Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

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Journal of Cleaner Production

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Review

Fatigue and intermediate-temperature cracking performance of rejuvenated

recycled asphalt binders and mixtures: A review
Mohsen Alae a, Ling Xu a, Zhenglong Cao b, Xiyong Xu b, Feipeng Xiao a, *
a
Key Laboratory of Road and Traffic Engineering of Ministry of Education, Tongji University, 4800 Cao’an Highway, Jiading District, Shanghai, 201804, China
b
Shandong Provincial Airport Management Group Co., Ltd, No. 1, Airport Road, Jinan, 250107 , China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Handling Editor: Zhen Leng Incorporating reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) increases concern about long-term fatigue and cracking
resistance of the resultant mixture due to the presence of an aged binder. Using a rejuvenator is one of the most
Keywords: promising methods to prolong the aging time for initial cracking and allow the inclusion of higher RAP content.
Reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) Many discrepancies exist in the literature about rejuvenators’ effectiveness in improving the fatigue performance
Fatigue performance
of RAP binder and mixture. These ambiguous and contradictory findings are attributed to using different reju­
Rejuvenated binder and mixture
venator types and dosages, RAP sources and percentages, binders and mixture fatigue testing approaches. This
Intermediate-temperature cracking resistance
Correlation analysis paper comprehensively reviews and investigates the existing literature to fully understand the rejuvenation
mechanism and its impact on the fatigue and cracking resistance of RAP binder and mixture using the most
available tests and indicators. In addition, a rigorous laboratory study is carried out to determine the sensitivity
of indicators to mix composition and variability. It is concluded that the inclusion of rejuvenators into RAP
binders and mixtures may not improve their fatigue and cracking performance to the same level as virgin ma­
terials. But by utilizing polymer modification, the bonding between materials increases significantly, which
results in better fatigue performance of rejuvenated RAP materials. Despite the positive impact of rejuvenators on
RAP mixture fatigue performance, a comparison of different tests results does not offer a consistent indicator for
determining fatigue resistance. Hence, it is recommended that the future research should be carried out with
reasonable test methods, more complicated analytical techniques, service life characterization models, and
climate identical test conditions, to clarify the durability index. Also, a complete evaluation of field performance
utilizing RAP and rejuvenator is valuable.

1. Introduction aging and lower asphalt absorption (Im et al., 2016; Li et al., 2014).
These approaches appear to be acceptable for low percentage of RAP
Despite the fact that reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) material is a mixes, but they may fail to deliver good fatigue resistance as the RAP
useful resource, there are significant concerns about its long-term fa­ percentage increases (West et al., 2013).
tigue resistance and durability (particularly in large quantities) in sur­ Some studies revealed that due to the lower processing temperatures
face or load-bearing layers because of the presence of aged asphalt of warm mix asphalt (WMA) and its higher workability compared to hot
binders. In fact, adding an excessive amount of RAP to the virgin ma­ mix asphalt (HMA), a higher percentage of RAP materials can be used
terial results in a mixture become too stiff which has a negative impact without adversely impacting rutting and the moisture susceptibility of
not only on the fatigue performance of asphalt mixes, but also expedite the mixture (Mogawer, 2012; Zaumanis and Smirnovs, 2011). However,
the development of cracks (Behnood and Gharehveran, 2019; Silva utilizing a rejuvenator or recycling agent is one of the solutions that is
et al., 2012). To improve the fatigue performance of asphalt mixture taken into account from the road paving industry to improve the
including RAP material, variety of solutions have been proposed cracking resistance of mixtures (Nabizadeh et al., 2017; Zaumanis et al.,
including using warm-mix technology, increasing the asphalt content, 2014). Furthermore, the incorporation of an appropriate rejuvenator
and adding a softer virgin binder, to decrease the effect of short-term allows consuming 100% RAP from the existing pavement for hot

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (M. Alae), [email protected] (L. Xu), [email protected] (Z. Cao), [email protected] (X. Xu),
[email protected] (F. Xiao).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135587
Received 28 September 2022; Received in revised form 17 November 2022; Accepted 10 December 2022
Available online 15 December 2022
0959-6526/© 2022 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

in-place recycling (HIR) and cold in-place recycling (CIR) as a tigue performance of asphalt mixture (Ameri et al., 2016; Wang et al.,
cost-effective approach in road rehabilitation (Huang et al., 2022). 2016). The investigation of fatigue resistance in asphalt binder is per­
Increasing the mixing and compaction temperature from 110 to 130 ◦ C formed by measuring the rheological property within the linear visco­
for HIR enhanced the binder mobilization and also cracking resistance of elastic (LVE) range, and damage property outside of the LVE range
the HIR mixes, while a sufficient curing period could enhance the CIR (Zhang, R. et al., 2021). Utilizing dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) test at
mixes’ stiffness, cracking resistance, and moisture resistance (Huang 1% strain rate, the fatigue parameter, G∗ × sin δ, can be determined.
et al., 2022; Ma et al., 2022). Different studies illustrated that this parameter is not reliable for eval­
According to chemical analyses at the microstructural level, adding uating the fatigue resistance due to incapability of capturing the accu­
rejuvenators to aged binders will recover their aged characteristics to rate behaviour of asphalt binders under destructive loading (Anderson
original state, either partially or completely. Consequently, by reac­ et al., 2001; Bahia et al., 2001; Norouzi et al., 2021). Although, double
tivating aged recycled asphalt binder (RAB), it helps the blending pro­ edge-notched tension (DENT) and time sweep tests are promising in
cess with fresh bitumen added to the mixture (Oldham et al., 2015). several aspects to determine the fatigue performance of RAB, they have
Fig. 1 illustrates the overall rankings of PG high-temperature grades of some issues including the length of time for testing and amount of
various rejuvenators (R), virgin binders (VB), RAP binders, and waste required materials (Christensen and Tran, 2021; Elkashef and Williams,
asphalt shingles (WAS) binders obtained from different sources. 2017).
As depicted in the figure, rejuvenators are one of the solutions for To overcome on these problems and precisely describe fatigue
pavement engineers to compensate for the super-stiff RAP–RAS binders. behaviour of binders, linear amplitude sweep (LAS) test has been
In order to balance the stiff RAS and RAP binders, a lower rejuvenator introduced as a replacement which can induce accumulated damage in
grade (R-1 or even R-2) should be used to achieve a workable asphalt asphalt binder sample tests and provide a good correlation with the
binder through blending. The stiffer the RAP–RAS binder, the lower fatigue life of asphalt mixture (Hintz et al., 2011; Mannan et al., 2015).
rejuvenator grade required. The efficiency of rejuvenators to help revi­ Using LAS test, significant research studies have been conducted on the
talize the properties of aged binder and reduce mixture stiffness, de­ rejuvenated binder blends to determine number of cycles until failure
pends on the source from which it originates (Haghshenas et al., 2016; for each type of rejuvenators in combination with stiff and soft binders
Mogawer, W.S. et al., 2013; Yu et al., 2014). Throughout the years, (Willis et al., 2012; Zaumanis et al., 2015). By developing the simplified
paraffinic oils, aromatic oils, naphthenic oils, triglycerides and fatty viscoelastic continuum damage (S-VECD) and failure criterion (GR)
acids, and tall oils have been widely recommended as the prominent methods in LAS test, the fatigue performance of asphalt binders has been
types of rejuvenators (NCAT, 2014). Recent studies revealed that the widely investigated (Notani et al., 2019; Sabouri et al., 2018; Safaei
bio-derived rejuvenators increases the number of cycles to failure in the et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2018a, 2018b).
RAP binder to a level comparable to that of the virgin binder, they are As mentioned earlier, adding RAP materials to a virgin mixture can
superior to the petroleum-based rejuvenators (Zaumanis and Mallick, significantly affect the fatigue performance of asphalt mixes. As a result,
2015). Using bio-derived rejuvenators such as cotton-oil product and many mixture tests have been proposed to evaluate the fatigue cracking
pine-based product illustrated that fatigue performance of the aged characteristics of RAP mixtures and identify their correlations with fa­
binder can be efficiently enhanced (Porot et al., 2017; Zhu et al., 2017). tigue cracking in RAB. The four-point flexural bending beam (FPBB)
Apart from the rejuvenator’s type, the dosage used in aged binders is fatigue test is one of the most recommended approaches to provide a
also important factor in restoring the binder blend rheological properties strong correlation with asphalt binder tests (TS and LAS) results (Sab­
and finally enhancement of fatigue resistance (Hugener et al., 2014). ouri and Kim, 2014; Xie, 2018). Direct tension cyclic fatigue (DTCF) is
Other factors such as compatibility of rejuvenator with the base binder, another test for determining the fatigue properties in RAP mixtures
and degree of blending between RAB and rejuvenator are also crucial in which is based on damage characterization. By evaluating the fatigue
improving fatigue performance (Yin et al., 2017; Zaumanis et al., 2013). properties of recycled asphalt mixture and binder, a good agreement was
The fatigue performance evaluation is divided into two categories observed between DTCF and LAS tests (Safaei et al., 2016). Utilizing
including characterization of asphalt binder and mixture properties. energy ratio (ER) test method, the fatigue performance of mixtures
Since the initiation and propagation of fatigue cracking often occurs containing RAP contents ranging from 0 to 30%, and WMA involving
within the binder or mastic phase of asphalt mixes, improving the fa­ high RAP contents illustrated the similar ranking to FPBB fatigue tests
tigue resistance of asphalt binder has a considerable impact on the fa­ results (Shu et al., 2008; Zhao et al., 2012). There have been also other

Fig. 1. PG high-temperature grades of rejuvenators, virgin, RAP, and RAS binders (Zhou et al., 2012, 2013, 2014).

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

cracking tests such as Illinois flexibility index test (I-FIT), the compare the influence of various rejuvenators blended with modified
semi-circular bending test (SCB) and the indirect tensile asphalt cracking and unmodified binders in improvement of fatigue resistance properties
test (IDEAL-CT) to determine fatigue resistance. The comprehensive of reclaimed asphalt binders and mixtures. The systematic literature
results obtained from these tests have indicated that nominal maximum review includes a sequence of steps to obtain large amounts of data for a
aggregate size (NMAS), RAP content, mixture aging, rejuvenator, and full evaluation, address related questions about the subject of interest,
binder type and content have been influencing factors on J-integral (Jc), and open up possibilities for future study (Chen and Zheng, 2021; de
cracking test index (CTIndex) and flexibility index (FI) results (Elseifi Jesus Pacheco et al., 2017). Accordingly, in this paper, by defining a
et al., 2012; Jahanbakhsh et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2020; Lee et al., 2019; problem and selecting a topic, the most well-known bibliometric data­
Ling et al., 2017; Song et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2017a, 2017b). bases were chosen to identify the relevant documents and then the
For the mixtures produced in the laboratory, a good correlation has critical evaluation was performed among the selected studies. The scope
been identified between the Jc and toughness index (TI) computed from of this review paper was to investigate fatigue and
SCB and indirect tensile (IDT) tests, respectively (Kim et al., 2012). On intermediate-temperature cracking performance of RAP binder and
the other hand, for the asphalt mixtures including different RAP binder mixture with an emphasis on the rejuvenator impact on improving its
and mixture contents, an identical trend has been identified between resistance. The next step was identifying the most appropriate study
I-FIT and IDEAL-CT results with a good linear relationship (Zhou, F. resources using Web of Science and Google Scholar databases. The
et al., 2019). Compared to SCB test results which have widely demon­ searching terms, “fatigue cracking OR fatigue performance OR fatigue
strated fair or poor relationship with measured field cracking, the I-FIT resistance”, “intermediate-temperature cracking” AND “Reclaimed
and IDEAL-CT were found to have a good correlation with the field asphalt OR Recycled asphalt OR RAP binder OR RAP mixture” AND ′′
cracking performance at intermediate temperature (Cao et al., 2019b; Recycling agent OR Rejuvenator OR Rejuvenation” were utilized to
Willis et al., 2016; Xie et al., 2017). Investigation of fatigue resistance in choose the entire publications.
asphalt mixtures using fracture tests had their advantages and disad­ Through the above search strategy and removing the duplicates, 667
vantages. A summary of different indicators used for evaluation of fa­ documents were remained for further investigation. It should be noted
tigue and intermediate-temperature cracking performance are shown in that the selected papers were related to the fatigue cracking evaluation
Table 1. in RAP binders and mixtures with or without rejuvenators. By reviewing
However, many researchers tried to utilize different approaches to the titles and abstracts of the selected documents to ensure whether the
investigate fatigue performance in rejuvenated RAP binder and mixture, subject is consistent, finally, a total of 170 publications were evaluated
a tangible gap was observed in addressing fatigue performance in­ critically. Fig. 3a depicts the number of publications and citations from
dicators for the rejuvenator that recover properties of aged binders. January 2007 to May 2022, while Fig. 3b represents the highest number
of publications and citations based on the country’s name. It is seen from
2. Objectives the figures that fatigue and intermediate-temperature cracking perfor­
mances of RAP binders and mixtures have received significant attentions
The objectives of this systematic literature review were: since 2018 which was mainly due to increase of publications on the
rejuvenators and its effect on fatigue performance of RAP binder and
1. To discuss about various influencing factors and evaluation methods mixture.
on the fatigue and intermediate-temperature cracking performance A quantitative analysis on the keywords of 170 research articles has
of rejuvenated RAP binder and mixtures. been carried out using Vosviewer, as shown in Fig. 4, where the nodes
2. To identify the best fatigue performance evaluation tests of recycled size illustrated by the keywords implies the co-occurring frequency in
binder and mixture, and chemical modification methods to enhance the literature. The figure shows that fatigue behaviour, reclaimed
fatigue resistance properties of rejuvenated RAP binders and asphalt pavements and rejuvenators were significant subjects of interest
mixtures. within 15 recent years (2007–2022) which were categorized in different
3. To evaluate the best performance indicators that provide an appro­ groups. It is seen that chemical and microstructural characteristics of
priate assessment for rejuvenated RAP mixture resistance to fatigue binder blends have been considered in fatigue behaviour analysis
cracking, and explore the impacts of rejuvenators’ types and dosages through saturates, aromatics, resins, and asphaltenes (SARA) fractions,
on the fatigue performance of RAP binder and mixture. and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), and atomic force microscopy
(AFM) tests. Moreover, it is observed from another category in the figure
The schematic structure of subjects discussed in this review study is that various rheological and mixture fatigue tests have been employed to
shown in Fig. 2. analyze fatigue behaviour of RAP binders and mixtures as well as
identifying the correlations.
3. Methodology In final step of this systematic review approach, the analysis and
synthesis were performed by reading and summarizing the key points
In this research, the existing literatures were systematically reviewed and findings from retrieved published papers related to this study.
to evaluate the fatigue performance of RAP binders and mixtures, and to
4. Results and discussion

Table 1 4.1. Fatigue resistance mechanism of rejuvenated asphalt binder and

Summary of fatigue and intermediate-temperature cracking performance
mixture
indicators.
Parameter Test standard Performance Indicator Fatigue resistance of asphalt pavement is highly influenced by aging.
Nf (FPBB) AASHTO T321 Fatigue life Utilizing high RAP contents increase a concern that the resultant mix­
Gfracture (IDT) ASTM -D6931 and D8225 Total fracture energy tures become more prone to fatigue cracking because of the aged binder
Gfracture (SCB-FI) AASHTO TP 124 Total fracture energy in the RAP. Therefore, adding a true rejuvenator for improving the
CRI (SCB-FI) AASHTO TP 124 Cracking resistance index
FI (SCB-FI) AASHTO TP 124 Flexibility index
chemical and rheological properties of recycled binder has been a
IDEAL-CTIndex ASTM -D6931 and D8225 IDEAL-CTIndex prominent solution to compensate fatigue cracking degradation (Porot
Nf (ITFT) British Standard Institution (BSI) Fatigue life et al., 2017; Zhu et al., 2017).
IDTStrength ASTM -D6931 and D8225 IDTStrength
Jc ASTM D8044 Strain energy release rate

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

Fig. 2. Schematic structure of key points reviewed in this study.

asphalt binder film reaches to equilibrium (Carpenter and Wolosick,

1980). Comprehensive micro- and macro-scale experiments as well as
simulation at atomic scale have been conducted to identify the diffusion
mechanism between rejuvenator and aged asphalt binder. Based on the
findings obtained from FTIR, gel permeation chromatography (GPC) and
SARA fraction tests, diffusion rate depends on material-related proper­
ties including viscosity, molecular shape, size, and polarity, and
environment-related parameters such as temperature, time, and pres­
sure (Karlsson and Isacsson, 2006; Ma et al., 2015; Su et al., 2016).
The results of interface image threshold analysis and oil tracer
analysis from previous study illustrated that these approaches can
quantify the rejuvenator diffusion into aged asphalt binder appropri­
ately (Xiao, Y. et al., 2020). Furthermore, a diffusion coefficient was
introduced to determine the rate of diffusion between rejuvenator and
aged binder based on experimental studies. Comparison of diffusion
coefficients obtained from dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) at temper­
atures 60, 80 and 100 ◦ C with those calculated from FTIR showed that
the diffusion rates were almost similar in magnitudes (Karlsson et al.,
2007). Various studies were conducted by molecular dynamic (MD)
simulation to evaluate the atomic interaction and diffusion between
rejuvenators and asphalt binders at the nanoscale (Ding et al., 2016;
Xiao et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2018). The results revealed that the inter­
molecular diffusion of virgin and aged binders was more effectively
enhanced by adding rejuvenator to the aged binder at first, which
resulted in accelerating the diffusion of the whole structure. This finding
was in agreement with test results in which adding a rejuvenator caused
the large molecular (LM) size of an aged asphalt binder to decrease,
while the medium molecular (MM) and small molecular (SM) size in­
Fig. 3. Distribution of retrieved publications and citations: (a) by year, (b) by crease (Zadshir et al., 2019; Zhao et al., 2018). Fig. 6, illustrates the
country (obtained from Web of Science and Google Scholar databases). molecular size distributions of aged binder blends before and after
adding rejuvenators.
4.1.1. Interaction between rejuvenator and asphalt binder It was observed that aging resulted in increase of LM and decrease of
Unlike the soft virgin binder which is typically used for reducing the MM and SM size, and introducing a rejuvenator to aged asphalt binder
viscosity of aged asphalt binder, the true rejuvenator is capable of changed the corresponding molecular size distribution efficiently. Be­
restoring the ratio of asphalt binder fractions, including asphaltenes and sides, the results obtained from chemical characterization and MD
maltenes, to higher maltene contents. Rejuvenator efficiency is highly simulation confirmed that adding true rejuvenator to aged asphalt
dependent on its diffusion into the RAB to mobilize the aged binder and binder deagglomerates the asphaltene molecules and breaks them into
form a homogenous recycled binder. Inadequate diffusion might result smaller molecules; while increases colloidal stability of the systems and
in a weak performance of RAP mixture, especially long-term properties, decreases heavy molecular weight fractions (Zadshir et al., 2019). Fig. 7
such as fatigue. The schematic of rejuvenator diffusion in RAP binder shows a schematic of asphaltene deagglomeration after adding a
film is depicted in Fig. 5. bio-rejuvenator to an aged binder.
At the biggening of diffusion procedure, a thin layer of relatively low This mechanism causes a rejuvenator to be differentiated from the
viscosity rejuvenator covers around the aggregates coated with RAP softeners. The rejuvenator effectiveness in decreasing the size of large
binder. Then, it penetrates into RAP binder and causes the internal and molecules per volume of added rejuvenators were recently investigated
external layers viscosities to lower progressively until the most of by calculating relaxation spectra from the oscillation shear test data of

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

Fig. 4. Distribution of publications by keywords from 2007 to 2022 (analyzed by Vosviewer software).

Fig. 5. Illustration of rejuvenator diffusion process in RAP binder.

asphalt binders and utilizing scan tunnelling electron microscope and roughness) of binder blend utilizing AFM, aging and rejuvenating
(STEM) (Zhu et al., 2017). Based on the results presented in Fig. 8a, once mechanism were widely explored in microscale over the past decade.
a cooking oil rejuvenator was added into aged asphalt binder, a signif­ According to the studies conducted on microstructure of asphalt binder
icant reduction was observed in the overall magnitude of relaxation using AFM topography and phase images, the formation of bright and
spectrum, as well as decreasing the bulge on the right tail of spectrum dark strips, so-called a “bee-shaped” structure, has been widely attrib­
plot as depicted in the figure. Furthermore, the STEM results presented uted to wax crystallization during heating-cooling cycle (Das et al.,
in Fig. 8b revealed that cooking oil rejuvenator could break down some 2013; Nahar et al., 2013; Pauli et al., 2011; Soenen et al., 2014; Zhang
of the molecules formed in recycled binder and was not able to dissolve et al., 2011). Numerous studies revealed that the number of bee-shaped
them completely. microstructure increases because of aging in asphalt binder, and de­
In asphalt mixture recycling, two criteria involving short-term and creases after adding rejuvenator (Li et al., 2021; Menapace et al., 2015;
long-term should be satisfied after adding a rejuvenator. In short-term Oldham et al., 2018; Wu et al., 2009). In contrast, some findings illus­
conditions, a rejuvenator should be diffused in RAB rapidly to avert trated that aging reduces the length and extent of bee structure (Guo
the friction reduction and decrease likelihood of rutting failure; whereas et al., 2021; Zhang et al., 2012). Therefore, depending on the type of
in long-term conditions, variations in chemical and rheological prop­ binder, rejuvenator dosage, aging degree, and loading conditions, its
erties are necessary in order to diminish fatigue and low temperature size and number varies. Fig. 9 shows micromorphology images of RAP
cracking, without any adverse effect on rutting and moisture damage. binder, laboratory-aged binder, and bio-rejuvenator influence on
bee-shape structure.
It has been realized that the microstructure of laboratory-aged binder
4.2. Microscale characteristics evaluation of rejuvenated RAP binder
differs from RAP binder, and utilizing the rejuvenator may not always
restore the morphology of aged binder to that of original binder (Nahar
Investigation of aging mechanism and rejuvenator effectiveness in
et al., 2014; Yu et al., 2014). Researchers also used the average rough­
partially or fully restoring the microstructural and chemical properties
ness (Ra) as an index to assess the micromorphology of rejuvenated aged
of aged binder can provide fundamental understanding of the overall
binder, and their results indicated that the roughness value of binder
binder performance.
blends decreased steadily by adding rejuvenators increasingly (Guo
et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021; Menapace et al., 2018). Utilizing the tradi­
4.2.1. Atomic force microscopy (AFM)
tional AFM mode (contact or noncontact) to investigate the aging and
By identifying changes in microstructural properties (morphology

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

Fig. 6. Variations of molecular size distribution in rejuvenated asphalt binders (Cao, X. et al., 2018; Huang et al., 2021; Rajib et al., 2020; Zadshir et al., 2019).

Fig. 7. Schematic of asphaltene deagglomeration by adding a bio-rejuvenator (Ding et al., 2016).

rejuvenator mechanism based on topography has been limited to the QNM, has been developed to explore micromechanical properties
qualitative analysis, such as the relationship between bee structure and (modulus, adhesion, deformation, and dissipated energy) of binder
chemical constituents. Hence, a new AFM tapping mode, Peak Force blends. According to AFM Peak Force QNM mode, three main phases,

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

Fig. 8. Rejuvenator effectiveness in RAP binder according to (a) relaxation spectrum, and (b) STEM image (Zhao et al., 2018).

Fig. 9. Illustration of micromorphology images obtained from AFM for different conditions (Oldham et al., 2018).

namely bee structures (catana-phase), dispersed phase (peri-phase) and stress concentration. Table 2 shows the summary of significant in­
the matrix phase (para-phase) were identified in the surface topography vestigations and key findings related to microstructural and micro­
of binder blends (Lyne et al., 2013; Masson et al., 2006). Findings mechanical properties of binder blends after adding rejuvenator.
illustrated that aging and higher RAP contents increase the modulus and
decrease the adhesion, while the rejuvenator addition results in opposite 4.2.2. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy
trend for the mechanical properties of binder blends (Das et al., 2016; FTIR test has been widely utilized for identifying the chemical
Nazzal et al., 2015; Rashid et al., 2019; Wang and Liu, 2017; Wang, P.Y. functional groups in binders due to aging and rejuvenation. It has been
et al., 2015). Fig. 10 shows an example of overall modulus changes in reported that carbonyl (C– – O) and sulfoxide (S– – O) groups are two
binder blends with and without rejuvenator. major criteria for relative oxidation in aged binders such as RAB, with
As can be observed, the rejuvenators reduced the overall modulus peaks at FTIR spectrum around 1740 cm− 1 and 1030 cm− 1, respectively
significantly. In fact, the most rejuvenation effect is related to the softer (Abdelaziz et al., 2021; Cao, X. et al., 2018; Mansourkhaki et al., 2019).
(matrix) phase of the blends, and stiffer phase (dispersed) modulus is Indeed, a higher degree of oxidation in recycled binder is due to the
almost unaffected. It was reported that aging causes moduli of bee existence of higher carbonyl and sulfoxide groups which are shown in
structure and dispersed phase to be higher than that of matrix phase Fig. 11.
(Abdelaziz et al., 2020). Differences in modulus property of these pha­ Based on two main structural indices, namely carbonyl index (IC– – O),
ses, indicating that microstructure of binder blends is heterogeneous, and sulfoxide index (IS– – O), which are computed by ratios of the area
and applying the mechanical loading causes the stress concentrations to under a certain band to the entire area, effect of different rejuvenators
arise at the interfaces between the phases. This might ultimately result in on RAB with and without virgin binder has been explored previously.
the initiation of micro cracks, which then propagate and form major Findings demonstrated that petroleum-based rejuvenator decreased
visible cracks. Therefore, adding rejuvenator to binder blends can carbonyl and sulfoxide indices in binder blends with different RAP
decrease the difference in modulus between the two phases and prevent binder percentages, showing that asphalt binder’s chemical composition

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

Fig. 10. Variations of overall modulus in binder blends with and without rejuvenator (Abdelaziz et al., 2020, 2021; Hossain et al., 2020; Yu et al., 2014).

can been restored (Haghshenas et al., 2016; Mansourkhaki et al., 2019). binder and improving its phase angle and ductility, whereas the oxida­
In contrast, addition of bio-oil, tall oil, and seed oil rejuvenators to RAP tive aging cannot be restored (Abdelaziz et al., 2021). As a result, it was
binder revealed that the carbonyl and sulfoxide indices increased and suggested that FTIR results should not be utilized to estimate the stiff­
the reason was because of concentrations of polar compounds (Abde­ ness of binder mixes. Based on the FTIR results of extracted asphalt
laziz et al., 2021; Cavalli et al., 2018a; Foroutan Mirhosseini et al., binder from 28 field mixes, very to moderately strong relationships were
2018). It should be noted that, bio-oil rejuvenators solely were not concluded between the Superpave fatigue cracking parameter (|G*|.
influenced by aging, and increase of carbonyl and sulfoxide groups was a sinδ) and FTIR indices (Deef-Allah and Abdelrahman, 2021). From
consequence of aging in RAP binder, as proven in earlier studies (Dondi another study, it was reported that carbonyl index (IC– – O) in binder
et al., 2016; Lopes et al., 2016). It was also reported that the higher blend had poor correlation with fatigue parameters (-B, Nf) calculated
absorbance values of IC– – O and IS– – O in rejuvenated RAP binders from linear amplitude sweep (LAS) test, which could be due to the
including seed oil and tall oil, were due to carboxylic groups in the excessive amount of aging, whereas the sulfoxide index (IS– – O) corre­
corresponding rejuvenators (Jia et al., 2014). From another study it was lated better with the "-B′′ value derived from LAS fatigue test (Huang
found out that adding 10–15% waste vegetable oil (WVO) to binder et al., 2021). As shown in Fig. 13, the increase of sulfoxide index (IS–
– O)
blends lowered the sulfoxide index and restored the absorbance value caused the viscosity and fatigue factor (N50) to increase and decrease
close to virgin binder level, and it was attributed to the physical dilution exponentially, respectively (Cao, X. et al., 2018).
of WVO to asphalt. In contrast, the carbonyl index rose when the reju­ Singh and Sawant (2016) identified that the higher IC– – O and IS––O
venator dosage increased (Cao, X. et al., 2018). This was due to the fact peaks obtained from FTIR in RAP binders influenced the fatigue resis­
that major component of WVO was fatty acid which included high tance of binder blends. But, a recent study concluded that relationship
amounts of carbonyl index by itself. Similar conclusion was made for the between these two indices and fatigue parameter calculated from LAS
date seed oil (DSO) which contained 40–55% fatty acid and resulted in test was inconsistent, and FTIR indices were not good indicators to es­
the increase of carbonyl (Foroutan Mirhosseini et al., 2018). Fig. 12 timate fatigue performance of binder blends at intermediate tempera­
depicts the effect of various rejuvenators on IC– – O and IC–– O of aged tures (Mansourkhaki et al., 2019).
binders. Different vague and contradictory conclusions were observed from
Recently, significant studies have been conducted to identify the the correlation of FTIR results with fatigue and rheological properties,
FTIR functional groups correlation with fatigue performance and rheo­ which could be related to rejuvenators’ type and dosage, inconsistency
logical properties of binder blends. Influence of five different re­ in the binder type, use of RAP binder with various percentages. To avoid
juvenators on high RAP binder based on their functional groups revealed obtaining inaccurate findings, additional research is needed using SARA
that rejuvenators mitigate the adverse effects of aging by softening the analysis to determine the effect of chemical characteristics on the fatigue

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

Table 2
Summary of AFM investigations of the rejuvenator effectiveness on aged binder based on microstructural and micromechanical analyses.
Ref. Aged Binder information Rejuvenator type AFM mode Analysis Conclusions/key findings

Yu et al. Two SHRP binders: AAD Aromatic extract, and Peak force Bee structure, dispersed, • Bee structure domains in aged ABD samples showed
(2014) (PG 58-28), ABD (PG 58- waste vegetable oil QNM mode, and matrix phase; smaller adhesion, dissipation and modulus
10), and contact adhesion; modulus; compared to matrix area; Depending on the binder-
mode dissipation rejuvenator combination, aging and rejuvenation
caused different morphological changes.
Gong et al. One SHRP binder with Bio-oil rejuvenator: (waste Tapping mode Bee structure • In unmodified aged binder, only black dots in
(2016) Pen50; and SBS- cooking oil) middle of bee structure decreased without any
modified binder changes in amount; In SBS-modified binder the size
of bee structure increased, and its number
decreased.
Osmari et al. Two asphalt binders: Three rejuvenators: Tapping mode Morphology of three • Catana phase and peri phase decreased, but para
(2017) PG 64-22, PG 70-22 commercial product, waste phases (catana, peri, and phase increased; Microstructural properties of
cooking oil, and castor oils para phases) binder blends were affected by binder and
rejuvenator type.
Oldham One SHRP binder: (PG Bio-oil rejuvenator: Peak force Modulus of three phases • Reduction in bee structure length correlated well
et al. 64-22); and field- (derived from swine QNM mode (catana, peri, and para with the increase of rejuvenator dosage from 5 to
(2018) extracted RAP binder manure) phases) 30%; The area of para phase increased, but peri
phase and catana phase decreased.
Abdelaziz Two SHRP binder grades Modified vegetable oil Peak force Bee structure; modulus; • Bee structures were eliminated at higher dosages of
et al. (PG 58-28, PG 52-34). QNM mode adhesion rejuvenator; Modulus reduced, but adhesion
(2020) increased.
Hossain et al. Four binder blends with Evoflex (oil-based Peak force Bee structure, dispersed, • Bee structure in RAP binder disappeared;
(2018) 40% RAP binders; and rejuvenator) QNM mode and matrix phases; Roughness index increased; Modulus of all phases
SHRP binder (PG 64-22) roughness index; modulus decreased, but the reduction amount in matrix
phase was higher than dispersed phase.
Li et al. One SHRP binder: pen70 Petroleum-based Peak force Bee structure; roughness • Roughness index decreased and approached those
(2021) (PG 64-22) rejuvenator QNM mode index of the original asphalt binder.
Guo et al. Two different SHRP Two rejuvenators: Tapping mode Bee structure; roughness • Roughness index of SBS-modified binder decreased;
(2021) binders with pen70; and commercial (CR), and index; surface adhesion. Loss of surface adhesion due to aging in modified
SBS-modified binder aromatics oil binder enhanced; Bee structure of modified binder
decreased.

ductility (Pahlavan et al., 2016; Rebelo et al., 2014). It was reported that
addition of RAP binder changed the chemical compositions of binder
blend as well as rheological performance (Leng et al., 2018). Therefore,
numerous studies were conducted to explore the rejuvenators effect on
SARA fractions of aged binders and their correlations with mechanical
and engineering properties. Haghshenas et al. (2020) evaluated SARA
fractions of various rejuvenators and revealed that the aromatic extract
rejuvenators had an identical maltene composition to binders among all
rejuvenators, while tall oils had no saturates content, triglycerides/fatty
acids had only resins component, and paraffinic oils included high
amount of saturates. Most rejuvenators are able to decrease asphaltenes
and increase the aromatics fractions, while few of them may show the
reverse trend (Nsengiyumva et al., 2020; Rajib et al., 2020; Zhang et al.,
2020a). Due to the recovery in chemical fractions of aged binder, the
mechanical characteristics could be restored noticeably (Elkashef,
2017). However, there have not been a significant finding to indicate
rejuvenators could restore the SARA fractions of binder blends to the
same level of virgin binder (Zhang et al., 2020a).
Furthermore, differences in the SARA fractions have been investi­
gated using the colloidal stability index (CI) which is an indicator of sol
or gel structures in asphalt binders (Mangiafico et al., 2016). The higher
Fig. 11. FTIR spectra of virgin binder 60/70, RAP binder, and blended binder value of CI is desirable and implies that asphaltenes are more peptized
(Roja et al., 2020). by resins and aromatics, while aging reduces the CI value and results in
an increase in binder stiffness (Haghshenas et al., 2018). Summary of
properties of rejuvenated binder blends. SARA fractions results for different binders and rejuvenators were pre­
sented in Fig. 14.
4.2.3. Saturate-aromatic-resin-asphaltene (SARA) analysis As shown in the figure, the CI values rose in the presence of re­
According to the molecular size and polarity, asphalt binder com­ juvenators owing to the nature of rejuvenators, which contain a higher
ponents are divided into saturate, aromatic, resin and asphaltene percentage of maltenes. In addition, the chemical fractions of rejuve­
(SARA) fractions and form a colloidal system. Asphaltenes have the nated binder blends did not completely reach to that of virgin binders,
utmost polarity and followed by resins, aromatics and saturates, which the rejuvenation procedure had the overall impact of introducing
are together known as maltenes (Sultana and Bhasin, 2014). It has been chemical variations that helped restore the virgin asphalt binder char­
well documented that the oxidative aging converts the aromatics to acteristics. Mansourkhaki et al. (2019) reported that colloidal instability
resins and then asphaltenes, which leads to reduction in the ratio of index obtained from SARA fractions had a good correlation with
maltenes to asphaltenes, and eventually higher viscosity and lower superpave fatigue parameters (G*.Sinδ) and can be used as an indicator

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

Fig. 12. Analysis of functional groups of rejuvenated asphalt binders (Abdelaziz et al., 2021; Cao, X. et al., 2018; Guduru et al., 2021; Haghshenas et al., 2018; Huang
et al., 2021; Santos et al., 2021).

resistance. Haghshenas et al. (2022) revealed that colloidal stability

index (CI) values were inversely proportional with the rheological
properties including high PG temperature, Log complex modulus (G*),
Log Glover-Rowe (G-R), and flexural creep stiffness. They indicated that
weak long-term performance of rejuvenated binders was due to a
decrease in initial CI, which causes the binder blend to behave more
brittle. Recently, a research study identified a good correlation between
the results of SARA fractions and fatigue life (Nf) obtained from LAS test
at strain levels of 2.5% and 5% (Daryaee and Vamegh, 2021). They
illustrated that adding rejuvenator to RAP binder increased the aro­
matics content, while the asphaltenes decreased, and eventually led to
softer binder colloidal structure and improvement of fatigue resistance.
Similarly, Huang et al. (2021) also conducted the similar tests on
different rejuvenated binders and reported a poor correlation between
the fatigue life of binder blends obtained from LAS test and SARA
fractions. They specified that the chemical parameters can be utilized to
show the fatigue life dependency on the amplitude of strain.
It is worth noting that most of previous studies utilized rejuvenators
from different sources to revitalize the aged binder characteristics, and
Fig. 13. Correlation of sulfoxide index (IS–
–O) with viscosity and fatigue factor evaluated efficacy of their rejuvenator by focusing on certain properties
(Cao, X. et al., 2018). while neglecting other characteristics. As a result, inaccurate conclu­
sions may be drawn, leading to the promotion of products that enhance
for evaluating the fatigue performance of binder blends compared to only specific characteristics while weakening other properties. Accord­
FTIR indices. Similar conclusion was drawn by Omairey et al. (2020) in ingly, in long-term performance, a rejuvenator should also change the
which the higher colloidal instability index in binder resulted in greater binder rheology in order to diminish fatigue cracking without any
G*.Sinδ value, and eventually increase of binder fatigue cracking adverse effect on rutting properties.

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

Fig. 14. SARA fractions and colloidal index (CI) analysis of different rejuvenated asphalt binders
(Cavalli et al., 2018b; Guduru et al., 2021; Haghshenas et al., 2018; Mansourkhaki et al., 2019; Rajib et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2021).

4.3. Fatigue performance evaluation of rejuvenated RAP binder in have still smaller G* and larger δ, and led to better fatigue resistance
mesoscale compared to the binder without rejuvenators (Arámbula-Mercado et al.,
2018). Therefore, employing rejuvenators in RAP binders is beneficial in
Accurate determination of fatigue cracking resistance in recycled order to lower binder blends stiffness and improve the fatigue resistance.
asphalt binder plays an important role in prediction of binder blends Zhu et al. (2017) indicated that using 5% and 10% bio-rejuvenators
overall performance. From the literature, various approaches for helped the fatigue resistance of aged binder to restore significantly;
measuring fatigue damage of asphalt binders were identified and placed nevertheless, rejuvenators efficiency in enhancement of G*.sinδ was not
in three categories in this study. In addition, effectiveness of re­ equal to virgin binder level at temperature ranges of 18 ◦ C–24 ◦ C. Many
juvenators on fatigue and intermediate-temperature cracking perfor­ researchers stated that the G*.sinδ had limitations in characterizing fa­
mance of RAP binders was studied. tigue performance of asphalt binders, because it was not able to obtain
the realistic non-linear viscoelastic response of the binder in damaged
4.3.1. Superpave fatigue parameter (G*.sinδ) conditions which occurs mainly in high strain levels, and binder strength
Fatigue resistance of asphalt binders has been widely evaluated is not measured directly by G*.sinδ parameter. Hence, using only un­
based on superpave fatigue parameter (G*.sinδ) using dynamic shear damaged viscoelastic properties leads to erroneous fatigue character­
rheometer (DSR) test at a 1% strain rate, and at an intermediate tem­ ization (Bahia et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2018b).
perature. A better fatigue performance of long-term aged binders is According to DSR frequency sweep tests at various frequencies and
desirable at lower values of fatigue parameter (G*.sinδ <5000 kPa). The temperatures, many studies were conducted on binder blends to inves­
higher G* (complex shear modulus) magnitudes indicate stiffer asphalt tigate the rejuvenators impact on G* and δ as individual parameters.
binders, while the greater values of δ (phase angle) imply a larger Comparison of two different rejuvenators with the same dosage was
viscous part of complex modulus. Researchers reported that utilizing performed by Yu et al. (2014) and the results illustrated that effect of
recycled binders cause an increase in G* and a decrease in δ, analogous waste vegetable oil (WVO) was more pronounced than aromatic extract
to laboratory aging impact, whereas adding a rejuvenator has a reverse in decrease of |G*| and increase of δ. Haghshenas et al. (2016) concluded
effect on both |G*| and δ, resulting in improvement of fatigue resistance that tall-oils reduced G* more than soybean oils and petroleum-based
(Grilli et al., 2017; Karki and Zhou, 2016; Kaseer et al., 2018a; Yin et al., rejuvenators. It was also reported that waste cooking oil (WCO) and
2017; Yu et al., 2014). It was illustrated that bio-rejuvenators decreased castor oil lowered G* value further than petroleum-based rejuvenator,
the magnitude of G*sin (δ) value for all recycled asphalt shingles (RAS) while their influence on δ was identical (Osmari et al., 2017).
percentages, resulted in a fatigue performance improvement after The Glover-Rowe (G-R) parameter is combination of G* and δ in a
long-term aging (Rajib, 2020). Findings also revealed that rejuvenators black space diagram and is measured from DSR test at frequency of
enhanced fatigue resistance of binder blends by lowering the critical 0.005 rad/s and temperature of 15 ◦ C. As a useful indicator, it has been
intermediate temperature (corresponding temperature of fatigue factor widely employed by researchers to investigate rejuvenators efficacy in
at 5000 kPa), and incorporation approaches had no significant influence restoration of binder properties at different aging levels (Abdelaziz et al.,
on G*.sinδ values (Ma et al., 2020; Yang et al., 2021). Similarly, Elkashef 2021; Ahmed et al., 2021; Haghshenas et al., 2021). The G-R values for
et al. (2018b) reported that adding a soybean oil to RAB decreased the the onset of damage and significant cracking were equal to 180 kPa and
critical intermediate temperature to around 20 ◦ C. However, long-term 600 kPa, respectively (Anderson et al., 2011; Pournoman et al., 2018).
aging reduces rejuvenators efficiency, the blended binders were found to Once the aging level intensifies (increase of G* and/or decrease of δ),

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

G-R parameter increases which indicates binder is more prone to rejuvenator in combination with polymer modified binder delayed the
cracking. Thus, a lower value of G-R is preferred after adding rejuve­ aging time for initial fatigue cracking. It should be noticed that the
nator into the RAP binder. Elkashef et al. (2018b) reported that soybean limitation related to G-R parameter is that it just considers the material
oil rejuvenator enhanced fatigue performance of RAP binder according response within the linear viscoelastic (LVE) range, while in the real
to two properties, namely G-R parameter, and superpave fatigue pavements, the asphalt binders may be subjected to much greater strain
parameter (G*.sinδ). They specified that by lowering G* and increasing δ levels. Due to nonlinear response of binder blends to a loading, many
in black space diagram, the rejuvenator effectively shifted RAP binder studies were conducted to identify a better procedure for fatigue
far from the crack-damage-zone. Abdelaziz et al. (2020) illustrated that cracking evaluation of binder blends in which also provide better cor­
increasing RAP binder content from 20% to 30% in binder blends relation with fatigue results of asphalt mixture.
resulted in higher G-R value, while adding 1.2% and 5.5% dosage of
vegetable oil rejuvenator diminish the G-R parameter 65% and 90%, 4.3.2. Time sweep (TS) fatigue test
respectively. Applying repeated cyclic loading at a constant amplitude in DSR was
Introducing the antioxidant in combination with rejuvenator delayed one of the methods for investigation of fatigue damage in asphalt
the aging time of inducing onset damage in binder blends, and efficacy binders. Utilizing time sweep (TS) test, the results of fatigue cracking in
of antioxidant was influenced by the rejuvenator type (Haghshenas asphalt binder illustrated good correlation with those in asphalt mix­
et al., 2021). However, rejuvenators effectiveness decreases with tures (Bahia et al., 2001). In typical TS test, the number of cycles to
long-term aging, Arámbula-Mercado et al. (2018) stated that increasing failure at a specified stress or strain amplitude was considered as a
a rejuvenator’s dosage resulted in a satisfactory restoration of RAP measure to determine the fatigue cracking resistance of asphalt binders.
binder properties. Based on G-R results, it was revealed that WCO But in a strain-controlled testing condition, determining the point of
rejuvenated binder and polymer modified binders were less vulnerable failure might be challenging. Bonnetti et al. (2002) recommended that
to aging and resulted in higher fatigue cracking resistance (Ahmed et al., the number of crack propagation cycles, Np, could be used as a measure
2021; Elkashef, 2017). Fig. 15 depicts the G-R results of various binder for characterizing the fatigue resistance utilizing the dissipated energy
blends with the presence of rejuvenators. (DE) concept. One of the drawbacks of this parameter in TS test was that
The results showed that inclusion of the rejuvenators noticeably it did not provide any proper method to interpret the parameter in the
lowered the G-R values of binder blends under different aging circum­ context of various pavement structures (Bahia et al., 2001). Various
stances, implying that their stiffnesses were reduced and ductility factors such as stiffness reduction or physical failure, peak in phase
improved. In fact, selection of appropriate type and dosage of angle, and dissipated energy concept, have been also proposed for

Fig. 15. Variations in: (a) state of binder blends with aging based on the black space diagram, and (b) G-R value of rejuvenated binders after 20-h PAV-aged
(Abdelaziz et al., 2020, 2021; Haghshenas et al., 2021; Menapace et al., 2018; Zhou et al., 2022).

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

fatigue failure in asphalt binders (Mannan et al., 2015; Wang et al., RAP binder percentage led to reduction in fatigue life (Nf) at all strain
2016; Zhang et al., 2016). The findings of the TS test were shown to be levels analyzed, however, lower strain rate (1%) caused higher fatigue
highly predictive of field performance under fatigue (Delgadillo and life (Singh et al., 2017b; Zhou, Z. et al., 2019a). In addition, it has been
Bahia, 2005). found out RAP binder at lowest strain rate had highest fatigue life
Effect of different RAP contents on fatigue cracking resistance was compared to virgin and rejuvenated binders, and increasing the strain
evaluated as a replacement of virgin materials through TS test at a fixed level to 10% resulted in lowest number of cycles to failure in RAP binder
strain level, and negative impact from addition of RAP was reported on (Singh and Sawant, 2016; Zaumanis et al., 2015). According to the
fatigue life (Sánchez et al., 2017). Based on TS test, fatigue life of conclusion made by Santos et al. (2021), utilizing the rejuvenators
rejuvenated asphalt binders has been investigated by Cao, X. et al. improved fatigue resistance of binders regardless of their types, and at
(2018), and the results indicated that waste vegetable oil improved the 1% applied strain, the rejuvenated binders had longer fatigue life than
fatigue life of aged binder by allowing it to resist greater loading cycles neat binder. They also revealed that performance of soy-based rejuve­
after which the modulus dropped by 50%. The fixed strain rate at which nator was better that petroleum-based, in terms of fatigue failure. By
TS test is carried out is governed by pavement construction and traffic comparison of different rejuvenated binders’ fatigue lives from LAS test,
conditions (Planche et al., 2004). Investigations have indicated that Zaumanis et al. (2015) revealed that unlike petroleum-based re­
specimen edge effect as well as geometry, and thickness may all have an juvenators, the organic-based materials increased number of cycles to
impact on the findings obtain from TS test. However, the TS test has failure in RAP binders significantly and among them vegetable oil pro­
been shown to be a viable technique for evaluating asphalt binder fa­ vided similar fatigue life to virgin binder level. It has been concluded by
tigue behaviour, it has been questioned owing to its prolonged testing Elkashef et al. (2018a) that enhancement in fatigue resistance of neat
time which may also lead to steric binder stiffening, skewing the find­ binder was temperature dependant and rejuvenator impact was more
ings (Bonnetti et al., 2002; Hajj and Bhasin, 2018; Martono et al., 2007; pronounced at temperatures lower than neat binders’ critical interme­
Planche et al., 2004). To overcome this issue in TS test, a new method to diate temperature. They also pointed out that at higher strain levels,
measure fatigue resistance and intermediate temperature performance rejuvenators increased the number of cycles to failure and improved the
of asphalt binders was developed and introduced as linear amplitude material integrity based on VECD. Researchers also revealed that in­
sweep (LAS) test (Hintz et al., 2011; Johnson, 2010). crease of rejuvenator dosages and decrease of RAP binder percentages
both resulted in higher material integrity parameter (C) and failure
4.3.3. Linear amplitude sweep (LAS) test strain which eventually improved fatigue life in binder blends (Girimath
Compared to TS test, the LAS test is also conducted by repeated cyclic and Singh, 2019; Zhou, Z. et al., 2019a). In order to observe RAP binder
loading in DSR at a fixed temperature and frequency, but the strain and rejuvenator influence on fatigue lives of binder blends, a summary
amplitude is linearly increased to characterize fatigue damage in asphalt of the Nf results obtained from LAS test was indicated in Fig. 16.
binder which results in reduction in testing time. The analysis of LAS test As can be seen in the figure, most of recent studies tried to use the
results is carried out based on viscoelastic continuum damage (VECD) higher RAB percentages with incorporation of rejuvenators in order to
theory which is able to predict fatigue life of asphalt binder at any strain make sustainable pavement. However, inclusion of rejuvenators espe­
amplitude determined (Hintz and Bahia, 2013; Hintz et al., 2011). Two cially at higher dosages increased the fatigue life of asphalt binders
crucial parameters in determining the fatigue behaviour of asphalt based on LAS test results at different strain levels, only some of studies
binders include material integrity (C) and damage intensity (D) at failure selected the optimum dosage of rejuvenators in order to enhance the
point. Hintz and Bahia (2013) pointed out that better fatigue resistance fatigue resistance of asphalt binder without significant reduction in
of binder blends is denoted by higher damage intensity magnitudes. In rutting performance. Among various rejuvenators evaluated, waste
prediction of binder fatigue performance, various definitions and vegetable oil (WVO) could improve the fatigue performance of higher
criteria have been proposed for the fatigue failure in LAS test, namely RAB contents noticeably by increasing the number of cycles to failure
35% decrease in material integrity (C) (as represented by G*.sinδ), very close to that of neat binder. Moreover, it was identified that uti­
maximum G* and δ amplitudes, peaks of C × N and τ × N, and GR failure lizing polymer-modified binder in combination with rejuvenated RAP
criterion (Cao and Wang, 2018; Johnson, 2010; Sabouri and Kim, 2014; binder caused higher number of cycles to failure compared to neat
Wang, C. et al., 2015). It was reported that identifying the failure point binder. To identify the range of rejuvenators dosages in RAP binders, a
based on peaks in δ and C × N is difficult, because the phase angle summary of previous works that investigated fatigue and intermediate-
changes in failure zone is small, and the peak of C × N failure point has temperature cracking performance based on different parameters was
always overlap with the peak stress (Wang, H. et al., 2020). Moreover, shown in Table 3.
Cao and Wang (2018) revealed that the fatigue lives of asphalt binders
with different PGs and aging levels were not ranked accurately based on 4.4. Macroscale investigation of fatigue and cracking resistance of
peaks of C × N and τ × N. As a result, they introduced C2 × N× (1 − C) as rejuvenated RAP mixture
a new failure definition, and specified consistency of fatigue lives results
with experimental findings at different aging levels. Lately, a The addition of RAP materials to new bituminous mixture increases
pseudo-strain energy (PSE) based failure analysis have been introduced the modulus of final asphalt mixture, affecting its fatigue behaviour.
and employed in VECD, and however, the fatigue life results obtained Therefore, it is essential to evaluate the anti-fatigue and intermediate-
from PSE analysis at strain rate of 15% was slightly lower than that of temperature cracking resistance of RAP mixtures using different test
applied-strain analysis, an excellent correlation (R2 = 0.99) was iden­ methods. There are two main approaches to investigate fatigue perfor­
tified between the results (Johnson, 2010; Wang, C. et al., 2015). From mance of asphalt mixture in general: repeated (cyclic) loading fatigue
LAS test results, different studies recommended that 5% and 15% strain tests and the monotonic fracture tests. Based on conducted studies, the
rate had good correlation with mixture fatigue resistance computed most important tests at intermediate temperatures that utilized these
from semi-circular bending and energy ratio tests, respectively (Chen two approaches were included four-point bending beam (FPBB), indirect
et al., 2021; Zaumanis et al., 2015). Instead, Hintz et al. (2011) stated tensile (IDT), and semi-circular bending beam (SCB) tests.
that a fair correlation was observed at 4% strain rate with field results
according to long-term pavement performance (LTPP) data. 4.4.1. Four-point bending beam (FPBB) test
Significant research studies were carried out using LAS test to The FPBB test as one of the most reliable fatigue tests has been widely
explore fatigue performance of RAP binders after addition of re­ used to explore the asphalt mixture fatigue life (Nf). The failure criterion
juvenators. Based on the results observed from LAS test, the increase of is defined as the number of cycles needed to produce a 50% reduction in
the initial stiffness modulus at a specific strain or stress level (Clopotel

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

Fig. 16. Illustration of binders’ fatigue lives at 2.5% and 5% strain levels (Asadi et al., 2021; Daryaee et al., 2021; Guduru et al., 2021; Zaumanis et al., 2015; Zhou,
Z. et al., 2019a).

Table 3
Summary of rejuvenator type and dosage effects on fatigue and intermediate temperature cracking parameters of asphalt binder.
Reference Rejuvenator type Rejuvenator percentage RAP content (%) G∗ .Sin δ ≤ G-R Nf (TS test) Nf (LAS test)
(%) 5000kpa parameter

• (Zaumanis et al., 2015) Waste vegetable oil 12 100 – – – Improved

Waste vegetable grease – – – Improved
Organic oil – – – Improved
Tall oil – – – Improved
• (Zhou et al., 2022) Aromatic extract 5, 8 Laboratory aged – – – Improved
Waste cooking oil binder – – – Improved
• (Foroutan Mirhosseini et al., Date seed oil 5, 10 10, 20, 30 – – – Improved
2018)
• (Ji et al., 2017) Waste cooking oil 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 100 Improved – – –
• (Zhou et al., 2022) Commercial rejuvenator 4 15, 30, 40, 50 – Improved – –
• (Mogawer, W.S. et al., 2013) BituTech RAP 5.2 40 – – – Improved
SonneWarmix RJT – – – Improved
SonneWarmix RJ – – – Improved
• (Ingrassia et al., 2020) Wood oil 10 29, 38 Improved – – –
• (Chen et al., 2014) Waste edible vegetable 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 Laboratory aged Improved – – –
oil binder
• (Guduru et al., 2021) Waste vegetable oil 5.5, 11.3 60, 90 – – – Improved
• (Huang et al., 2021) Evotherm-DAT 5 Laboratory aged – – – Improved
binder
• (Elkashef et al., 2018a) Soybean oil 6, 12 100 – – – Improved
• (Wang, Z. et al., 2020) Warm-mix rejuvenator 3, 6, 9, 12,15 100 Improved Improved
• (Cao, X. et al., 2018) Waste vegetable oil 5, 10, 15, 20 Laboratory aged – – Improved –
binder
• (Yang et al., 2021) Commercial rejuvenator 6 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 Improved – – –
• (Ma et al., 2020) Self-developed 2, 5, 10 20 Improved – – –
rejuvenator
• (Zhou, Z. et al., 2019a) Commercial rejuvenator 2, 4 15, 30, 40, 50 – – – Improved
• (Santos et al., 2021) Soybean oil 12.1, 13, 13.3 Laboratory aged – – – Improved
binder
• (Daryaee et al., 2021) Rapiol 7.5 30, 50 Improved – Improved Improved
• (Abdelaziz et al., 2020) Tall oil 8, 8.5, 10.5, 11, 13.5 50 – Improved – –
Aromatic extract – Improved – –
Paraffinic oil – Improved – –
Bio oil – Improved – –

et al., 2012; D, 2010; Xiao, F. et al., 2020). Calculating the parameters of mixture, and vice versa. The PV failure criterion was reported as the
“rate of dissipated energy change (RDEC)" and “plateau value (PV)" is most reasonable parameter in the fatigue performance evaluation of
another approach for measuring fatigue behaviour of asphalt mixes RAP mixtures (Shu et al., 2008). Different studies also revealed that
(Fallon et al., 2016; Khiavi and Ameri, 2014). According to the FPBB using RAP mixtures increased PV value, while incorporating the re­
test, the RDEC versus the load cycle curve is shown as Fig. 17. The juvenators into RAP mixtures reduced the PV value, proving the positive
constant value of RDEC in zone II is called RV which has a strong cor­ impact of using rejuvenator on improvement of fatigue performance in
relation with Nf50 and is used for explaining the fatigue life of asphalt both moisture-damaged and undamaged conditions (Daryaee et al.,
mixture. 2020). However, the degree of blending as an important factor may
The higher PV value implies the shorter fatigue life in asphalt dramatically influence the fatigue performance of rejuvenated RAP

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

addition of various fibers such as glass fiber to warm mix asphalt

incorporating high RAP content can increase pavement tensile strength,
rutting resistance, and fatigue performance significantly (Fakhri and
Hosseini, 2017). Fig. 18 illustrates the results of recent studies con­
ducted on fatigue lives of rejuvenated RAP mixtures obtained from FPBB
tests at different strain levels.
It was observed form the figure that except aromatic oil, incorpora­
tion of rejuvenators improved the fatigue lives of high RAP mixtures
significantly. Apart from these studies, some researchers also evaluated
correlation of RAP binder fatigue parameters, such as G*.sinδ, LAS (A35),
and LAS (Nf @2.5–5% strain) with mixture fatigue life obtained from
FPBB (Bessa et al., 2019; Mannan et al., 2015; Sabouri et al., 2018; Xiao,
F. et al., 2020). Among the results observed, the failure strain obtained
from LAS test had an excellent correlation with strain value equivalent
Fig. 17. Typical dissipated energy ratio plot with the three characteristic zones
to one million cycles of fatigue life from FPBB test, illustrating that the
(Ghuzlan, 2001).
failure strain in LAS test can be considered as an indicator of RAP
mixture fatigue life (Aurilio et al., 2021; Jiao et al., 2022). The corre­
mixtures. lation and regression analyses between FPBB and LAS test results of high
Utilizing various types of rejuvenators, researchers evaluated the RAP materials revealed that the coefficients of determination (R2) at
fatigue performance of high RAP mixtures and reported that addition of strain level of 500με were higher than those of 750με (Foroutan Mir­
paraffinic oil and organic oil rejuvenators improved the fatigue life of hosseini et al., 2020). It has been reported by Mogawer et al. (2015) that
50% RAP mixture at strain levels of 500 and 700 microstrains (Nazzal at a strain level of 500με, the long-term aging led to higher fatigue life in
et al., 2015). They also remarked that an excellent correlation existed a 50% RAP mixture than short term aging condition, but the trend was
between bonding energy obtained from AFM test and the fatigue life reversed for 700με level. This finding indicates that the strain level plays
calculated from FPBB, implying that adhesive bonding energy might be an important role in evaluation of mixture fatigue performance, and
an influencing factor on fatigue resistance of high RAP mixture. From should be used appropriately since it is representative of actual loading
another study, it was revealed that inclusion of date seed oil and vege­ conditions where the mixtures is placed.
table oil at optimum dosages not only enhanced fatigue cracking resis­
tance of RAP mixture, but also restored it to the same or higher level of 4.4.2. Indirect tensile (IDT) test
new asphalt mixture (Mirhosseini et al., 2019). In fact, bio-oil re­ Superpave indirect tensile (IDT) tests have been widely utilized by
juvenators could reduce the stiffness and improve fluidity of high RAP researchers to investigate the fatigue and intermediate-temperature
mixture greatly, thus improving its fatigue cracking resistance. Among cracking resistance of mixtures by obtaining tensile strength (σtensile),
various rejuvenators, inclusion of waste engine oil into high RAP failure strain, resilient modulus, toughness index (TI), dissipated creep
mixture had the lowest effect on improvement of fatigue life according strain energy (DCSEf), and energy ratio (ER) parameters (Cao et al.,
to FPBB test results, and this finding was in agreement with the fatigue 2019b; Roque et al., 2002, 2004; Shu et al., 2008). It was reported from
performance results of RAP binder observed from LAS test (Zaumanis IDT tests results that the fatigue life of asphalt mixture with higher RAP
et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2020b). However, rejuvenators mostly content reduced due to increase of brittleness (lower failure strain) and
improved the fatigue performance of RAP mixtures, researchers lately decrease of TI (Shu et al., 2008). The similar conclusion was made by
revealed that the level of enhancement has been significantly multiplied yan et al. (Yan et al., 2019) for mixtures consisting up to 40% RAP with
due to combined application of rejuvenators waste polymer, and warm polymer-modified binder and hybrid binder. In addition, they reported
mix technologies (Daryaee et al., 2020; Foroutan Mirhosseini et al., that the hybrid RAP mixture had satisfactory intermediate-temperature
2020; Mogawer et al., 2016; Saleh and Nguyen, 2019). Moreover, cracking performance based on ER results, and recommended hybrid

Fig. 18. Comparison of fatigue lives of RAP mixtures obtained from FPBB tests (Daryaee et al., 2020; Foroutan Mirhosseini et al., 2018; Mogawer et al., 2016; Nazzal
et al., 2015).

15
M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

binder for using in mixture with high RAP contents. However, ER cracking tolerance index (CTindex) as the main output parameter of
parameter seemed to be efficient in evaluation of mixture fatigue per­ IDEAL-CT test was found to be sensitive to various factors including RAP
formance, many studies utilized indirect tensile fatigue test (ITFT) as a and RAS contents, rejuvenators, binder content, air voids, and aging
reliable approach in fatigue performance investigation of rejuvenated level (Lee et al., 2019; Zhou et al., 2017a). It was reported that increase
RAP mixtures, because the cyclic haversine loading in ITFT provided a of RAP content reduced the CTindex, inferring that asphalt mixtures
better representation of field fatigue damage, and ITFT (Nf) had a strong fracture resistance decrease with addition of RAP (Roja et al., 2021).
correlation with LAS ([email protected]% strain) tests results (Bharath et al., 2021; Besides, incorporation of rejuvenators into mixtures with 30% and 50%
Daryaee and Ameri, 2021). RAP resulted in increasing the CTindex value at different aging levels (4
The conclusions derived from ITFT results of different studies about and 8 h) and bio-oil rejuvenator had more pronounced positive impact
inclusion of RAP were somewhat contradictory where some declaring a on CTindex compared to engine oil rejuvenator (Zhang, Y. et al., 2021).
better fatigue performance and others reporting a poor performance For the mixtures up to 15% RAP, a strong correlation was illustrated
(Bharath et al., 2021; Moniri et al., 2021; Tabaković et al., 2010). These by Yan et al. (2020) between CTindex and flexibility index results
ambiguous findings are not unusual since in stress-controlled mode, determined from IDEAL-CT and SCB tests, respectively. They also re­
stiffer mixtures represent higher fatigue lives than softer mixes. On the ported that the correlation between fracture energy calculated from
contrary, in strain-controlled mode, the more flexible (softer) mixtures IDEAL-CT and that from SCB was fairly good. From the FHWA full-scale
indicate better fatigue lives. Part of this contradiction could be also testing results, it was realized that the CTindex calculated from IDEAL-CT
related to difference in RAP materials source, binder contents, and re­ test had very good correlation with field fatigue performance (Zhou, F.
juvenators. A recent study revealed that incorporating steel slag can et al., 2019). Some studies also conducted correlation analyses between
effectively improve the cracking resistance, and fatigue performances of RAP mixture’s CTindex and binder’s fatigue life (Nf@15% strain).
recycled asphalt mixtures with high RAP (Yang et al., 2022). Steel slag Although, very good correlation (R2 = 0.89) was reported by Chen et al.
can counterbalance the lower fatigue resistance of warm mix asphalts (2021) between CTindex of rejuvenated high RAP mixtures and fatigue
with maximum RAP dosage of 40% (Pasetto et al., 2017), although the life of corresponding binders from the LAS test, a contrary conclusion
supreme fatigue resistance is achieved with 20% RAP (Pasetto and from another study revealed that CTindex results of mixtures with 15%
Baldo, 2017). RAP contents had a fair or poor corelation (R2 = 0.56) with binder fa­
Moniri et al. (2021) reported that increase of RAP materials up to tigue life parameter (Yan et al., 2020). This vague and inconsistent
100% reduced the mixture fatigue life especially at higher stress level finding can be attributed to inclusion of different RAP materials, re­
and incorporating the rejuvenators enhanced almost 30% of reduced juvenators, and use of various RAP percentages.
fatigue life. Similarly, Yang et al. (2021) found that increase of RAP had
a detrimental impact on mixture fatigue life at the same stress level, 4.4.3. Semi-circular bending (SCB) test
indicating that mixtures with a higher RAP percentage had poor fatigue The dynamic and monotonic semi-circular bending (SCB) tests have
resistance. They also investigated the correlation analysis of blended been widely used to investigate the fatigue and intermediate-
asphalt and recycled asphalt mixtures incorporating high RAP contents, temperature cracking resistance of RAP mixtures (Al-Qadi et al., 2015;
and concluded that fatigue critical temperature of blended asphalt might Nsengiyumva et al., 2015; Venudharan and Biligiri, 2020; Zhou et al.,
be one of the factors dictating fatigue resistance of mixture with high 2016). According to the fracture mechanic concepts, the critical strain
RAP. A research study revealed that inclusion of rejuvenator to mixture energy release rate (Jc) was characterized. Researchers reported that Jc
up to 60%RAP contents caused the fatigue life to improve and become results of mixtures including different RAP materials and rejuvenators
equivalent to mixture with low RAP contents (Subhy et al., 2019). Also, had poor correlations with intermediate-temperature cracking perfor­
type and dosage of rejuvenator had a remarkable impact on improve­ mance of the field (Castro, 2017; Willis et al., 2016; Xie et al., 2017). The
ment of high RAP mixtures fatigue life, and those rejuvenated with Jc was found to be sensitive to binder type and content, mixture aging,
waste cooking oil (WCO) showed the poorest fatigue cracking resistance and rejuvenator, but insensitive to addition of RAP materials (Jahan­
compared to Cyclogen and Rapiol rejuvenators (Ziari et al., 2019). bakhsh et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2017a; Song et al., 2018; Willis et al.,
Comparison of fatigue lives in mixtures containing various RAP contents 2016; Zhou et al., 2017a). In fact, increasing the proportion of RAP
was illustrated in Fig. 19. materials in mixture led to unanticipated increase of Jc value, which
According to the fracture properties of asphalt mixtures, researchers indicated better fatigue cracking resistance, however, the contrary
employed the recently developed indirect tensile asphalt cracking test finding was also reported (Cao et al., 2019a; Moniri et al., 2021; Singh
(IDEAL-CT) at intermediate temperature to characterize the fatigue et al., 2018; Yousefi et al., 2021a). This inconsistent finding was
cracking resistance of high RAP mixtures (Roja et al., 2021). The attributed to lack of relaxation time, the variety of materials, and

Fig. 19. Fatigue lives of RAP mixtures obtained from ITFT in different testing conditions (Moniri et al., 2021; Subhy et al., 2019; Tabaković et al., 2010).

16
M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

unpredictability of post-peak behaviour (Singh et al., 2017a). Yousefi intermediate temperature. The findings obtained from the influence of
et al. (2021b) concluded that incorporation of WMA and RAP increased most promising factors on parameters and indicators documented in the
the fracture energy of the mixture, whereas addition of aromatic extract literature are summarized in Table 4.
and triglycerides/fatty acids rejuvenators decreased the corresponding Ideally, higher accuracy and reliability are shown by lower co­
value at medium temperature. Furthermore, utilizing oil-based re­ efficients of variation (CoV) in performance indicators results. It was
juvenators enhanced intermediate-temperature cracking resistance of observed that the fatigue life determined from cyclic testing was rela­
RAP mixtures, while their efficiency was influenced by the RAP con­ tively more variable than parameters obtained from monotonic testing.
tents. However, there was no commonly accepted Jc value for identi­ The efficiency of the rejuvenator was found to be linked relate to per­
fying RAP mixtures likelihood against fatigue cracking, a minimum Jc formance grade of the binder.
value within ranges of 0.5–0.65 has been cited in the literature (Elseifi
et al., 2011; Mogawer et al., 2013). 5. Summary and conclusions
Dynamic (cyclic) SCB test at intermediate temperature was another
approach for evaluation of RAP mixture fatigue performance based on Employing various experimental tests as well as inconsistency in RAP
number of cycles to failure (Nf) and energy consumption per cycle materials resulted in ambiguous findings and introduction of different
(ECPC) (Saha and Biligiri, 2019; Zhou, Z. et al., 2019b). Researchers parameters as an indicator of fatigue and intermediate-temperature
specified that fatigue mechanism in dynamic SCB test is divided into cracking performance. Incorporation of rejuvenator into RAP mixes is
three stages according to energy consumption method, including un­ a beneficial way to enhance fatigue and cracking performance, which
stable stage of short duration, steady and cumulative damage stage, and may also eradicate necessity of using a softer base binder to achieve a
jump damage (Venudharan and Biligiri, 2020; Zhou et al., 2016). They target binder blend. Multi-scale evaluations confirmed that the rejuve­
revealed that increase of RAP percentages resulted in a higher cumula­ nator efficacy in restoration of aged binder property and improvement
tive rate of fatigue, while inclusion of rejuvenators in combination with of fatigue performance should satisfy two criteria, short-term and long-
SBR latex improved the fatigue life of RAP mixture to the level of virgin term conditions. Since the long-term aging adversely influenced fatigue
asphalt mixture. There were only few studies that investigated fatigue and cracking resistance of rejuvenated RAP binder and mixture, inclu­
resistance of rejuvenated RAP mixtures using dynamic SCB test. sion of various additives, such as waste polymer, WMA, and fiber in
Therefore, another newly developed SCB test, known as Illinois flexi­ combination with rejuvenator helped diminishing this issue in RAP
bility index test (I-FIT) was introduced and employed widely due to a binder and mixture, and provided a balanced performance. Significant
high field correlation and a wide range of test results, as well as reli­ studies have been conducted on the fatigue and intermediate-
ability of results in comparison with other existing cracking tests (Ozer temperature cracking performance of rejuvenated RAP binder and
et al., 2016; Yan et al., 2020). mixture, and based on the findings of this review, the following con­
The fracture energy (Gf) as a single parameter obtained from I-FIT clusions were made:
was shown to be insufficient for discriminating asphalt mixtures with
almost equal Gf (Al-Qadi et al., 2015). The flexibility index (FI) derived • According to nanomechanical properties of RAP binder, incorpora­
from load-displacement curve revealed a strong relationship with frac­ tion of rejuvenator decreases DMT modulus and increases the
ture velocity, suggesting that the materials brittleness, and it had adhesion property of binder blend, while aging causes reverse
sensitivity to binder type and content, RAP content, rejuvenator and impact. Reduction in adhesion property results in the binder blend
aggregate gradation (Espinoza-Luque et al., 2018; Kim et al., 2020; Ling becomes more susceptible to cracking.
et al., 2017; Zhou et al., 2017a). Increase of RAP percentage, specimen • Based on chemical characterization, carbonyl and sulfoxide indices
thickness, and notch width reduced FI value, and specimens with more are inconclusive for considering as indicators in fatigue performance
air voids were reported to have larger FI values (Batioja-Alvarez et al., evaluation, and they can be used to investigate the accuracy of the
2019; Rivera-Perez et al., 2018; Roja et al., 2021). For the laboratory regeneration effect of the rejuvenator on aged asphalt. Instead, the
prepared RAP mixtures, lower FI values indicate higher brittleness and colloidal stability index (CI) could be a better indicator of binder
vice versa. With the exception of gap-grade mixture, the FI demon­ fatigue performance, and in a long-term aging condition, the
strated a good linear relationship with binder fatigue parameter (Nf) enhancement in stability of binder is significantly dependant on
calculated at 15% strain. The findings of FHWA’s ALF, NCAT Test Track, rejuvenator type.
and in-service roads in Illinois confirmed a strong correlation between FI • RAP binder increases the magnitude of G-R parameter, but choosing
of mixtures and field performance based on number of loading cycle an appropriate type and dose of rejuvenator decreases G-R value,
required to fail (Al-Qadi et al., 2019; Safi et al., 2019; Xie et al., 2017). indicating that aging time for initial cracking is prolonged.
Kaseer et al. (2018b) established the cracking resistance index (CRI) • Incapability of G-R parameter in considering nonlinear response of
as a new parameter which was derived from the I-FIT load-displacement binder blend proves that it cannot be considered as an indicator for
curve and calculated in the same approach as FI, except that the slope at the fatigue performance evaluation of rejuvenated RAP binder.
inflection point was replaced by peak load. The CRI displayed less • The increase in RAP binder content reduces binder fatigue life, and
variability and better distinguishing between various asphalt mixes, the inclusion of a rejuvenator enhances the fatigue resistance of the
which was confirmed utilizing Indian asphalt mixtures (Batioja-Alvarez binder blend, but not to the same level as the virgin binder. Using a
et al., 2019). The CRI is able to rank the mixtures after prolonged oven polymer-modified binder in combination with a rejuvenated RAP
aging, but the FI may not be estimated because of fracture occurred in binder may improve fatigue resistance to a great extent.
specimen and lack of displacement data after the peak load. It was re­ • Among binder fatigue tests, the LAS test is more accurate in pre­
ported that RAP binder, as well as rejuvenator dosage influenced both FI dicting the fatigue performance of the asphalt mixture. However,
and CRI (Kaseer et al., 2018b). In fact, the cracking resistance of RAP introducing a universal indicator from binder fatigue tests is incon­
mixtures at intermediate-temperature increased in terms of FI and CRI, clusive due to the dependency of test results on RAP sources, binder
once the ratio of RAP binder in mixture decreased while rejuvenator types, rejuvenators, and aging levels at different strain levels.
percentage within an acceptable range increased. It was revealed by • Comparison of the most promising crack resistance indicators specify
Yousefi et al. (2021a) that using 50% RAP decreased CRI and FI, and that using higher RAP contents and aging levels decrease Jc (SCB),
adding WMA additives to high RAP mixture increased the corresponding CRI (I-FIT), FI (I-FIT), and CTIndex (IDEAL-CT), while the increase of
values without negatively affected the other mechanical performances. rejuvenator dosages and binder contents improve the crack resis­
Different parameters and indices have been used by researchers to tance of RAP mixture at intermediate temperature.
investigate the fatigue and cracking resistance of RAP mixtures at

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M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

Table 4
Summary of the most promising factors effects on fatigue and intermediate-temperature cracking parameters of asphalt mixture.
Performance Parameter/ Property
Test Indicator
Air void (↑) RAP content (↑) Aging (↑) Rejuvenator Binder content Binder PG (↑ Variability
dosage (↑) (↑) Stiffness) (COV%)

• FPBB Nf ↓(Farooq et al., ↓(Daryaee et al., ↓ (Farooq ↑(Daryaee et al., ↑(Mogawer et al., ↓(Daryaee et al., 30–50% (
2018) 2020; Kamboozia et al., 2018; 2020; Ishaq and 2016) 2020; Mogawer West et al.,
et al., 2021; Qabur, 2018) Giustozzi, 2020; et al., 2016; 2018)
Mirhosseini et al., ↔(Mogawer Mirhosseini et al., Qabur, 2018)
2019; Zhang et al., et al., 2015) 2019)
2020b)
↔(Bessa et al.,
2019)
RDCE (PV) – ↑(Daryaee et al., – ↓(Daryaee et al., – – –
2020; Shu et al., 2020; Ishaq and
2008) Giustozzi, 2020)
↔(Bessa et al.,
2019; Fallon et al.,
2016)

• IDT σtensile ↓(Chen and ↑(Moniri et al., ↑(Mogawer ↓(Mogawer et al., ↓(Moniri et al., ↑(Mogawer et al., 1.4–9% (West
Solaimanian, 2018) 2021; Roja et al., et al., 2015; 2015) 2021) 2015) et al., 2017)
2021) Ziari et al.,
2019)
DCSE ↓(Cao et al., 2019b) ↓(Shu et al., 2008; ↓(Mogawer ↑(Mogawer et al., – ↓(Mogawer et al., 4–34% (Cao
Yan et al., 2019) et al., 2015) 2015) 2015) et al., 2019b)
↔(Cao et al.,
2019b)

• ITFT Nf – ↓(Moniri et al., ↓ (Ziari et al., ↑(Moniri et al., ↑(Moniri et al., – 7–45% (
2021) 2019) 2021) 2021) Bharath et al.,
↑(Bharath et al., 2021)
2021; Tabaković
et al., 2010)

• IDEAL-CT CTindex ↑(Zhou et al., ↓(Roja et al., 2021; ↓(Zhou et al., – ↑(Zhou et al., ↓(Zhou et al., 3.5–5.5% (
2017b) Zhou et al., 2017b) 2017b) 2017b) 2017b) Zhou et al.,
2017b)

• SCB Jc ↓(Cao et al., 2019b) ↓(Cao, W. et al., ↓(Mogawer ↔(Mogawer et al., ↑(Bayomy et al., ↔(Bayomy et al., 10–22% (Cao
2018; Moniri et al., 2015; 2015) 2006; Moniri 2006; Cao et al., et al., 2019b)
et al., 2021) Ziari et al., ↑(Moniri et al., et al., 2021; 2019b)
2019) 2021) Safazadeh et al., ↑(Mogawer et al.,
2021) 2015)
Nf ↓(Saha and Biligiri, ↓(Zhou, Z. et al., ↓(Zhou, Z. ↑(Zhou, Z. et al., – – 10.4 to 26.5 (
2019) 2019b) et al., 2019b) 2019b) Zhou, Z. et al.,
2019b)
EVPC – ↑(Zhou, Z. et al., ↑(Zhou, Z. ↓(Zhou, Z. et al., – – 3 to 14.5 (
2019b) et al., 2019b) 2019b) Zhou, Z. et al.,
2019b)

• I-FIT Gf ↓(Barry, 2016), ↑( ↑(Yousefi et al., ↔(Barry, ↓(Barry, 2016) ↑(Chen and ↔(Rivera-Perez, 5–12% (
Rivera-Perez, 2017) 2021b) 2016; Ling ↑(Yousefi et al., Solaimanian, 2017) Barry, 2016)
et al., 2017) 2021b) 2018) 5–15% (Ling
↓(Aurilio et al., 2017)
et al., 2021)
FI ↑(Chen and ↓(Barry, 2016; ↓(Hanz et al., ↑(Abdelaziz et al., ↑(Chen and ↓(Barry, 2016; 3–48% (
Solaimanian, 2018; Hanz et al., 2017; 2017; Ling 2020; Barry, Solaimanian, Chen and Kaseer et al.,
Jeong et al., 2022; Roja et al., 2021; et al., 2017; 2016) 2018; Kim et al., Solaimanian, 2018b)
Kaseer et al., 2018b; Yousefi et al., Zhang et al., 2020; Safazadeh 2018; Kaseer 8–20% (Ling
Rivera-Perez, 2017) 2021b) 2019) et al., 2021) et al., 2018b) et al., 2017)
↔(Barry,
2016)
CRI ↑(Jeong et al., 2022; ↓(Kaseer et al., ↓(Kaseer ↑(Yousefi et al., ↔(Kaseer et al., ↓(Kaseer et al., 3–14% (
Kaseer et al., 2018b) 2018b; Yousefi et al., 2018b) 2021b; Zhang, Y. 2018b) 2018b) Kaseer et al.,
et al., 2021b) et al., 2021) 2018b)

↑: Increase the cracking resistance.

↓: Decrease the cracking resistance.
↔: Indicates both trends.

• There is not a universal agreement about mixture fatigue tests since Recommendations
the fatigue life and other indicators obtain from FPBB, ITFT and SCB
tests illustrate opposite conclusions, considering similar influencing Better use of RAP materials in asphalt mixture results from a deeper
factors. The reason for this trend requires further study. understanding of binder blend at the nano and micro-scales. Utilizing
the chemical and thermal analysis tools to identify a relationship be­
tween chemical and microstructural compositions of rejuvenated
binders in future studies can help better understand the mixture’s

18
M. Alae et al. Journal of Cleaner Production 384 (2023) 135587

fatigue and cracking resistance. Although adding an appropriate reju­ Barry, M.K., 2016. An Analysis of Impact Factors on the Illinois Flexibility Index Test.
Batioja-Alvarez, D., Lee, J., Haddock, J.E., 2019. Understanding the Illinois flexibility
venator into RAP materials can prolong the aging time and fatigue
index test (I-FIT) using Indiana asphalt mixtures. Transport. Res. Rec. 2673 (6),
damage of the final mixes, increasing its dosage can adversely impact 337–346.
rutting and moisture damage. Using additives such as waste polymer Bayomy, F., Mull-Aglan, M.A., Abdo, A.A., Santi, M.J., 2006. Evaluation of Hot Mix
and crumb rubber in combination with a rejuvenator and RAP materials Asphalt (HMA) Fracture Resistance Using the Critical Strain Energy Release Rate, Jc.
Behnood, A., Gharehveran, M.M., 2019. Morphology, rheology, and physical properties
can be an effective solution, while the type and dose of those materials of polymer-modified asphalt binders. Eur. Polym. J. 112, 766–791.
should be carefully selected according to the climatic conditions of the Bessa, I.S., Vasconcelos, K.L., Castelo Branco, V.T., Bernucci, L.L., 2019. Fatigue
pavement area. Due to the wide variability in mixture stiffness and resistance of asphalt binders and the correlation with asphalt mixture behaviour.
Road Mater. Pavement Des. 20 (Suppl. 2), S695–S709.
challenges in determining fatigue life, more complicated analytical Bharath, G., Reddy, K.S., Tandon, V., Reddy, M.A., 2021. Aggregate gradation effect on
techniques or comparing models are recommended. Since the in-place the fatigue performance of recycled asphalt mixtures. Road Mater. Pavement Des. 22
recycling technique encourage consuming 100% RAP from the exist­ (1), 165–184.
Bonnetti, K.S., Nam, K., Bahia, H.U., 2002. Measuring and defining fatigue behavior of
ing pavement, and HIR mixes would mostly encounter cracking issues, asphalt binders. Transport. Res. Rec. 1810 (1), 33–43.
using a proper rejuvenator to revitalize the aged binders and increasing Cao, W., Barghabany, P., Mohammad, L., Cooper III, S.B., Balamurugan, S., 2019a.
the mixing and compaction temperature to improve binder mobilization Chemical and rheological evaluation of asphalts incorporating RAP/RAS binders and
warm-mix technologies in relation to crack resistance. Construct. Build. Mater. 198,
and cracking resistance are suggested. A complete evaluation of field 256–268.
performance utilizing RAP and rejuvenator is valuable. Cao, W., Mohammad, L.N., Barghabany, P., Cooper, S.B., 2019b. Relationship between
laboratory and full-scale fatigue performance of asphalt mixtures containing
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Declaration of competing interest Cao, W., Mohammad, L.N., Elseifi, M., Cooper III, S.B., Saadeh, S., 2018a. Fatigue
performance prediction of asphalt pavement based on semicircular bending test at
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial intermediate temperature. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 30 (9), 04018219.
Cao, W., Wang, C., 2018. A new comprehensive analysis framework for fatigue
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
characterization of asphalt binder using the Linear Amplitude Sweep test. Construct.
the work reported in this paper. Build. Mater. 171, 1–12.
Cao, X., Wang, H., Cao, X., Sun, W., Zhu, H., Tang, B., 2018b. Investigation of rheological
and chemical properties asphalt binder rejuvenated with waste vegetable oil.
Data availability
Construct. Build. Mater. 180, 455–463.
Carpenter, S.H., Wolosick, J.R., 1980. Modifier influence in the characterization of hot-
Data will be made available on request. mix recycled material. Transport. Res. Rec. (777).
Castro, A., 2017. Evaluation of a Surface Mixture with Delta-S Rejuvenator on NCAT
Pavement Test Track.
Acknowledgment Cavalli, M.C., Zaumanis, M., Mazza, E., Partl, M.N., Poulikakos, L.D., 2018a. Aging effect
on rheology and cracking behaviour of reclaimed binder with bio-based
This study was supported by the National Natural Science Founda­ rejuvenators. J. Clean. Prod. 189, 88–97.
Cavalli, M.C., Zaumanis, M., Mazza, E., Partl, M.N., Poulikakos, L.D., 2018b. Effect of
tion of China under grant numbers of 41972299 and 51778478. The ageing on the mechanical and chemical properties of binder from RAP treated with
authors are also deeply grateful for the support from Key Laboratory of bio-based rejuvenators. Compos. B Eng. 141, 174–181.
Road and Traffic Engineering of Ministry of Education in Tongji Chen, H., Zhang, Y., Bahia, H.U., 2021. The role of binders in mixture cracking resistance
measured by ideal-CT test. Int. J. Fatig. 142, 105947.
University. Chen, M., Leng, B., Wu, S., Sang, Y., 2014. Physical, chemical and rheological properties
of waste edible vegetable oil rejuvenated asphalt binders. Construct. Build. Mater.
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