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GEOGRAPHY
UPSC: (IFS) AIR-06, (CSE) AIR-720
66th BPSC Rank-09, IIT Guwahati
RDT-2522
 WATER (OCEANS)

DIVISION OF OCEAN FLOORS

Definition: Extended margins of continents covered by shallow seas and gulfs.

Gradient: Very gentle, averaging 1° or less.
Continental Shelf

Width:
 Varies globally; average width is 80 km.
 Narrow/Absent: Along Chile and west coast of Sumatra.
 Widest: Siberian Shelf in the Arctic Ocean (1,500 km).
Depth: Ranges from 30 m to 600 m.
Sediments: Covered by river, glacier, wind, and ocean currents.
Definition: Connects the continental shelf to the ocean basins.
Continental Slope

Gradient: Steeper, between 2-5°.

Depth: Ranges from 200 m to 3,000 m.
Features:
 Marks the end of continents.
 Contains canyons and trenches.
Definition: Flattest and smoothest regions of the ocean basins.
Deep Sea

Depth: Varies from 3,000 to 6,000 m.

Plain

Sediments: Covered with clay and silt.

Definition: Deepest parts of the oceans, narrow and steep-sided.

(Trenches)
Oceanic

Depth: 3-5 km deeper than surrounding ocean floor.

Deeps

Location: Found at continental slopes or along island arcs.

Mid-Oceanic Ridges
 Definition: Two chains of mountains separated by a large depression.
 Height: Peaks up to 2,500 m; some emerge above sea level.
 Example: Iceland (Mid-Atlantic Ridge).
Seamounts
 Definition: Mountains with pointed summits rising from the seafloor but not reaching the
surface.
 Height: 3,000-4,500 m.
Minor Relief Features

 Origin: Volcanic.
 Example: Emperor Seamount in the Pacific Ocean.
Submarine Canyons
 Definition: Deep valleys cutÝng across continental shelves and slopes, extending from river
mouths.
 Example: Hudson Canyon.
Guyots
 Definition: Flat-topped seamounts formed by subsidence.
 Distribution: Over 10,000 seamounts and guyots in the Pacific Ocean.
Atolls
 Definition: Coral islands surrounding a central depression or lagoon.
 Types: Can enclose fresh, brackish, or saline water.
 Location: Found in tropical oceans.

Page | 1
 Factors Affecting Temperature Distribution
(A) Latitude
 Surface water temperature decreases from the
equator to the poles due to decreasing solar
insolation.
(B) Unequal Distribution of Land and Water
 Northern Hemisphere: Oceans receive more heat
due to contact with larger landmasses.
 Southern Hemisphere: Oceans have less contact
with land, receiving relatively less heat.
(C) Prevailing Winds
 Offshore Winds:
 Drive warm surface water away from the coast.
 Cause upwelling of cold water, leading to lower
coastal temperatures.
 Onshore Winds:
 Push warm water towards the coast, increasing
coastal temperatures.
(D) Ocean Currents
 Warm Currents: Increase temperatures in colder
areas.
 Example: Gulf Stream raises temperatures along
the eastern coast of North America and the west
coast of Europe.
 Cold Currents: Lower temperatures in warmer areas.
 Example: Labrador Current reduces
temperatures near the northeast coast of North
America.

Horizontal and Vertical Distribution of Ocean Temperature

Horizontal Vertical
 Equator to Poles: Surface temperature decreases  Maximum temperature at the surface due to direct
from the equator (27°C) to poles (0°C). solar heating.
 Rate of decrease: 0.5°C per latitude.  Temperature decreases rapidly up to 200 m, then
 Northern Hemisphere: Higher temperatures due to gradually.
larger landmass.  Thermocline: Zone of rapid temperature decrease
 Average annual temperature: 19°C. between 100–400 m, extending to 1,000 m.
 Southern Hemisphere: Lower temperatures.  Below the thermocline (deep ocean):
 Average annual temperature: 16°C.  Temperature approaches 0°C.
Highest temperature is slightly north of the equator due  Accounts for 90% of ocean volume.
to unequal land-water distribution.  Polar Regions: Single cold-water layer extends from
surface to deep ocean.

Page | 2
 Salinity of Ocean Waters
 Total dissolved salts in seawater, expressed as parts per thousand (o/oo
or ppt).
 Normal salinity: 33 o/oo to 37 o/oo.
 Brackish Water: Salinity below 24.7 o/oo.

Factors Affecting Salinity

 Evaporation and Precipitation: Higher evaporation increases salinity;
higher precipitation decreases it.
 Freshwater Influx: Rivers reduce salinity in coastal and estuarine areas.
 Freezing and Thawing: Ice formation increases salinity; thawing reduces
it.
 Winds: Transport water, affecting salinity distribution.
 Ocean Currents: Warm currents increase salinity, cold currents decrease
it.

Horizontal Distribution of Vertical Distribution of Highest salinity in water bodies Lake Van in Turkey
Salinity Salinity
(330 o/oo),
Global Patterns  Surface:
Pacific Ocean:  Affected by Dead Sea (238 o/oo),
 Salinity ranges from 35 evaporation, Great Salt Lake (220 o/oo)
o/oo to 31 o/oo in the precipitation, river
northern hemisphere due influx, and MOVEMENT OF OCEANS
to Arctic freshwater influx. freezing/thawing.
 Decreases to 33 o/oo after  Lower salinity water Waves
15°–20° S latitude. rests above higher  Definition: Waves are the energy (not
Atlantic Ocean: salinity dense water. water) moving across the ocean surface.
 Average salinity: 36 o/oo.  Halocline:  Formation:
 Maximum salinity (37  Zone of rapid salinity  Caused by wind pushing the water.
o/oo) between 20°N–30°N increase with depth.  Gravity pulls wave crests downward,
and 20°W–60°W due to  Below this zone, and wave troughs are pushed upward,
high evaporation. salinity is relatively creating motion.
Indian Ocean: constant.  Characteristics:
 Average salinity: 35 o/oo.  Deep Ocean:  Water particles move in small circular
 Bay of Bengal: Low salinity  Salinity is stable due orbits beneath the waves.
due to river water influx. to minimal external  Waves break when water depth is less
 Arabian Sea: High salinity influences. than half the wavelength, due to
due to high evaporation  High salinity water friction with the sea floor.
and low river input. sinks due to higher  Types:
density, causing  Deep Waves: Young, formed by local
stratification. winds.
Regional Variations  Slow and Steady Waves: Originating far
 Red Sea: Highest salinity (41 o/oo) due to high evaporation away, often from another hemisphere.
and no river input.  Largest Waves: Found in open oceans,
 Baltic Sea: Low salinity due to high freshwater influx. growing as they absorb energy.
 Mediterranean Sea: High salinity due to high evaporation.
 Black Sea: Low salinity due to large river influx.

Page | 3
Tides
 Definition: Periodic rise and fall of sea level due to
the gravitational pull of the moon and sun and centrifugal
force.
 Types Based on Frequency:
 Semi-diurnal Tide: Two high and two low tides per day (most
common).
 Diurnal Tide: One high and one low tide per day.
 Mixed Tide: Variations in height of successive high and low tides.
 Types Based on Positions of Sun, Moon, and Earth:
 Spring Tides: Higher tides when the sun, moon, and earth
align (new and full moon).
 Neap Tides: Lower tides when the sun and moon are at right
angles.
 Special Tides:
 Perigee Tides: Moon closest to Earth → higher tidal ranges.
 Apogee Tides: Moon farthest from Earth → lower tidal
ranges.
 Perihelion Tides: Earth closest to the sun (January) → higher
tidal ranges.
 Aphelion Tides: Earth farthest from the sun (July) → lower
tidal ranges.
 Importance:
 Useful for navigation and fishing.
 Help in desilting and pollution removal in estuaries.
 Potential for tidal energy generation (e.g., Durgaduani, Sunderbans).

Ocean Currents
 Definition: Continuous flow of water in a definite direction, influenced by primary and secondary forces.
 Forces Influencing Currents:
 Primary Forces:
 Solar heating → water expansion.
 Wind → friction moves surface water.
 Gravity → pulls water downslope.
 Coriolis Force → deflects currents (right in the Northern Hemisphere, left in the Southern Hemisphere).
 Secondary Forces: Density variations due to temperature and salinity differences.

Types of Currents
 Based on Depth:
 Surface Currents: Top 400 m; 10% of ocean water.
 Deep Water Currents: Below 400 m; 90% of ocean water.
 Based on Temperature:
 Cold Currents: Flow from polar to equatorial regions (e.g., Labrador Current).
 Warm Currents: Flow from equatorial to polar regions (e.g., Gulf Stream).
 Major Currents:
 Pacific Ocean: Kuroshio Current (warm), California Current (cold).
 Atlantic Ocean: Gulf Stream (warm), Canary Current (cold).
Page | 4
  Indian Ocean: Agulhas Current (warm), West Australian Current (cold).

Water in the Atmosphere

Water vapour in the air,

varying from 0% to 4% by
volume, plays a significant
role in weather phenomena.

Types of Humidity
 Absolute Humidity:
 Actual amount of
water vapour in the
air.
 Measured in grams
per cubic metre.
 Relative Humidity:
 Percentage of water
vapour in the air
compared to its
maximum capacity at
a given temperature.
 High over oceans, low over continents.
 Dew Point:
 Temperature at which air becomes saturated and condensation begins.

Page | 5
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Evaporation and Condensation
Evaporation Condensation
Process: Transformation of water from Process: Transformation of water vapour into liquid or ice due to
liquid to gaseous state due to heat. cooling.
Key Factors: Requirements:
 Higher temperature → Higher  Cooling of moist air to dew point.
evaporation.  Presence of hygroscopic condensation nuclei (dust, smoke, salt).
 Air movement replaces saturated Conditions for Condensation:
layers → Enhances evaporation.
 Temperature reduction (e.g., contact with cooler objects).
 Low moisture content increases air's
 Increased air pressure or reduced volume.
capacity to absorb water vapour.
 Addition of moisture through evaporation.

Forms of Condensation
 Dew:
 Water droplets form on cooler surfaces like grass, leaves, or stones when dew point > 0°C.
 Ideal conditions: Clear sky, calm air, high humidity, cold nights.
 Frost:
 Ice crystals form on cold surfaces when dew
point ≤ 0°C.
 Requires air temperature at or below freezing.
 Fog and Mist:
 Mini clouds near the ground; visibility reduced.
 Fog: Lower moisture, prevalent in areas with
warm and cold air contact.
 Mist: Higher moisture, common over mountains
and valleys.
 Smog: Fog mixed with smoke in urban-industrial
areas.
 Haze
 Visibility is 2 KM to 5 KM, due to smoke and dust in industrial area which causes unequal refraction of light.

Types of clouds

Types Characteristics
Formed at high altitudes (8,000–12,000 m).
Cirrus Thin, detached, and feathery in appearance.
Always white in colour.
Look like cotton wool; flat base.
Cumulus Formed at 4,000–7,000 m.
Exist in patches, scattered across the sky.
Layered clouds covering large portions of the sky.
Stratus
Formed due to loss of heat or mixing of air masses with different temperatures.
Black or dark grey, extremely dense and opaque to sunlight.
Nimbus Form near the surface or at middle levels of the atmosphere.
Often shapeless and appear to touch the ground.

Page | 6
 Combination Types of
Clouds
 High Clouds:
 Cirrus,
Cirrostratus,
Cirrocumulus.
 Middle Clouds:
 Altostratus,
Altocumulus.
 Low Clouds:
 Stratocumulus,
Nimbostratus.
 Clouds with
Extensive Vertical
Development:
 Cumulus,
Cumulonimbus
.

Q. With reference to the water on the planet Earth, consider the following statements: [CSE-2021]
1. The amount of water in the rivers and lakes is more than the amount of groundwater.
2. The amount of water in polar ice caps and glaciers is more than the amount of groundwater.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2

Types of Rainfall

Convectional Rain:
 Process: Heated air rises, cools,
and condenses into
cumulonimbus clouds, causing
heavy rainfall with thunder and
lightning.
 Regions: Common in equatorial
areas and during summer
afternoons in interiors.
Orographic Rain (Relief Rain):
 Process: Air forced to rise over
mountains cools, condenses, and precipitates on the windward side.
 Leeward Side: Warm descending air causes dry conditions (rain shadow).
 Regions: Western Ghats (India), Andes, Rockies.
Cyclonic (Frontal) Rain:
 Process: Warm moist air meets cold air along a front, rises, cools, and condenses.

Page | 7
 Regions: Extra-tropical cyclones, temperate
latitudes.
Thunderstorms
 Cause: Intense convection on moist hot days.
 Formation:
 Well-grown Cumulonimbus clouds.
 Intense updraft (rising warm air) causes
cloud growth and precipitation.
 Downdraft brings cool air and rain to the
surface.
 Associated Features:
 Thunder and lightning.
 Hailstorm: Formed when clouds extend to
sub-zero temperatures.
 Dust Storm: Occurs with insufÏcient
moisture.
 Impact: Precipitation, strong winds, and
potential hailstorms.
Tornadoes
 Description:
 Spiralling wind descends with low pressure at the centre.
 Resembles an elephant’s trunk.
 Causes massive destruction along its path.
 Occurrence: Common in middle latitudes.
 Tornado Over Sea: Called waterspouts

Q. “Inversion of Rainfall” is associated with: Q. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer
[NDA&NA-I-2019] using the code given below the Lists:[CDS (II)-2022]
(a) Orographic rainfall List I List II
(b) Convectional rainfall (Cloud Form) (Characteristic)
(c) Cyclonic rainfall (Tropical) (a) Cirrus 1. Storm clouds
(d) Cyclonic rainfall (Temperate) (b) Cumulus 2. High fog “Low Ceiling”
(c) Nimbostratus 3. Fair-weather clouds
(d) Stratus 4. Entirely of ice particles
Code:
A B C D
(a) 2 1 3 4
(b) 2 3 1 4
(c) 4 3 1 2
(d) 4 1 3 2

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 CLIMATIC REGIONS

Climate Group Types Characteristics Examples

Found near the equator. Amazon Basin, Equatorial Africa,
Af - Tropical Wet
Hot and humid throughout the year. Southeast Asia
Climate
High annual rainfall.
Found in regions influenced by Indian subcontinent, NE South
Am - Tropical
monsoons. America, N Australia
Tropical Humid Monsoon Climate
Heavy summer rainfall; dry winters.
Climates (A)
Borders tropical wet and dry Sudan, Central Africa, N & S of
climates. Amazon forest, Paraguay
Aw - Tropical Wet
Wet and dry seasons; droughts
and Dry Climate
common.
Deciduous forests and grasslands.
Transition zone between humid and Sahel region, parts of Central
BSh - Subtropical dry climates. Asia
Steppe Sparse grasslands; rainfall slightly
higher than deserts.
Very low rainfall; high diurnal Sahara, Arabian Desert, Thar
BWh - Subtropical
Dry Climates (B) temperature range. Desert
Desert
Frequent droughts and famine.
BSk - Mid-latitude Found in interior continents. Great Plains (USA), Central Asia
Steppe Moderate but unreliable rainfall.
BWk - Mid-latitude Extreme dryness and large Gobi Desert, Patagonian Desert
Desert temperature variations.
Cwa - Humid Found poleward of tropical regions. North Indian plains, South China
Subtropical (Dry Hot summers; mild winters.
Winter)
Cs - Mediterranean Hot, dry summers and mild, rainy Mediterranean region,
Climate winters. California, Central Chile
Rainfall throughout the year SE USA, E China, Japan,
Warm
Cfa - Humid (summer thunderstorms, winter Argentina
Temperate (C)
Subtropical (No Dry frontal rain).
Season) Mild winters; small daily
temperature ranges.
Mild summers and winters due to NW Europe, New Zealand, SE
Cfb - Marine West
marine influence. Australia
Coast Climate
Rainfall throughout the year.
Long, snowy winters; short Siberia, Canada, Scandinavia
Df - Cold Humid
Cold Snow summers.
Winter
Forest Climates Large annual temperature range.
(D) Extremely cold winters; dry. Northeastern Asia
Dw - Cold Dry Winter
Monsoon-like wind reversal.
Permafrost; low-growing vegetation Coastal Greenland, Arctic tundra
ET - Tundra like mosses and lichens.
Polar Climates Long daylight in summers.
(E) Below freezing year-round. Antarctica, interior Greenland
EF - Ice Cap Icebergs form due to accumulated
snow and ice.
Influenced by topography. Himalayas, Rockies, Andes
Highland - Vertical zonation of climatic types;
Highland
Climates (H) varying temperature and
precipitation across elevations.

Page | 9
Q. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer Q. According to the Koppen climatic
using the code given below the Lists: [NDA&NA-II-2018] classification, the letter code Cfa
List I List II denotes:[NDA&NA-II-2019]
(Koppen’s Climate type) (Letter Code) (a) Tropical wet climate.
(a) Tropical wet 1. Af (b) Humid subtropical climate.
(b) Mid-latitude desert 2. Cs (c) Tundra climate.
(c) Mediterranean 3. Df (d) Tropical wet and dry climate.
(d) Humid continental 4. BWk
Code:
A B C D
(a) 1 4 2 3
(b) 1 2 4 3
(c) 3 2 4 1
(d) 3 4 2 1

Page | 10
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