, American alligator 14, 16, herrerasaurus 16,
caiman crocodilus 63 Chimu 31 American crocodile 14, caimans 14, plateosaurus 16, tyrannosaurus
calendula 29 China 7, 10, 21, 22, 33, 36, 50, 60, 61, dwarf crocodile 14, gharials 14, Nile rex 16, 19
California condor 26, 86 67, 80, 90 crocodile 14, spectacled caiman 14 dinotherium 25
California freshwater shrimp 26 chinchilla 64 Crocodilius niloticus 14 Dionaea 11
California smelt (grunion) 41 Chinook salmon 26 Crocodylus acutus 14 Diprotodontia 40
callithricidae, marmosets, tamarins 57 chipmunks 77 crocus 29 Diptera 8
callithrix jacchus 62 Chiroptera order Crozet Islands dogfish 47, 54
Cambodia 80 chitons 71 crusafontia 53 Dogger epoch 18
camellia 29 chocolate 62 crustaceans 7, 8, 72 dogs 12, 20, 34, 80, 90
camels 10, 33 chokeberry 78 cryptobranchoidea 67 bloodhound 20, border collie 20, bull
Arabian 10, Bactrian 10, dromedar- Choloepus didactylus 60 Cuba 7 terrier 20, chihuahua 20, collie 20,
ies 10 chorates 7 curare 62 dalmatian 20, English bulldog 20,
Camelus bactrianus 10 chrysanthemum 29 currents 45, 46, 68 English cocker spaniel 20, English
Camelus dromedarius 10 Chrysomelidae 5 Gulf Stream 68, North Equatorial 68, springer spaniel 20, German
camouflage 75 cicada killers 8 North Atlantic 68, Canary 68 shepherd 90, herding 20, hounds
Canada 7, 59, 64, 66, 74, 87 cicadas 8 cuttlefish 54 20, Irish setter 20, Irish wolfhound
Canada geese 49 Cicindela dorsalis dorsalis 26 cycad trees 18, 81 20, Mexican pottery dog 20,
Canada lynx 26 ciconiiformes order 86 cyclamen 29 pomeranian 20, saluki 20, skye
cancer 62 cinereous 86 Cyclopes didactylus 2 terrier 20, sporting 20, St. Bernard
Candlemas Day 34 citrus fruit 62 Cygnus atratus 79 20, terriers 20, toy 20, utility
Canis lupus 26 civets 12, 90 Cygnus buccinator 79 (nonsporting) 20, working 20
Canis rufus 90 Cladium jamaicense 27 Cygnus columbianus 79 dogwood 29
canyons 1 clams 70, 71 Cygnus cygnus 79 dolphinfish 45
capuchins, brown 57 clay 84 Cygnus melanocoryphus 79 dolphins 3, 21, 88
capybaras (water pig or water hog) 64 Clean Air Act of 1970 23 Cygnus olor 79 Amazon 63, Atlantic bottle-nosed
Carabidae 5 Clean Water Act 23 cynodictis 20, 90 45, Baiji 21, Bhulan 21, Hector’s 21
caravels 68 climbing plants, lianas, bush ropes, cyrptodira 83 dolphins, marine 21
carcharodon carcharias 73 strangler figs, monkey ladder vine Cystophora cristata 70 bottle-nosed 21, common 21, Indo-
Caretta caretta 26 61 Pacific humpbacked 21, killer whale
Caribbean 74 clover 29, 84 D or orca 21, long-finned pilot 21,
caribou 66 cnidaria 65 daffodil 29 Risso’s 21, striped 21
carnation 29 cobra 75 dahlia 29 dolphins, river 20
carnivores 4 Coccinellidae 5 daisy 29 Boto 21, Franciscana 21, whitefin
carnivorous plants 11 cockatiels 51 dandelion 29 21, striped 88, Susu 21
active trappers 11, American pitcher cockatoos 51 darting gun 89 dragon, Chi Lung Wang 22
plants 11, 78, bladderworts 11, sulphur-crested 51 Darwin, Charles 31 dragonflies 8
butterworts 11, marsh pitcher 11, coconuts 62 Dasypus novemcinctus 2 dragons 22
passive trappers 11, phial pitcher 11, cocoons 1 Dasyuromorphia, Australasian Fafnir 22, Goin, Grabak, Gravitnir
sundews 11, trumpet pitcher 11, coelacanth 54 Carnivorous marsupials 40 and Grafvolud (Norway) 22, Hotu-
Venus’ flytrap 11, waterwheels 11, Coelophysis 17 Daubentonia madagacarien 60 Puku 22, Jormungandr 22, Lernean
West Australian pitcher plants 11 coffee 62 Daubentonilidea, aye-ayes 56 Hydra 22, leviathan 22, Mo’o or
cartilage 73 Colbert, Edwin 16, 17 de Berlanga, Fray Tomas 31 Moko 22, Tiamat 22, Vitra 22, wyrms
Caryophyllales 9 Coleoptera order 5, 8 deer 33 22
Caspian Sea 80 coleopterists 5 mouse 33, white-tailed 33 drey (nest) 1, 77
catamount 6 Colima culture 20 deinonychus 19 Drosera 11
Catharanthus roseus 62 colobinae 57 Delaware 34 dune formation 15
cathartes aura 86 colobus abyssinicus 60 Delaware Bay 74 barchan 15, longitudinal 15,
cathartidae 86 Colombia 4, 7, 64 delnopis spinosus 76 parabolic 15, self 15, star 15,
cats 12, 44, 80, 90 colubus, red 57 delphinapterous leucas 88 transverse 15
big 6, Birman 12, Burmese 12, columbine 29, 87 delphinidae family 88 dunes 74
Devon Rex 12, dinictis 12, Common Cause 23 delphinium 29 Dutchman’s breeches 87
hoplophoneus 12, Maine Coon 12, Comoro Islands 38 Delphinus delphis 21 dwarf seahorses 45
Persian 12, Russian Blue 12, saber- conchology 71 delphinus delphis 88 dwarf wedge mussel 26
toothed tiger 12, Scottish Fold 12, conifers 7 Dendrobates 30 Dytiscidae 4, 5
Siamese 12, Somali 12, Turkish pine, fir 81 Dendroica kirtlandii 26
Angora 12 Connecticut River 82 dens 1 E
cattails 29, 78 constriction 75 desert 1,9, 15 eagle ray 46
cattle 33 conures 60 desert locations 15 eagles 34, 49, 60, 75, 86
cebidae 57 Cope, Edward Drinker 16 Arabian Peninsula, Arctic, Atacama, golden 59 :
cedar 29 coragyps atratus 86 Chihuahuan, Colorado Plateau, Earth Day 23
celaceans 21 coral 46, 71,72 | Gibson, Gobi, Great Basin, Great earthquakes 75
Celorhinus maximus 73 boulder 65, brain 65, crown-of- Sandy, Great Victoria, Iranian, earthworms 2, 84
Cenozoic era 36 thorns 65, depressed brain 65, fire Mojave, Simpson, Sonoran, Stony, echidnas 2
centipedes 8, 84 65, flower 65, fungus 65, imperfo- Sturt, Taklamaklan, Tropic of Echinocactus 9
Central America 1, 9, 14, 22, 28, 40, rate 65, ivory bush 65, large-cupped Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, echinoderms 65
57, 60, 62, 63, 74, 86 fungus 65, lettuce 65, orange 65, Turkestan echolocation 3, 21, 44, 88
cephalopods 54, 71 perforate 65, reef-forming 65, rose desert lupine 87 ecosystems 7, 84
Cephalotus 11 65, spiny candelabrum 65, staghorn desert lynx 15 Ecuador 4, 7, 31, 62, 64
cercopithecinae 57 65, star 65, stony 65, tan lettuce-leaf desert tortoise 26 Edentata group 2
cercopithecines 57 65, tube 65 desert, Southwestern 87 - eels 68
Cereus 9 coral reefs 65 deserts, coastal15 freshwater, yellow, brown 68, gulper
cervidae family 66 coralline algae 65 deserts, cold winter 15 48, moray 85
cetaceans 35, 88 coriander 29 deserts, polar 15 eggs 1, 24
chameaileonidae 61 corn 33 deserts, subtropical 15 “alligator 24, birds’ 4, chicken 24, fish
chameleons 61 cornflower 29 Desmodus rolundus 60 24, frog 24, goose 24, hummingbird
chamomile 29 Corynorhinus townsendiingens 26 diatoms 84 24, insect 24, ostrich 24, oyster 24,
chapparals 9 coscoroba coscoroba 79 dicamptodontidae 67 snapping turtle 24
char, Arctic (Taranet’s char) 82 Costa Rica 61 Dicotyledonae 9 Egypt 86
charaxes bernardus 60 cougar 6 Didelphimorphia 40 Egypt, ancient 42
Charles Darwin Research Station 31 Coulter’s lupine. See desert lupine Didelphis virginiana 44 eland 33, 39
Chatham Island 52 coyotes 1, 59 dinosaurs 14, 16, 53, 54, 75 Elateridae 5
cheetah 6, 80 crabs 72 ornithischians elephant grass 33
Chelonia mydas 27 fiddler 72, hermit 72, horseshoe 72, ankylosaurus 16, elephants 25
chemosynthesis 48 mole 72, 74, purse 74, rock 72, Sally pachycephalosaurus 16, African 25, African bush 25, African
 93

forest 25, Asian 25, musth 25 California red-legged 26, flying 63, hartebeeste 39 J
endangered species 26 golden dart 30, Goliath 30, Javan Hawaiian honeycreeper 26 jack-in-the-pulpit 87
Endangered Species Act 23, 26 flying frog 30, leopard 30, 78, hawks 3, 34, 49, 59, 75, 86 Jackrabbits 59
end-Permian event 54 paradoxical 30, poison-dart or arrow Cooper’s 3 antelope 15
entomologists 5 30, 85, red-legged 30 hawksbill 45 Jaguars 6, 62-64
Environmental Protection Agency 23 fruit 4 hawksbill seaturtle 46 Japan 67, 71, 89
Eocene period 20, 36, 53, 54, 55, 90 fuchsia 29 heath shrubs 78 jasmine 29
Eos bomea 51 fugu. See pufferfish heather 29 jawfish 1
eotheria 53 fungi 7, 42, 63, 84 hedgehogs 75 “well digger” 1
epiphytes (air plants) 61 herons 72 jonquil 29
orchids, staghorn fern, pitcher plants G great blue 27, 72 Jurassic period 53, 54
61 Galagonidae 62 herpetologists 67
Epomops franqueti 62 galagos (bushbabies) 55, 62 herrings 45 K
equator 60 Galapagos Islands 31, 52 Heterandria formosa 27 kafir 33
equus 53 Gallic Epoch 19 hibernation 3, 4 Kalahari Desert 41
Erignathus barbatus 70 Gambusia holbrooki 27 hibiscus 29 kangaroo rats 15
erosion 63 Ganges River 21 Himalayan Mountains 69, 86 kangaroos 40
eschrichtius robustus 88 gardenia 29 Hippocrates 42 Kayapo Indians 62
Eskimos 89 Gardner, John 23 hippopotamus 33, 35 Kennedy, John F. 23
estuaries 1, 74 garfish 45 pygmy 35, river 35 Kerguelen Islands 52
Ethiopia 90 garua 31 HMS Beagle 31 king cobra 75, 85
eucalyptus 29, 37, 81 Gashun Gobi 9 holly 29 Kirtland’s warbler 26
eudocimus ruber 63 gastropods 71 hollyhock 29 koalas 37, 40
euparkeria 17 Gavialis gangeticus 14 Holocene epoch 36, 53 krill 88
Eurasia 33, 37 / gazelles 33, 39 Holyoke fish elevator 82 KT event 53
Europe 1, 18, 19, 39, 53, 54, 64, 66, geckos 62 hominoids 58 Kung bushmen 41
76, 79, 82, 86, 87 General Sherman tree 81 great apes, orangutans, gorillas,
Europe, western 17 Genghis Khan 36 chimpanzees, bonobos 58 E
Eurypterida 69 geologists 16 lesser apes, gibbons, siamangs 58 La Diable 20
eusmilus 53 geranium 29 homo sapiens 73 La Plata River 21
Everglades National Park 27 Germany 17, 22 Honduras 7 ladybugs. See beetles
evergreens 60 Ghana 62 honey 4 lagomorphs 59
evolution theories 16 Ghost Ranch 16, 17 honeysuckle 29 Laika 20
evolutionists 16 giant anaconda 75 hornets 8 Lake Okeechobee, Florida 27
exoskeletons 69, 71, 76 giant isopods 48 horses 36, 53 Lake Victoria 7
extinction 26 gibbons 55, 61 African wild ass 36, asses 36, lakeshores 74
white-handed 58 Clydesdale 36, colt 36, dam 36, lammergeier 86
F
gila monster 85 evolution of Lampyridae 5
Falco peregrinus anatum 26 ginkgo 18, 81 Eohippus (Dawn Horse) 36, lance 89
falconiformes order 86 ginkgo or maidenhead 81 Equus 36, merychippus 36, land plants 7
falcons 49 giraffes 32, 33, 39 Mesohippus 36, pilohippus 36 langur, entellus 57
American peregrine 26 gladiolus 29 filly 3, foal 36, mare 36, purebred langur, hanuman 57
Falkland Islands 52 Glaucornys 44 36, shetland pony 36, stallion 36, lanternfish 47, 48
Far East6 © gliders 40 viatka 36, zebras 36 Laos 80
Federal Duck Stamp 74 Globicephala melaena 21 humans 55, 59, 73 larkspur 29
Federal Occupational Health and Glossopsitta porphyrocephala 51 hummingbirds 60, 61 larvae 1
Safety Act 23 Gobi desert 9 hyacinth 29 lasiodora 76
felidae 6, 44, 80 Gondwana 37 hybodus 54 Lassie 20
felinae 80 Gopherus agassizii 26 hydrangea 29 Late Triassic epoch 17
Felis concolor coryi 27 gorillas 55 hydroids 68 Laurasia 37
fennel 29 Gould, Stephen Jay 16 hydrozoans 65 laurel 29
fens 78 Grampus griseus 21 hylobates 61 lavender 29
fern 29 grasses 29, 84 hynoblidae 67 least killfish 27
fescue 33 cereal 33, grazing 33, ornamental hyracotherium 53 lemmings 41
festuceae 33 33, sugar cane 33, turfgrasses 33, lemon 29
Ficus walkinsiana 61 woody 33 l lemon balm 29
finches 31 grasshoppers 8 ibises 86 lemur catia 62
cactus eater, 31, insect eater 31, grasslands 33, 39 scarlet (stork) 63 Lemuridae 56
seed eater 31, vegetation eater 31 prairies 33, savannas 33, steppes ichthyologists 46 lemurs 38, 56, 62
fir 29 33 ichthyosaurs 54 aye-aye 38, 56, 60, blue-eyed 38,
fish 3, 4, 54, 68 grayling 82 Iguana iguana 61 brown 38, common brown 38, dwarf
fish ladders 82 Great Barrier Reef 65 iguanas, green 61 56, eastern lesser bamboo 38,
fishways 82 Great Britain 79 iguanas, marine 31 golden-crowned sifaka 38, gray
flax 29 Great Plains 33 impala 39 mouse 38, indris 56, Malagasy
fleas 35 Greece 49 India 7, 14, 22, 33, 57, 60, 69, 80, 85 names of 38, Megalaciapis 38,
flensing spade 89 Greek mythology 86 Indian Ocean 45, 46 pygmy mouse 55, ring-tailed 38, 55,
flies 8, 35 Greek traders 12 Indian paintbrush 87 62, Sanford’s 38, sifakas 56, true 56
Flinders Island 40 Greenland 36, 66, 70 Indochina 4 Lenni Lenape people 34
Florida 90 Greenland halibut 47 Indonesia 3, 7, 86 Leontopithicus rosalia 61
Florida Everglades 27 griffon 86 Indonesian islands 80 leopards 6, 62
Florida gar 27 groundhogs 1, 64 Indo-Pacific region 71 clouded (mint leopard) 61, snow 6
Florida Keys, Florida 27 guanaco 10 < Indridae, indris, avahis, sifakas 56 Lepidoptera 8
Florida panther 27 guano 3 Indus River 21 Lepisosteus platyrhincus 27
fly fishing 82 Guatamela 7 inia geoffrensis 63 leporidae family 59
foraminiferans 65 guenons 57 insects 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 62, 63, 84 Les Trois Freres cave 49
forests, cloud 60 guitar fish 54 aquatic 78 leukemia 62
forests, equatorial evergreen 60 Gulf Coast 72 International Code of Botanical Li Li (panda) 50
forests, tropical moist 60 Gulf of Mexico 27, 41, 68, 74 Nomenclature 9 Lias epoch 18
forget-me-not 29 Gymnogyps californianus 26, 86 International Whaling Commission 89 lice 8
forsythia 29 gyps fulvus 86 invertebrates 54, 68 lichens (reindeer moss) 66
Fort Lauderdale, Florida 27 7 Ireland 75 Liguus fasciatus 27
Fort Myers, Florida 27 iridium 53 liguus tree snail 27
fossils 54 Haliaeetus leucocephalus 26 iris 29, 87 lilac 29
foxes 1, 59 hamsters 64 Islas Juan Frenandez 52 lily 29
red 34 common 64, golden (Syrian) 64 isopod 84 lily of the valley 29
foxglove 29 hares 59 Israel 22 limestone 65
foxtail barley 33 Arctic 59, European 59, snowshoe Italy 17 linophryne 48
Foyn, Svend 89 or varying 59 ivy 29 lionfish 45, 85
France 89 harpoon 89 lions 6, 39
frogs 3, 30, 62. harpoon gun, mounted 89 Lipotes vexillifer 21
94
%

litoria infrafrenata 61 mice 44, 49, 69, 77 ae Neocomian epoch 19 49, snowy 49
Little Red Riding Hood 90 deer 64, grasshopper 64, house 64 Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii 26 oxpecker bird 35
lizards 3, 14, 61, 67, 69, 75 microbes 84 Neophron percnopterus 86 oystercatcher 31
leaping 62 Microbiothera, Monito del monte 40 neopilina 71 oysters 71
llamas 10 Microchiroptera 3 neoteny 67
Middle East 10, 12, 39, 69 Nepal 57 Pp
Loepardus pardalis 26
Lon Po Po 90 migration 41, 66 Nepenthes 11 paca 64
lories 51 human 41 nests 1 Pacific coast 79
lorikeets 51 migratory birds 41 New Guinea 28 Pacific dogwood 7
purple-crowned 51, rainbow 51, Arctic tern 41, falcons 41, flycatch- New Mexico 16, 17 Pacific Ocean 45, 46, 48
scaly-breasted 51 ers 41, hawks 41, herons 41, owls New South Wales, Australia 37 Izu-Ogasawara Trench 48,
lorises 55 41, ruby-throated hummingbird 41, New Zealand 7, 21, 22, 28, 52, 75, 82 Kermadec Trench 48, Mariana
arboreal 56, angwantibos 56, swallows 41, warblers 41 newts 67 Trench 48, Philippine Trench 48,
galagos 56, nocturnal 56, omnivo- millet 33 California 67, Eastern 67 Tonga Trench 48
rous 56, pottos 56, slow 60 millipedes 7, 84 Nicrophomae 5 Pakistan 21
lorliidae family 51 mimosa 29 night creatures 44 palaeomastodon 25
lory, red 51 Ming Ming (panda) 50 bats 44, cats 44, Cecropia moths Paleocene period 12, 53, 55, 90
lovebirds, rosy-faced 51 minks 59 44, crickets 44, fireflies 44, flying palm leaves 29
Loxodonta Africana 25 mint 29 squirrels 44, great horned owl 44, palm trees 81
lualara 75 Miocene epoch 36, 40, 53, 55, 90 mice 44, mosquitoes 44, moths 44, Pampas 33
Lycosa carolinensis 76 Mississippi River 69, 74 opossums 44, raccoon 44, slugs Panama 31, 64
Lynx canadensis 26 mistletoe 29 and snails 44, spring peepers 44 panda, giant 50
Mitchell's marsh satyr 26 Nile perch 7 panda, red (lesser) 50
M moeritherium 25 Nile River 63 Pangaea 37
macaques, Japanese 55, 57 Mollusca 71 nine-banded armadillo 2 Pangea 16, 54
macaws 51 mollusks 7, 46, 65, 71, 84 nitrogen 11 pangoins 2
blue-and-yellow 61, hyacinth 51, clams 7, 46, 47, conch 46, cuttlefish Norse mythology 22, 90 paniceae 33
scarlet 60 7, limpets 7, 46, moon 46, mussels North Africa 10 pansy 29
macropoma 54 7, 46, octopuses 7, 47, oysters 7, North America 2, 9, 17, 18, 19, 27, 33, panther 6
Macropus, red kangaroo 40 46, 47, scallops 46, slugs 7, snails 34, 37, 45, 46, 49, 53-55, 64-66, 71, Florida 27
Madagascar 7, 38, 52, 56, 60, 61, 62 7, 46, 47, squids 7, top 46 74, 76, 77, 78, 79, 82, 85, 86, 87, 88 Panthera leo 39
magnolia 29 molting 76 North Atlantic Ocean 54, 70 Panthera nebulosa 61
Magnoliophyta 9 Mongolia 80 North Carolina 90 Panthera onca 63
mahogany 62 monkeys 55, 56, 57, 60, 61 North Korea 80 pantherinae 80
malacology 71 blackhanded spider 55, 57, Diana North Pacific 70 papaya 62
malaria 62 57, golden lion tamarin 61, guereza North Pole 66, 70 paper wasps 1
Malay Peninsula 4 60, New World 55, 57, night 57, Old northern hemisphere 70, 75, 79, 90 Papua, New Guinea 60
Malaysia 3, 60, 63, 80 World 55, 57, patas 57, proboscis Northern Territory, Australia 37 Paraguay 64
Malm epoch 18 57, red howler 57, spider 62, squirrel Norway 89 parakeets 51, 62
mambas 75 57 Norwegians 89 brown-throated 51, mustached 51
mammals 7, 54, 80 monkshood 29 Notoryctemorphia 40 Paramelemorphia 40
egg-laying or monotreme 53 monodon monoceros 88 nursing colony (bats) 3 Paris 32
Mammilaria 9 moray eel 45 Nycticebus coucang 60 parrots 51, 61
mandrills 57 mosquitoes 3, 8, 44 Nymphicus hollandicus 51 African gray 51
mangabeys 57 mosquitofish 27 partina 33
mangrove forests 60 moss 29 O Patagonia 9
mangroves 1, 27 moths 3, 8, 44 oak trees 1, 81 Paucituberculata 40
Mantell, Gideon 16 African moon 61, Cecropia 44 oarfish 47, 48 peat 78
maple trees 81 mountain lion 6 oats 33 peccary 33
marigold 29 mud daubers 1 oceanographers 46 pedologists 84
marjoram 29 mudflats 74 oceans 45 Pelecanus onocrotalus 27
Marks, Johnny 66 mushrooms 42, 63, 66, 84 abyssopelagic zone 48, bathype- penguins 52
marmosets 62 chanterelle 42, morel 42, oyster 42, lagic zone (dark) 47, epipelagic Adelle 52, African (Jackass) 52,
pygmy 57 portobello 42 zone (sunlit) 45, hadalpelagic zone Chinstrap 52, Emperor 52, Erect-
marmoteers 34 nonpoisonous 48, mesopelagic zone (twilight) 46 crested 52, Flordland 52, Galapagos
marmotologists 34 aspen scaber stalk 42, common ocelot 26 52, Gentoo 52, Great Auk 52, King
marmotophiles 34 mycena 42, edible boletus 42, octopuses 54, 71 52, Little Blue 52, Macaroni 52,
marmots (groundhogs, woodchucks) field 42, Mary russula 42, parasol Odobenidae 70 Magellanic 52, Peruvian (Humboldt)
34,77 42, shaggy mane 42 , shitake 42, Odobenus rosmarus 70 52, Rockhopper 52, Royal 52,
hoary 34, Olympic 34, yellow-bellied table 42 Odonata 8 Snares Island 52, Yellow-eyed 52
34 poisonous Odontaspis taurus 73 Pennsylvania 34, 90
marshes 78 destroying angel 42, emetic Oijik (Wejak) or Wojack (woodchucks). peony 29
marsupials 37, 40 russula 42, fetid russula 42, fly See marmots peppermint 29
kangaroos 40, koalas 40, marsupial agaric 42, fly amanita 42, green- oleander 29 perennibranchiates 57
“moles” 40, Tasmanian devils 40, spored 42, jack-o’-lantern 42, Oligocene epoch 36, 53, 55 periwinkle 62
wombats 40 toadstools 42 omomyids 38 rosy 62
mastodon 25 mussels, blue 72 Oncorhynchus tshawytscha 26 Permian period 16, 17, 54
Mbuti tribe 62 Mustela nigripes 26 opah 46 permineralization 54
McDonald Islands 52 Myanmar 80 opossums 3, 37, 40, 44 Peru 4, 7, 31
megachiroptera 3 mycologist 42 “shrew” opposums 40 pesticides 3
megaloceros 53 mycorrhizae 77 Opuntia 9 Peter and the Wolf 90
Megaplera novaeangliae 88 Mymecophaga tridactyla 2 orange 29 petrification 54
megatherium 53 myrtle 29 orangutan 61 petunia 29
Melopsittacus undulatus 51 mythical creatures 43 orchid 29 Pharaohs 36, 42
Mesozoic era 16-19, 53, 54 unicorn, mermaid, griffon, dragons, Orcinus orca 21 Phascolarctos, koala 40
Cretaceous period 16, 19, Early basilik Oreomystis mana 26 Phidippus variegatus 76
Cretaceous 19, Late Cretaceous Origin of Species, The 31 Philippines 7, 80
19, Middle Cretaceous 19 N Orion 69 phlox 29
Jurassic period 16, 17, 18, Early Namib Desert 15 ornithologists 28, 74 Phoca fasciata 70
Jurassic 18, Late Jurassic 18 nanook. See bears, polar Ornithoptera alexandrae 60 Phoca groenlandica 70
Permian period 16, 17 Naples, Florida 27 Orthoptera 8 Phoca hispida 70
Triassic period 16, 17, Middle narcissus 29 oryzeae 33 Phocidae 70
Triassic epoch 17 nasturtium 29 Otariidae 70 Phocoena phocoena 88
mesquite 87 Native Americans 71 ovenbird 1 Phoenician traders 12
metamorphosis 5, 30, 67 native people62 oviraptor 19 photopores 47
Metatheria 40 nautilius 54 Ovis canadensis 26 photosynthesis 9, 54, 61, 81
Mexico 2, 7, 14, 28, 57, 63, 64, 69, 74, nautiloids 71 Owen, Richard 16 physeter catodon family 88
85 nectar 3 owls 3, 49, 59, 69, 75 phytoplankton 45, 72, 78
miacis 12, 20, 80, 90 Nelson, Gaylord 23 burrowing 33, elf 1, 49, great horned Piccard, Auguste 48
Miami, Florida 27 nematodes 7 44, 49, saw-whet 49, short-eared pigeon, North American passenger 7
 oS

pigs 33 Q giant 67, red 67, tiger 67, 78, torrent ; white 73, Greenland 46, hammer-
pikas 59 Queen Alexandria’s birdwing 60 67, waterdogs 67 head 46, 73, horn 73, mega-mouth
Pilocene epoch 36, 40, 55 Queen Anne’s lace 29 Salamandidrae family 67 73, salmon 73, sand tiger 73, sandy
pine 1, 29 Queensland, Australia 37 salamandroidea 67 dogfish 73, shortfin mako 73,
pineapples 62 Quetzalcoati 22 salmon 41, 82 thresher 73, tiger 73, whale 73,
Pinguicula 11 quinine 62 Atlantic 82, humpback 82, Pacific white 46
pinnipeds 70 82, pink 82, sockeye 82 Shorebird Sister Schools program 74
piranha 63 R salmonidae 82 shorebirds 74
pitcher plant 78 rabbits 59 salt marshes 74 American avocet 74, avocet 74,
placentals 40 cottontail 59, domestic dutch 59, Sami (Lapps) 66 American oystercatcher 74, golden
placerias 17 European 59, French lop-eared 59, San Francisco Bay 74 plover 74, lesser yellowlegs 74,
placochelys 54 Jackrabbits 59 sand 84 piper plover 74, plover 74,
plague 64 antelope 59, black-tailed 59 sand dollars (sea biscuits) 72 phalaropes 74, red knot 74,
plankton 45, 54, 68, 72 raccoons 1, 3, 12, 44, 50, 75, 78, 90 sand hoppers 72 sandpipers 74, semipalmated
plants, nonvascular 13 rafflesia 63 sandalwood 62 sandpiper 74, short-billed dowitch-
algae 13, mosses 13 rafflesia arnoldi 63 sandbug 72 ers 74, spotted sandpiper 74, stilts,
plants, vascular 13 ragweed 87 sandbur 33 74, snipes 74, tumstones 74,
ferns 13, gymnosperms 13 rainforests 2, 7, 60-63 sandworms 72 Wilson’s phalaropes 74,
Platanista minor 21 canopy 2, 61, emergent layer 60, saprotrophs 42 shortnose batfish 48
plateosaurus 17 floor 63, understory 62 sarcogyps calvus 86 shortnose sturgeon 26
platybelodon 53 Rana aurora draytonii 26 Sarcophilus 40 shrews 69
Platycerium bifurcatum 61 Rangifer tarandus 66 sarcorhamphus papa 86 pygmy 84
platypus, duckbill 85 raptors 49, 86 Sargasso Sea 68 shrimp (prawns) 47
Pleistocene epoch 53, 55 ratfish 47, 48 sargassum fish 68 shrub-carr 78
plerosaurs 54 rats 75, 77 pipefish 68, triggerfish 68 shrubs 66
plesiadapiforms 55 black (roof or ship rats) 64, brown sargassum, nudibranch 68 Siberia 6
plesiosaurs 54 (sewer rats) 64, desert kangaroo 64, sargassum, pelagic 68 sifaka, diadem 56
plethodontidae 67 naked mole 64 Sarracenia 11 Silk Road 10
pleurodira 83 rattlesnakes 75, 85 Saudi Arabia 10 Silphinae 5
Plinius the Elder 54 diamondback 85 Saur or Suening 20 Silurian period 54
Pliocene epoch 53 rays 54, 73 Savanna 32 silver hatchetfish 48
pohutukawa 7 Recovery Act 23 sawfish 54 Singapore 86
pollen 3, 87 red cedar 78 sawgrass 27 Siproeta stelenes biplagiata 63
pollination 3 redds 82 Scandinavia 66 sirenoidea 67
Polynesians 22 redfish (ocean perch) 46 scaphopods (tusk shells) 71 skates 47, 54, 73
polypedon 84 red-osier dogwood 78 Scarabaeidae 5 skipjack tuna 45
polyplacophores 71 redwoods 81 scorpions 69, 85 skunks 3, 12, 49, 75, 90
pondweeds 78 reed 33 Emperor 69, south African 69, sloth moth 2
Pongogypmaeus 61 reefs, bank or barrier 65 stripe-tailed 69, yellow fat-tail 69 sloths 2, 61
Pontoporia blainvillei 21 reefs, fringing 65 scorpions, anatomy of 69 three-toed 2, two-toed 60
Pony Express 36 reindeer 66 scrimshaw 89 slugs 44, 71, 84
poppy 29 Remus 90 scutellosaurus 18 snails 4, 44, 71
porcupines, North American 64 reptiles 7, 14, 17, 18, 54, 75, 83 scyliorhinus canicula 73 snakes 2, 3, 14, 61, 62, 75, 85
porpoises 21, 88 flying reptiles 17, 18 Scythian epoch 17 desert 75, garter 75, mamba 85,
harbor 88 pterosaurs 17, eudimorphodon Scythians 36 water 75
Portugal 53 17 sea anemones 65, 72 poisionous
Portuguese 68 marine 54 sea cow. See West Indian manatee vipers 75, 85, elapids 75, 85,
Portuguese man-of-war 45 Resource Conservation Act 23 sea cucumber 48, 72 rear-fanged 75, 85
potter wasp 1 Rhacophorus reinwardii 63 sea feathers 65 snapdragon 29
pottos 55, 60 Rhamphasios toco 60 sea horses 72 snipe eel 47
prairie dogs 1, 77 Rhincodon typus 73 sea lions 70 soil mites 84
prehensile tail 2 Rhinolophis ferrumequinum 44 Californian 70, steller 70 soils 84
primatés 38, 55 Rhizophora mangle 27 sea stars. See starfish mineral 84, organic 84
anthropoids 38 rhyacotritonidae 67 sea urchins 1, 72 soldier crabs 1
baboons 38, chimpanzees 38, rice 33 seals 4, 70 sorghum 33
gibbons 38, gorillas 38, humans wild 78 bearded 70, Caribbean monk 70, Sousa chinensis 21
38, langurs 38, macaques 38, Rin Tin Tin 20 eared 70, earless 70, Guadalupe fur South Africa 17, 42
mandrills 38, Old World monkeys roaches 8 70, harbor 70, harp 70, Hawaaian South Amazon basin 14
38, orangutans 38 Rocky Mountains 19, 74 monk 70, hooded or bladdernose South America 1, 2, 4, 9, 14, 28, 31,
prosimians 38 rodents 3, 64, 77 70, North Pacific fur 70, ribbon 70, 33, 37, 40, 45, 46, 52, 55, 57, 60-65,
bushbabies 38, galagos 38, beavers, chipmunks, gerbils, ringed 70, true 70 67, 69, 74, 79, 83, 85, 86
lemurs 38, lorises 38, pottos 38, gophers, guinea pigs, hamsters, seashells 71 South Georgia 52
tarsiers 38 marmots, porcupines, lemmings, black hammer shell 71, black murex South Korea 80
primatologists 38, 55 mice, muskrats, prairie dogs, rats, 71, blackened frog 71, chambered South Pole 52, 70
primrose 29 : squirrels, voles 64 nautilus 71, green turbo 71, Hebrew Southeast Asia 56, 61, 62, 63
Prince Edward Islands 52 Rome 90 cone 71, humpback cowrie 71, southern hemisphere 4, 28, 52, 70, 79
Probosciger aterrimus 51 Romulus 90 lettered cone 71, Marlin’s spike spadefoot toad 15
Procyonidae family 44 Roosevelt, Theodore 4 auger 71, Pacific triton 71, pecten spagnum mosses 78
pronghorn 33 roots, buttress 63 albican 71, pen shell 71, Perry’s Spain 57, 89
prosimians 55-57, 61 rose 29 triton 71, spider conch 71, sundial spathobathis 54
proteidae 67 roseate spoonbill 27 71, thorny oyster 71, tiger cowrie 71, spearmint 29
protists 84 rosewood 62 ss true heart cockle 71, Venus’ comb spermaceti 46, 88
amoebas, diatoms, ciliates, slime roughhead grenadier 47 murex 71 spermathecae 67
molds 84 roughie 46 seashore, lower beach 72 spider webs 76
protoceratops 19 Rudolph, the Red Nosed Reindeer 66 seashore, middle beach 72 bowl and dolly 76, dome 76, orb 76,
protoctists 7, ruminata 33 seashore, upper beach 72 tangled 76, triangle 76
prototheria 53 rushes 78 Seattle 23 spiderflower 29
Przhevalsky, Nikolai 10 Russia 59, 80 seaweed (algae) 46, 72 spiderlings 76
psittacidae family 51 rye 33 agarum 46, 72, alaria 46, codium spiders 1, 2, 7, 8, 76, 84
Psittacula alexandri 51 46, 72, mermaid’s hair 46, 72, black widow 76, 85, brown recluse
Psittacus erithacus 51 s ~
sargassum 46, 72, sea lettuce 46, 76, fisher 76, garden 1, 76, hunting
pteranodon 19 sage 29 72 76, jumping 76, ladybug 76, lynx 76,
pufferfish or blowfish 85 Sagra buqueti 63 sedge grasses 27, 66, 78 ogre-faced stick 76, tarantula 76,
puma 6 saguaro cactus 1 Senonian epoch 19 tarantula, Mexican red-knee 76,
Punxsutawney Phil 34 Sahara Desert 10, 14, 15, 25 Sequoia National Park 81 trapdoor 1, 7, varied widow 76,
pupae 1, 8 salamanders 67 sequoias 81 water spider 1, 76, wolf 76
purgatorius 55 Asiatic 67, California tiger 26, Serrasalmus niger 63 sponges 65
purple loosestrife 87 Congo eels 67, dwarf siren 67, fire Shag Island 52 springtails 84
pycnodus 54 85, hellbender 67,lungless 67, sharks 46, 54, 70, 73 squids 47, 48, 54, 71
python 75 marbled 67, mudpuppy 67, Pacific basking 73, blue 73, goblin 73, great squirrels 1, 44, 64, 77
96

Albert’s 77, Eastern gray 64, thyme 29 land-dwelling 83 annuals 87, biennials 87, perennials
Eastern gray 64, 77, flying 44, 64, Tibet 57 box 83, desert 83 87
77, fox 77, ground 77, red 77, tree ticks 35, 69 marine 83 weedy seadragons 45
64, 77, Western gray 77 tides 45, 46 leatherback 41, 83, loggerhead weevils 4, 5
Sri Lanka 57 tigers 6, 80 83, red-eared terrapin (pond- welwitschia 15
Stanella coeruleoalba 21 Balinese 80, Bengal 80, Caspian 80, slider) 83 West Indes 68
starfish 48, 72, 85 Indochinese 80, Javan 80, Siberian tylopoda 33 West Indian manatee 27
Eastern 72 6, 80, South China 80, Sumatran, typhus 64 West Palm Beach, Florida 27
stegosaurus 18 80 tyrannosaurus rex 19 wetlands 74, 76
Steiff, Margarete 4 timothy 33 whale lice 88
Stenella coeruleoalba 88 toads 30, 85 U whales 21, 41, 45-47, 70, 88, 89
stickleback 1 American 30, 84, Arroyo 30, ultrasounds 3 baleen 88, beaked 88, blue 88, 89,
stonefish 85 spadefoot 30, Wyoming 26, 30 UNESCO 31 bottlenose 47, bowhead 88, Bryde’s
storks 86 toco toucan 60 ungulates 66 89, finback 47, 88, gray 41, 88, 89,
strawberry 29 Tohono O’odham Indians 9 United Arab Emirates 10 humpback 88, 89, killer (orca) 45,
stromatolites 54 Tolypeutes matacus United States 7, 14, 26, 59, 64, 69, 74, 70, 88, minke 88, 89, porpoises 47,
Strychnos toxifera 62 tomarctus 20, 90 85, 86, 87, 90 right 88, 89, rorqual 88, sei 88, 89,
succulents 9 torgos tracheliotus 86 uplands 78 sperm 46, 47 88, 89, toothed 88,
sudan grass 33 tortoises 83 urchin 48 white (beluga) 88, white (narwhal)
sugar cane 62 Australian snake neck 83, Utricularia 11 88
suiformes 33 Galapagos giant 83, gopher 83, whaling 89
Sumatra 4, 55, 61, 63, 80 Matamata 83, Pinta Island 31 Vv wheat 33
sunflower 29 transpiration 60 Vancouver Island 34 whitefish 82
Suriname 74 tree fern 81 Venezuela 4, 7, 14, 64 white pelican 27
Susa, city of 36 tree frogs 61 venom 75 wildebeests 39, 41
Svalbard 89 white-lipped 61 vent worms 48 wildflowers 87
swamps 78 tree shrews 56 vertebrates 53, 73 meadow and field 87, woodland 87
swans 79 feather-tailed 56 vibration 75, 76 willow trees 66, 78
black 79, black-necked 79, trees 81 Victoria Amazonica 63 wistaria 29
coscoroba 79, mute (European) 79, broadleaf 81, coniferous 81, Victoria, Australia 37, 81 witchcraft 12
trumpeter 79, tundra 79, whooper 79 decidious 81 Vietnam 80 wolves 1, 34, 90
Sweden 66 trees, germination 81 violet 29 Abyssinian or Ethiopian 90, Arctic
sweet basil 29 trees, needle leaf (conifers) 81 viper 75 90, gray 26, 90, Mexican 90, red 90,
sweet pea 29 trees, pollination 81 viperfish 48 timber or tundra 90
Sweet William 29 trees, tropical and sub-tropical 81 viruses 7 wombat, coarse-haired 40
swordfish 47 Triassic period 53, 54 voles 49, 84 woodchucks. See marmots
Syncaris pacifica 26 triceratops 19 Vombatus 40 woodpecker 1
Trichechus manatus 27 vulture, turkey 33 woolly mammoth 25
+
Trichoglossus chlorolepidotus 51 vultures 33, 86 World Heritage site 31
tadpoles 4, 30 Trichoglossus haematodus 51 black 86, king 86, New World 86, worms 63, 84
tapir, Malayan 63 Triest | submersible 48 nubian 86, turkey 33, 86 annelid 65
Tapirus indicus 63 trillium 87 Old World 86
tarantulas 63, 69, 76, 85 trilophodon 25 African white-backed 86, Asian »4
red-kneed 63 tripod fish 48 black 86, Asian white-backed 86, Xenarthra order 2
tarsiers 55, 56, 62 Tristan de Cunha 52 bearded 86, Cape griffon 86,
Tarsius tarsius 62 Tropic of Cancer 60 Egyptian 86, Eurasian griffon 86, Y
Tartars 36 Tropic of Capricorn 60 Himalayan griffon 86, hooded, Yangtze River 21
Tasmania 40, 52 tropical hornbill 1 86, lappet-faced 86, long billed yarrow 29
Tasmanian devil 40 trout 82 86, palm nut 86, red-headed yellow jacket 8
tawny rajah 60 brook 82, brown 82, bull 82, rainbow (Pondicherry) 86, Ruppells yellowfin tuna 45
taxonomic classification 38, 80 82 griffon 86, white-headed 86 Yggdrasil (the “Tree of Life”) 22
taxonomy 55 tsunamis 45
teak 62 Tuareg tribesmen 15 Ww Z
teddy bears 4 tulip 29 wallabies 40 Zaire 62
termites 2 Tullgren tunnel 84 walruses 4, 70 Zalophus californianus 70
terrapins 83 tuna 47 Waorani Indians 62 zebras 39, 41
Tethys seaway 54 tundra plants 66 warthog 33 zinnia 29
Texas 90 Turkestan Desert 15 wasps 1, 8,85 ziphiidae family 88
Thailand 3, 4, 80 Kara-Kum 15, Kyzul-Kum 15 water lily 29 zoantharia 65
therapsid 53 Tursiops truncatus 21 waterfowl 78 zoologists 5, 28
theria, marsupials 53 turtles 14, 41, 54, 68, 75, 78, 83 waves 45 zooplankton 78, 82
theria, placentals 53 freshwater 83 weasels 12, 59, 75, 90 Zygocacactus 9
thistle, common 87 Matamata, spiny soft-shell 83 weaverbird 1
thrinaxodon 53 green 27, 41 weeds 87
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