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JOURNAL FOR THE STUDY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT
SUPPLEMENT SERIES

341

Editors
David J.A. Clines
Philip R. Davies

Executive Editor
Andrew Mein

Editorial Board
Richard J. Coggins, Alan Cooper, J. Cheryl Exum, John Goldingay,
Robert P. Gordon, Norman K. Gottwald, John Jarick,
Andrew D.H. Mayes, Carol Meyers, Patrick D. Miller

Sheffield Academic Press

A Continuum imprint
This page intentionally left blank
Mesopotamia and the Bible

Comparative Explorations

edited by

Mark W. Chavalas and

K. Lawson Younger, Jr

Journal for the Study of the Old Testament

Supplement Series 341
Copyright © 2002 Sheffield Academic Press

First published in 2002 by Sheffield Academic Press Ltd, an imprint of

Continuum.
This edition published in 2003 by T&T Clark International, an imprint of
Continuum.
The Tower Building, 11 York Road, London SE1 7NX
15 East 26th Street, New York, NY 10010

www.continuumbooks.com

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording or any information storage or retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Typeset by Sheffield Academic Press

Printed on acid-free paper in Great Britain by Biddies Ltd.,
Guildford and King's Lynn

ISBN 0567-08231-8
 CONTENTS

Preface 7
Abbreviations 9
List of Contributors 19

MARK W. CHAVALAS
Assyriology and Biblical Studies: A Century of Tension 21

STEVEN W. HOLLOWAY
The Quest for Sargon, Pul, and Tiglath-Pileser in
the Nineteenth Century 68

RICHARD E. AVERBECK
Sumer, the Bible, and Comparative Method:
Historiography and Temple Building 88

MARK W. CHAVALAS
Syria and Northern Mesopotamia to the End of
the Third Millennium BCE 126

RONALD A. VEENKER
Syro-Mesopotamia: The Old Babylonian Period 149

VICTOR H. MATTHEWS
Syria to the Early Second Millennium 168

DAVID C. DEUEL
Apprehending Kidnappers by Correspondence
at Provincial Arrapha 191

RICHARD S. HESS
The Bible and Alalakh 209
6 Mesopotamia and the Bible

DANIEL E. FLEMING
Emar: On the Road from Harran to Hebron 222

WAYNE T. PITARD
Voices from the Dust: The Tablets from Ugarit and the Bible 251

WILLIAM SCHNIEDEWIND
The Rise of the Aramean States 276

K. LAWSON YOUNGER, JR
Recent Study on Sargon II, King of Assyria:
Implications for Biblical Studies 288

BILL T. ARNOLD
What has Nebuchadnezzar to do with David?
On the Neo-Babylonian Period and Early Israel 330

EDWIN YAMAUCHI
The Eastern Jewish Diaspora under the Babylonians 356

Index of References 378

Index of Authors 386
 PREFACE

At the 1994 meeting of the Near East Archeological Society in Aurora, IL,
Vice-President Bryant Wood asked Mark Chavalas to organize a panel
noting the relationship of Mesopotamia to biblical studies. Thus, a double
panel was organized, entitled 'Syro-Mesopotamia and the Bible' for the
Near East Archeological Society, presented on 17 November 1995, in
Philadelphia, PA, The panels were:
First Plenary Session
Wayne T. Pitard, University of Illinois:
'Whispers from the Dust: North Syrian Funerary Customs and
their Relationship to Israel'
A. The Early and Middle Bronze Ages
Richard Averbeck, Trinity Evangelical Divinity School:
'Sumerians, Temple Building, and the Bible'
Mark W. Chavalas, University of Wisconsin-La Crosse:
'Inland Syria in the Third and Second Millennia BC'
David Deuel, The Masters Seminary:
'Administration by Mail in Fifteenth Century Assyria'
Second Plenary Session,
Wayne Pitard, University of Illinois:
'Voices from the Dust: The Bible and the Great Libraries from
Ugarit'
B. The Middle and Late Bronze Ages
Daniel Fleming, New York University:
'Emar: On the Road from Harran to Hebron'
K. Lawson Younger, Jr, LeTourneau University:
"The Inscriptions of Sargon II in Light of Recent Research'
Bill Arnold, Asbury Theological Seminary:
'Light from Babylonia and the Rise of Israelite Literature'
8 Mesopotamia and the Bible

It was decided to publish the proceedings in a slightly altered and

expanded format, and thus William Schniedewind, Richard Hess, Edwin
Yamauchi, Ronald Veenker, Steven Holloway, and Victor Matthews were
asked to add papers on areas of Syro-Mesopotamia not addressed in the
original panel. In addition, Wayne Pitard collapsed his two plenary
sessions into one paper. Some might question the addition of papers
concerning Ugarit and Alalakh (as well as information concerning Ebla) to
a book devoted to Mesopotamia and the Bible. However, in this book we
will take a very loose definition of Mesopotamia as encompassing some
regions of Syria immediately west of the Tigris-Euphrates Valley that
were obviously connected culturally to traditional Mesopotamia.
The contributors were given only the most general geographic and
chronological parameters concerning their papers. They were not specifi-
cally asked per se to write on the relationship of their subject to biblical
studies (e.g. 'Nuzi and the Bible'; although some did do this), but to write
on their own interests (implicitly offering the reader an opportunity to
either make comparisons/contrasts with the Bible, or to see how their par-
ticular subject sheds light [if any] on the biblical text). Thus, this volume
is not intended to be an exhaustive overview of Mesopotamian civiliza-
tion, but a description of certain aspects of that civilization that may (or
may not) help the reader place the Bible in its greater ancient Near Eastern
context. The emphasis, however, is placed primarily on Mesopotamia and
its relationship to biblical studies.

Mark W. Chavalas
K. Lawson Younger, Jr
 ABBREVIATIONS

AASOR Annual of the American Schools of Oriental Research

AAA Annals of Archaeology and Anthropology (University of
Liverpool)
AAAS Annales archeologiques arabes syriennes
AAT Agypten und Altes Testament
AB Anchor Bible
ABC A.K. Grayson, Assyrian and Babylonian Chronicles (Locust
Valley, NY: J.J. Augustin, 1975)
ABD David Noel Freedman (ed.), The Anchor Bible Dictionary
(New York: Doubleday, 1992)
ABL R.F. Harper, Assyrian and Babylonian Letters
(London/Chicago, 1892-1914)
ActSum Acta Sumerologica
AfO Archivfur Orientforschung
AMI G.I. Davies, Ancient Hebrew Inscriptions: Corpus and
Concordance (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991)
AHw Wolfram von Soden, Akkadisches Handworterbuch
(Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1959-81)
AION Annali dell 'istituto orientate di Napoli
AJA American Journal of Archaeology
AJBI Annual of the Japanese Biblical Institute
AKA E.A. Budge and L.W. King, The Annals of the Kings of
Assyria (Volume 1; London: British Musuem, 1902)
AnBib Analecta biblica
AnBoll Analecta Bollandiana
ANET James B. Pritchard (ed.), Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating
to the Old Testament (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
1950)
AnOr Analecta oriental ia
AnSt Anatolian Studies
AO Aula Orientalis. Revista de estudios del proximo oriente
antiguo
AOSup Aula Orientalis Supplementa
AOAT(S) Alter Orient und Altes Testament (Sonderreihe)
AoF Altorientalische Forschungen
AOS American Oriental Series
AOTS D. Winton Thomas (ed.), Archaeology and Old Testament
Study: Jubilee Volume of the Society for Old Testament Study
1917-1967 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967)
10 Mesopotamia and the Bible

AQ Anthropological Quarterly
ARAB D.D. Luckenbill, Ancient Records of Assyria and Babylonia (2
vols.; Chicago, 1926-27)
ARI A.K. Grayson, Assyrian Royal Inscriptions (2 vols.;
Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1972-76)
ARM Archives royales de Mari
ArOr Archiv orientdlni
AS Assyriological Studies
Asarh R. Borger, Die Inschriften Asarhaddons Konigs von Assyrien
(AfO Beiheft, 9; Graz: Ernst Weidner, 1956)
ASOR American Schools of Oriental Research
ASORDS American Schools of Oriental Research Dissertation Series
Assur Assur. Monographic Journals of the Near East (Malibu:
Undena, California)
Assyria 1995 S. Parpola and R.M. Whiting (eds.), Assyria 1995:
Proceedings of the 10th Anniversary Symposium of the Neo-
Assyrian Text Corpus Project, Helsinki, September 7-11,
1995 (Helsinki: The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 1997)
AT D.J. Wiseman, The Alalakh Texts (Occasional Publications of
the British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, 2; London:
British Institute of Archaeology, 1953)
AUSS Andrews University Seminary Studies
BA Biblical Archaeologist
BAL2 R. Borger, Babylonische-assyrische Lesestiicke (AnOr, 54;
Rome, 1979,2nd edn)
BaM Bagdader Mitteilungen
BARev Biblical Archaeology Review
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BASORSup Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research,
Supplements
BAT 1985 Biblical Archaeology Today: Proceedings of the International
Congress on Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem, April, 1984
(Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society, 1985)
BBR Bulletin for Biblical Research
BBVO Berliner Beitrage zum Vorderen Orient. Berlin
BCSMS Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies
BeO Bibbia e oriente
Bib Biblica
BibOr Biblica et orientalia
BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester
BM British Museum
BO Bibliotheca orientalis
BR Bible Review
BSac Bibliotheca Sacra
BTB Biblical Theology Bulletin
BWANT Beitrage zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament
BZA W Beihefte zur ZA W
CAD Ignace I. Gelb et al. (eds.), The Assyrian Dictionary of the
 Abbreviations 11

Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (Chicago:

Oriental Institute, 1956-)
CANE J.M. Sasson (ed.), Civilizations of the Ancient Near East (4
vols.; New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1995)
CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly
CBQMS Catholic Biblical Quarterly, Monograph Series
CH R.F. Harper, The Code of Hammurabi
COS W.W. Hallo and K.L. Younger (eds.), The Context of
Scripture (3 vols.; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1997-2002)
CTN Cuneiform Texts from Nimrud
DDD K. van der Toom, B. Becking and P.W. van der Horst (eds.),
The Dictionary of Deities and Demons (Leiden: E.J. Brill,
1995)
DOTT D. Winton Thomas (ed.), Documents from Old Testament
Times (London: Nelson, 1958)
EA J.A. Knudtzon, et al (eds.), Die El-Amama-Tafeln
(Vorderasiatische Bibliothek, 2; Leipzig, 1915)
Edom and Seir D. V. Edelman (ed.), You Shall Not Abhor an Edomite For He is
Your Brother: Edom and Seir in History and Tradition
(Archaeology and Biblical Studies, 3; Atlanta: Scholars Press,
1995)
EEM P. Bienkowski (ed.), Early Edom andMoab: The Beginning of
the Iron Age in Southern Jordan (Sheffield Archaeological
Monographs, 7; Sheffield: J.R. Collis Publications in
association with National Museums and Galleries on Mersey-
side, 1992)
El Eretz-Israel
Emar M.W. Chavalas, (ed.), Emar: The History, Religion, and
Culture of a Syrian Town in the Late Bronze Age (Bethesda:
CDL Press, 1996)
EvQ Evangelical Quarterly
FAOS Freiburger Altorientalische Studien
FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament
FTH A.R. Millard, J.K. Hoffmeier and D.W. Baker (eds.), Faith,
Tradition, and History: Old Testament Historiography in its
Near Eastern Context (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1994)
GAG W. von Soden, Grundriss der Akkadischen Grammatik (AnOr,
33; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1952)
HAR Hebrew Annual Review
HANES History of the Ancient Near East/Studies
HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs
HSS Harvard Semitic Studies
HSS 5 Excavations at Nuzi 1: E. Chiera, 'Texts of Varied Contents'
(1929)
HSS 9 Excavations at Nuzi 2: R.H. Pfeiffer, 'The Archives of
Shilwa-teshub Son of the King' (1932)
HSS 13 Excavations at Nuzi 4: R.H. Pfeiffer and E.R. Lacheman,
'Miscellaneous Texts from Nuzi' (1942)
12 Mesopotamia and the Bible

HSS 14 Excavations atNuzi 5: E.R. Lacheman, 'Miscellaneous Texts

from Nuzi, Part II: The Palace and Temple Archives' (1950)
HSS 15 Excavations at Nuzi 6: E.R. Lacheman, 'The Administrative
Archives' (1955)
HSS 16 Excavations atNuzi 7: E.R. Lacheman, 'Economic and Social
Documents' (1958)
HTR Harvard Theological Review
HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual
ICC International Critical Commentary
IEJ Israel Exploration Journal
IOS Israel Oriental Studies
ISBE Geoffrey Bromiley (ed.), The International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia (4 vols.; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rev. edn,
1979-88)
JANES Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society
JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society
JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies
JEN Joint Expedition with the Iraq Museum at Nuzi
JEN 2 Texts 101 -221: E. Chiera, 'Declarations in Court' (Paris,
1930)
JEN 4 Texts 321 -427: E. Chiera, 'Proceedings in Court'
(Philadelphia, 1934)
JEN 5 Texts 428-559: E. Chiera, 'Mixed Texts' (Philadelphia, 1934)
JESHO Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient
JJS Journal of Jewish Studies
JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies
JNSL Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages
JPOS Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society
JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society
JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament
JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament, Supplement Series
JSS Journal of Semitic Studies
JSSSup Journal of Semitic Studies, Supplement Series
JTS Journal of Theological Studies
KAI H. Donner and W. Rollig, Kanaanaische und aramaische
Inschriften (3 vols.; Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1962-64)
Khorsabad A. Caubet (ed.), Khorsabad, lepalais de Sargon II, roi
d'Assyrie. Actes du collogue organise au musee du Louvre par
le Service culturel les 21 et 22 Janvier 1994 (Louvre
conferences et colloques; Paris: La documentation Franfaise,
1995)
KTU M. Dietrich, O. Loretz, and J. Sanmartin, Keilalphabetische
Texte aus Ugarit einschliesslich der keilalphabetischen Texte
aufierhalb Ugarits. Teil 1 Transkription (AOAT, 24/1;
Kevelaer: Butzon & Bercker; Neukirchen-Vluyn:
Neukirchener Verlag, 1976)
 Abbreviations 13

KTU2 M. Dietrich, O. Loretz and J. Sanmartin, The Cuneiform

Alphabetic Texts from Ugarit, Ras Ibn Hani, and Other Places
(KTU: Munster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1995, 2nd enlarged edn)
KUB Keilschrifturkunden aus Boghazkoi (Staatliche Museen zu
Berlin, Vorderasiatische Abteilung; Berlin: Akademie Verlag,
1921-)
La Bible et I 'orient La Bible et I 'orient: travaux du premiere congres
d'archeologie et d'orientalisme biblique (Saint-Cloud, 23-25
Avril, 1954) (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1954)
LEC Library of Early Christianity
MANE Monographs of the Ancient Near East
MARI Mori, Annales de recherches interdisciplinaires
Mari in Retrospect G.D. Young (ed.), Mori in Retrospect: Fifty Years ofMari and
Mori Studies (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1992)
MDOG Mitteilungen der deutschen Orient-Gesellschaft
Mesopotamien und seine Nachbarn
H.-J. Nissen and J. Renger (eds.), Mesopotamien und seine
Nachbarn: Politische und kulturelle Wechselbeziehungen im
Alten Vorderasien vom 4. bis 1, Jahrtausend v. Chr. (RAI 25;
BBVO, 1; Berlin: Dietrich Reimer, 1982)
NABU Nouvelles assyriologiques breves et utilitaires
NBD J.D. Douglas et al. (eds.), New Bible Dictionary (Leicester:
Inter-Varsity Press, 2nd edn, 1982)
NEA Near Eastern Archaeology
NEAEHL E. Stern (ed.), The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological
Excavations in the Holy Land (Jerusalem: The Israel
Exploration Society & Carta, 1993)
NEASB Near East Archaeology Society Bulletin
NHSAS M.W, Chavalas and J. Hayes (eds.), New Horizons in the
Study of Ancient Syria (Malibu: Undena, 1992)
NIDOTE Willem A. VanGemeren (ed.), New International Dictionary
of Old Testament Theology and Exegesis (5 vols.; Grand
Rapids: Zondervan, 1997)
OA Oriens Antiquus. Rivista del Centro per le Antichita e la Storia
dell'Arte del Vicino Oriente
OEANE E.M. Meyers (ed.), The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology
in the Near East (5 vols.; Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1997)
OBO Orbis biblicus et orientalis
OCPR E. Matsushima (ed.), Official Cult and Popular Religion in the
Ancient Near East: Papers of the First Colloquium on the
Ancient Near East—The City and its Life, held at the Middle
Eastern Culture Center in Japan (Mitaka, Tokyo), March
20-22, 1992 (Heidelberg: Winter, 1993)
OIP The University of Chicago, Oriental Institute Publications
OLZ Orientalische Literaturzeitung
Or Orientalia
OrSu Orientalia Suecana
14 Mesopotamia and the Bible

PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly

PKB J. A. Brinkman, A Political History ofPost-Kassite Babylonia,
1158-722 B.C. (AnOr, 43; Rome: Pontifical Biblical Institute,
1968)
PLAMAP O. Bar-Yosef and A. Khazanov (eds.), Pastoralism in the
Levant: Archaeological Materials in Anthropological
Perspectives (Monographs in World Archaeology, 10;
Madison, WI: Prehistory Press, 1992)
PNA S. Parpola, K. Radner, H. Baker, et al. (eds.), The
Prosopography of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (Helsinki: The
Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, 1998-)
POTW A.J. Hoerth, G.L. Mattingly and E.M. Yamauchi (eds.),
Peoples of the Old Testament World (Grand Rapids: Baker
Book House, 1994)
Power and Propaganda
M.T. Larsen (ed.), Power and Propaganda: A Symposium on
Ancient Empires (Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1979)
PPS Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society
PRS Perspectives in Religious Studies
PSBA Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology
RA Revue d 'assyriologie et d 'archeologie orientale
RAI Recontre Assyriologique Internationale
RB Revue biblique
RHR Revue de I 'histoire des religions
RIMA 1 The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia. Assyrian Periods.
Volume 1: A.K. Grayson, Assyrian Rulers of the Third and
Second Millennia BC (To 1115BC) (Toronto: University of
Toronto, 1987)
RIMA 2 The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia. Assyrian Periods.
Volume 2: A.K. Grayson, Assyrian Rulers of the Early First
Millennium BC (1114-859 BC) (Toronto: University of
Toronto, 1991)
RIMA 3 The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia. Assyrian Periods.
Volume 3: A.K. Grayson, Assyrian Rulers of the Early First
Millennium Bdl (858-745 BC) (Toronto: University of
Toronto, 1996)
RIME 2 Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia: Early Periods. Volume 2:
D. Frayne, Sargonic and Gutian Periods (Toronto: University
of Toronto, 1993)
RIME 3.1 The Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia: Early Periods.
Volume 3.1: D.O. Edzard, Gudea and His Dynasty (Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 1997)
RIME 3.2 Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia: Early Periods. Volume
3.2: D. Frayne, Ur IIIPeriod (2112-2004 BC) (Toronto:
University of Toronto, 1997)
RIME 4 Royal Inscriptions of Mesopotamia: Early Periods. Volume 4:
D. Frayne, Old Babylonian Period (2003-1595 BC) (Toronto:
University of Toronto, 1990)
 Abbreviations 15

RivB Rivista biblica italiana

RIA E. Ebeling and B. Meissner et al. (eds.) Reallexikon der
Assyriologie
RSP L. Fisher and S. Rummel (eds.), Ras Shamra Parallels: The
Texts from Ugarit and the Hebrew Bible (3 vols.; Rome:
Pontifical Biblical Institute, 1975-81)
SAA State Archives of Assyria
SAAB State Archives of Assyria Bulletin
SAAS State Archives of Assyria Studies
SANE Sources from the Ancient Near East
SAOC Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilizations. Chicago: The
Oriental Institute
SBL Society of Biblical Literature
SBLDS SBL Dissertation Series
SBLMS SBL Monograph Series
SBLRBS SBL Resources for Biblical Study
SBLWAW SBL Writings of the Ancient World
SCCNH Studies on the Civilization and Culture of Nuzi and the
Humans
SHCANE Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East
ScrHier Scripta Hierosolymitana
SEL Studi Epigrafici e Linguistici sul Vicino Oriente antico
SHAJ Studies in the History and Archaeology of Jordan
SIC 1 C.D. Evans, W.W. Hallo and J.B. White (eds.), Scripture in
Context: Essays on the Comparative Method (Pittsburgh
Theological Monograph Series, 34; Pittsburgh: Pickwick,
1980)
SIC 2 W.W. Hallo, J.C. Moyer and L.G. Perdue (eds.), Scripture in
Context, II. More Essays on the Comparative Method
(Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1983)
SIC 3 W.W. Hallo, B.W. Jones and G.L. Mattingly (eds.), The Bible
in the Light of Cuneiform Literature: Scripture in Context, III.
(Ancient Near Eastern Texts and Studies, 8. Lewiston: The
Edward Mellen Press, 1990)
SIC 4 K.L. Younger, Jr, W.W. Hallo and B.F. Batto (eds.), The
Canon in Comparative Perspective: Scripture in Context, IV.
(Ancient Near Eastern Texts and Studies, 11; Lewiston, NY:
The Edwin Mellen Press, 1991)
SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament
SMIM J.A. Dearman (ed.), Studies in the Mesha Inscription and
Moab (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1989)
Studies Ahlstrom W. Barrick and J. Spencer (eds.), In the Shelter ofElyon:
Essays on Ancient Palestinian Life and Literature in Honor of
Gosta W. Ahlstrom (Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1984)
Studies Albright H. Goedicke (ed.), Near Eastern Studies in Honor of William
Foxwell Albright (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1971)
16 Mesopotamia and the Bible

Studies Archer W. Kaiser and R. Youngblood (eds.), A Tribute to Gleason

Archer (Chicago: Moody Press, 1986)
Studies Astour G.D. Young, M.W. Chavalas and R.E. Averbeck (eds.),
Crossing Boundaries and Linking Horizons: Studies in Honor
of Michael C. Astour on His 80th Birthday (Bethesda: CDL
Press, 1997)
Studies Barr S.E. Balentine and J. Barton (eds.), Language, Theology, and
the Bible: Essays in Honour of James Barr (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1994)
Studies Birot J.M. Durand and J.R. Kupper (eds.), Miscellanea Babylonica:
Melanges Offerts a Maurice Birot (Paris: Editions Recherche
sur les civilisations, 1985)
Studies Borger S.M. Maul (ed.), Festschrift fur Rykle Borger zu seinem 65.
Geburtstag am 24. Mai 1994: tikip santakki mala basmu
(Groningen: Styx, 1998)
Studies Bounni P. Matthiae et al., (eds.), Resurrecting the Past: A Joint
Tribute to Adnan Bounni (Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor
hetNabijeOosten, 1990)
Studies Braidwood T.C. Young et al. (eds.), The Hilly Flanks and Beyond: Essays
in the Prehistory of Southwestern Asia Presented to Robert J.
Braidwood (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984)
Studies Cross P.D. Miller, P.D. Hanson and S.D. McBride (eds.), Ancient
Israelite Religion: Essays in Honor of Frank Moore Cross
(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1987)
Studies Freedman C.L. Meyers and M. O'Connor (eds.), The Word of the Lord
Shall Go Forth: Essays in Honor of David Noel Freedman in
Celebration of His Sixtieth Birthday (Winona Lake, IN:
Eisenbrauns, 1983)
Studies Garelli D. Charpin and F. Joannes (eds.), Marchands, Diplomates et
empereurs: Etudes sur la civilisation mesopotamienne offertes
a P. Garelli (Paris: Editions Recherche sur les Civilisations,
1991)
Studies Gibson N. Wyatt, W.G.E. Watson and J.B. Lloyd (eds.), Ugarit,
Religion and Culture. Proceedings of the Inter-national
Colloquium on Ugarit, Religion and Culture Edinburgh, July
1994. Essays Presented in Honour of Professor John C. L.
Gibson (UBL, 12; Miinster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1996)
Studies Harrison A. Gileadi (ed.), Israel's Apostasy and Restoration: Essays in
Honor of Roland K. Harrison (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book
House, 1988)
Studies Heltzer Y. Avishur and R. Deutsch (eds.), Michael. Historical,
Epigraphical and Biblical Studies in Honor of Prof. Michael
Heltzer (Tel Aviv: Archaeological Center Publications, 1999)
Studies Kaufmann M. Haran (ed.), Studies in Bible and Jewish Religion:
Yehezkel Kaufmann Jubilee Volume (Jerusalem: Magnes
Press, 1960)
Studies King M.D. Coogan, J.C. Exum and L.E. Stager (eds.), Scripture and
Other Artifacts: Essays on Archaeology and the Bible in
 Abbreviations 17

Honor of Philip J. King (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John

Knox Press, 1994)
Studies Kraus G. van Driel et al. (eds.), Zikir Sumim: Assyriological Studies
Presented to F. R. Kraus on the Occasion of his Seventieth
Birthday (Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten Studia
Francisci Scholten Memoriae Dicata, 5; Leiden: E.J. Brill,
1982)
Studies Lacheman M.A. Morrison and D.I. Owen (eds.), In Honor of Ernest R.
Lacheman on his Seventy-Fifth Birthday (SCCNH, 1; Winona
Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1981)
Studies Landsberger H.G. Giiterbock and T. Jacobsen (eds.), Studies in Honor of
Benno Landsberger on his Seventy-fifth Birthday April 21,
1965 (AS, 16; Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965)
Studies Lambdin D.M. Golomb (ed.), 'Working with No Data': Semitic and
Egyptian Studies Presented to Thomas O. Lambdin (Winona
Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1987)
Studies van Loon O.M.C. Haex, H.H. Curvers and P.M.M.G. Akkermans (eds.),
To the Euphrates and Beyond: Archaeological Studies in
Honour ofMaurits N. van Loon (Rotterdam/Brookfield: A.A.
Balkema, 1989)
Studies Loretz M. Dietrich and I. Kottsieper (eds.), 'Und Mose schrieb dieses
Liedauf: Studien zum Alten Testament und zum Alien Orient.
Festschrift fur Oswald Loretz zur Vollendung seines 70.
Lebensjahres mit Beitragen von Freunden, Schiilern und
Kollegen (AOAT, 250; Miinster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1998)
Studies Mendenhall H.B. Huffmon, F.A. Spina and A.R.W. Green (eds.), The
Quest for the Kingdom of God: Studies in Honor of George E.
Mendenhall (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1983)
Studies Moron T. Abusch, J. Huehnergard and P. Steinkeller (eds.), Lingering
over Words: Studies in Ancient Near Eastern Literature in
Honor of William L Moron (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1990)
Studies Pope J. Marks and R. Good (eds.), Lave and Death in the Ancient
Near East: Essays in Honor of Marvin H. Pope (Guilford:
Four Quarters Publishing Company, 1987)
Studies Sjoberg H. Behrens et al. (eds.), DUMUE2 DU-BA-A: Studies in
Honor ofAke W. Sjoberg (Philadelphia: The University
Museum, 1989)
Studies von Soden M. Dietrich and O. Loretz (eds.), Vom Alten Orient von Soden
zum Alten Testament. Festschrift fur Wolfram Freiherrn von
Soden zum 85. Geburtstag am 19. Juni 1993 (AOAT;
Kevelaer. Butzon & Bercker; Neukirchen-Vluyn:
Neukirchener Verlag, 1995)
Studies Speiser W.W. Hallo (ed.), Essays in Memory ofE.A. Speiser (New
Haven: American Oriental Society, 1968)
Studies Tadmor M. Cogan and I. Eph'al (eds.), Ah, Assyria, ...Studies in
Assyrian History and Ancient Near Eastern Historiography
Presented to Hayim Tadmor (ScrHier, 33; Jerusalem: The
Magnes Press, 1991)
18 Mesopotamia and the Bible

Studies Wright P.M. Cross et al. (eds.), Magnolia Dei: Essays on the Bible
and Archaeology in Memory ofG. Ernest Wright (Garden
City, NY: Doubleday, 1976)
Studies Young J.E. Coleson and V.H. Matthews (eds.), Go to the Land I Will
Show You: Studies in Honor ofDwight W. Young (Winona
Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1996)
TAD B. Porten and A. Yardeni, Textbook of Aramaic Documents
from Ancient Egypt (4 vols.; Jerusalem: The Hebrew
University, 1986-1999)
TCS Texts from Cuneiform Sources
TDOT G.J. Botterweck and H. Ringgren (eds.), Theological
Dictionary of the Old Testament
TFS S. Dalley and J.N. Postgate, The Tablets from Fort
Shalmaneser (CTN, 3; Oxford: British School of
Archaeology, 1984)
TLZ Theologische Literaturzeitung
TRu Theologische Rundschau
TynBul Tyndale Bulletin
TZ Theologische Zeitschrift
UB G.J. Brooke, A.H.W.Curtis and J.F. Healey (eds.), Ugarit and
the Bible: Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Ugarit and the Bible. Manchester, September 1992 (UBL, 11;
Miinster: Ugarit-Verlag, 1994)
UBL Ugaritisch-Biblische Literatur
UF Ugarit-Forschungen
Unity and Diversity H. Goedicke and J.J.M. Roberts (eds.), Unity and Diversity:
Essays in the History, Literature, and Religion of the Ancient
Near East (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press,
1975)
Ugarit in Retrospect G.D. Young (ed.), Ugarit in Retrospect: Fifty Years of Ugarit
and Ugaritic (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1979)
VAB Vorderasiatische Bibliothek
VT Vetus Testamentum
VTSup Vetus Testamentum, Supplements
WO Die Welt des Orients
WZHB Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Humboldt- Universitdt zu
Berlin
WZKM Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes
YNER Yale Near Eastern Researches
YOS Yale Oriental Series. Babylonian Texts
ZA Zeitschrift fur Assyriologie
ZAH Zeitschrift jur Althebraistik
ZAS Zeitschrift Jur agyptische Sprache und Altertumskunde
ZA W Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenldndischen Gesellschaft
ZDPV Zeitschrift des deutschen Palastina-Vereins
 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Bill T. Arnold, Asbury Theological Seminary

Richard E. Averbeck, Trinity International University—Divinity School

Mark W. Chavalas, University of Wisconsin—La Crosse

David C. Deuel, Brandon, Florida

Daniel E. Fleming, New York University

Richard S. Hess, Denver Seminary

Steven W. Holloway, American Theological Library Association

Victor H. Matthews, Southwest Missouri State University

Wayne T. Pitard, The University of Illinois

William Schniedewind, University of California, Los Angeles

Ronald A. Veenker, Western Kentucky University

Edwin Yamauchi, Miami University

K. Lawson Younger Jr, Trinity International University—Divinity School

This page intentionally left blank
 ASSYRIOLOGY AND BIBLICAL STUDIES:
A CENTURY AND A HALF OF TENSION

Mark W. Chavalas

What is the reason for these efforts in remote, inhospitable, and dangerous
lands? What is the reason for this expensive rooting through rubble many
thousands of years old, all the way down to the water table, where no gold
and no silver is to be found? What is the reason for the competition among
nations to secure excavation rights to these deserted mounds, and the more
the better? Moreover, what is the source of the ever-increasing, self-
sacrificing interest, on both sides of the Atlantic, allotted to the excavations
in Babylonia and Assyria?
To these questions there is one answer, even if not the whole answer
which points to what for the most part is the motive and the goal, namely,
the Bible (Delitzsch 1906: 1).

So began F. Delitzsch's famous inaugural lecture for the German Oriental

Society entitled, 'Babel und Bibel', 13 January 1902, in Berlin. However,
those who believed that the excavations in Mesopotamia had the primary
purpose of illuminating the Bible and verifying its historicity were to be
disappointed with the remainder of Delitzsch's first and succeeding lec-
tures, as he spoke from the standpoint of an Assyriologist who attempted
to show the primacy and superiority of Babel (Mesopotamia) over the
Bible. The tension between the two disciplines of Assyriology and biblical
studies in the past century and a half has often been acute and has never
adequately been defined. In fact, any comparative study of issues concern-
ing the two has often been considered a hazardous affair.! Assyriology, of
course, is by definition a new discipline, and has often been considered
an intruder by biblicists (Kraus 1969: 69-73). On the other hand, the
Assyriologist has often had to work under the shadow of the biblicists,
who have for the most part considered Assyriology an auxiliary to biblical
studies. They often have had to connect their work for relevance to biblical

1. See the discussion by van der Toorn 1985: 1 -8.

22 Mesopotamia and the Bible

studies. Of course, many Assyriologists in the early period maintained a

traditional doctrinal orthodoxy. Assyriology remains a subject for special-
ists; there never has been an assyriological equivalent to Egyptomania,
except for the Amorite hypothesis. The Assyriologist must admit that
ironically it was the Bible that helped illuminate the newly found cunei-
form documents in the nineteenth century, as it provided transcriptions of
five of the names of the Assyrian kings.2 For some biblical scholars, the
impact of Assyriology upon biblical studies has been minimal, an unten-
able position for those of us who attempt to bridge both fields.3 When one
scrapes away the superficial similarities, however, the two disciplines have
thus developed almost wholly independent of each other. In some respects,
scholars of the two disciplines are not always properly trained or well
suited to do comparative studies.4 Too often scholars have taken 'in-
ventorial' approach to comparisons, listing various parallel phenomena
without making clear their significance (Malul 1990: 32). Although it is
certainly legitimate to look for parallels (Veenhof 1995), the methodo-
logical criteria for studying Mesopotamia and the Bible have not been
adequately articulated. There needs to be a systematic manner in the
approach to the comparative method.5 Most would agree that the biblical
scholar must examine the immediate and wider biblical context before
resorting to searching for external evidences from Mesopotamia, and the
general context of those external sources also. One must also ask whether
or not the phenomenon in question existed outside the stream of the
ancient Near Eastern tradition, of which both the biblical and Meso-
potamian cultures were a part (Malul 1990: 93-97).
On the whole, the biblical scholars have made but superficial use of
Assyriological research, mainly because of the high degree of speciali-
zation needed to work with its data (Millard 1989: 24). Furthermore, a
great number of Assyriologists neither have an interest in biblical studies,
nor do they see many obvious and direct connections to the Old Testa-
ment, while Old Testament scholars are often too concerned with theo-
logical matters to become interested in immersing themselves in technical

2. Also, see the discussion by Tadmor 1985: 262.

3. Notice the lack of attention to ancient Near Eastern matters in some of the
major works devoted to the history of Old Testament scholarship; Kraeling 1955; Hahn
1956; Kraus 1956; Greenslade 1963.
4. See the discussion of this issue in regards to biblical scholars studying Ugaritic
religion; see Killers 1985.
5. This is one of the themes of Barr 1987.
 CHAVALAS Assyriology and Biblical Studies 23

matters (in fact, some biblical scholars were drawn to Assyriology because
of its comparative lack of theological controversies; this has certainly been
the case in Great Britain and North America). The cuneiform material
accessible to the biblical scholar is limited to the relatively few fully
edited and annotated texts. At any rate, it is not surprising to see a tension
between the two disciplines. In spite of this, it is strongly urged that the
two disciplines continue to interact, as long as they retain their own
methodology and autonomy (see Tadmor 1985: 266).
In this introduction, I will attempt to trace some of the major develop-
ments of the relationship between the two fields since the discovery and
subsequent decipherment of'Babylonic' cuneiform in the mid-nineteenth
century.
The two disciplines are very different. Assyriology studies a dead
civilization. When Xenophon, the Greek general and historian, traversed
the boundaries of Assyria at the beginning of the fourth century BCE, he
traveled past both Nimrud and Nineveh. Although he noticed both of these
cities, he called them by their Greek names, and assumed that the region
was part of Media, and that the two cities were destroyed by the Persians.
Thus, he was unaware that they were two of the great Assyrian capitals,
which had become abandoned mounds in the preceding two centuries.6
The Bible and various Greek sources became powerful factors in keeping
alive the memory of Mesopotamian civilization. Yet it was not simply the
interest in biblical studies that drove the Europeans to the Tigris-Euphrates
Valley in the early nineteenth century. France and Great Britain were
looking for land routes to India and took great efforts to exert their
influence on these areas. Archeology was thus an unconscious extension of
European imperialism.
Because of the spiritual connections with the Old Testament, those in
the West are the remote descendants of the Mesopotamians.7 Assyriology's
importance to world history is only now being discussed by Assyriologists.8
However, Assyriologists have rarely been able to synthesize their massive
data base for the public. Furthermore, biblical scholars have been much

6. Xenophon, Anabasis 1.4.6-12. Other classical period authors, including Hero-

dotus and Ptolemy were better versed about this area. I thank Michael C. Astour for the
preceding observation.
7. See Bottero (1992: 15-25) who argues that Assyriology should be at the center
of the social sciences, since it contains our cultural 'family documents'.
8. See, for example, Hallo 1996.
24 Mesopotamia and the Bible

more prone to search for comparative data than have Assyriologists.9 The
two civilizations of Mesopotamia and Israel must be studied independently
of each other, while recognizing the intimate relationship of the two
(Saggs 1978: 5). Comparisons between the two were often done early on
in regards to polemic.10 The two traditions should be seen as two con-
temporary systems in the ancient Near East, and not necessarily
exclusively in context with each other. Searching for direct comparisons
can be methodologically unsound, causing one to omit great amounts of
relevant data. Clearly, Mesopotamia and Israel (including Syria) were part
of a greater cultural continuum (van der Toorn 1996: 4).
The study of Syro-Mesopotamian civilization has advanced greatly in
the past 25 years. Of special import is the renewed interest in Eastern or
'Mesopotamian' Syria, where new archeological finds have radically
altered our understanding of not only the ancient Near East, but of the
Bible as well. Although there have recently been some brief descriptions
of Mesopotamian connections and the Bible,11 there has been no detailed
synthesis in English of the Tigris-Euphrates region in regards to the Bible
in many years.12
From the beginning, scholars were intrigued by the possibilities of
studying the two disciplines, and either emphasized the similarities or
stressed differences.13 At the outset of the nineteenth century the Anglican
Church retained a supremacy over biblical studies that was not seen in
either Germany or France. Thus, when German and French historical and
literary criticism of the Bible began to filter into Great Britain there was a
sharp reaction. These 'Germanisms' as they were called (the propensity to
view many Old Testament stories as mythical and to de-emphasize the
importance of the Old Testament) were considered a threat to the
understanding of the divine inspiration of Scripture (Chadwick 1966:628).
There was a fear that the Bible would be 'polluted' by being too close to a

9. Sj6berg (1984: 217) found it necessary to state that he comes to the Old
Testament with 'the eyes of an Assyriologist'.
10. E.g. in terms of religion, see Vriezen 1968.
11. E.g. Hoerth, Mattingly and Yamauchi 1994.
12. E.g. Larue 1967; Parrot 1955; 1958. A number of Assyriologists have worked
on comparative themes of Mesopotamia and the Bible late in their career; see now von
Soden 1985 (this is not in fact a synthesis but a collection of some of von Soden's
previously published works on biblical and assyriological themes) and Bottero 1986-
92; 1993a; and 1994.
13. Talmon 1978a: 332; for a critique of finding comparisons as a modern variation
of the long history of the effort to deny Israel any innovation, see Greenspahn 1991.
 CHAVALAS Assyriology and Biblical Studies 25

pagan tradition (i.e. Mesopotamia). Ironically, the British and French

Enlightenment which had been imported to Germany had now returned in
an altered form to a country was had previously been cool to biblical
criticism. However, the fact that historical criticism was presently being
done in Homeric studies made it easier for scholars to be open to the
'Germanisms' (Kraeling 1955: 89-97). However, the first impressions of
the cuneiform tablets had little impact on nineteenth-century biblical
criticism.
The first major excavations were done by the French, under P.E. Botta,
who had knowingly begun working at Nineveh in 1842.14 Of course, the
ancient name of the mound was Ninua, a fact which was known by the
Medieval Arab geographers and Jewish travelers (e.g. Benjamin of Tudela
in the twelfth century AD), but not to the European travelers or, for the
most part, the European adventurers (Grayson 1997: 106). Though Botta
soon left Nineveh, he directed his attentions to Khorsabad, where he found
the palace of the Assyrian king Sargon II. Ironically, he mistakenly
thought he had discovered Nineveh (see Budge 1925: 67). Botta's dis-
coveries at Khorsabad, though, created an immense interest in Mesopo-
tamian antiquities in Europe. Although the French government sponsored
work on drawing the reliefs that had been brought to Paris, Botta never
received the public recognition afforded many other adventurers to the
Middle East. Nonetheless, the French government subsidized the magnifi-
cent volumes produced by Botta, although they were only accessible to a
small number of persons (not including Layard!) (McCall 1998:198). At
any rate, A. de Longperier was able to read the name Sargon, King of
Assyria on one of the monuments, identifying him with the same
mentioned in Isa. 20.1, the first name of a Mesopotamian king to be read
by a modern scholar from outside the biblical text.15 Furthermore, V. Place
succeeded Botta at Khorsabad and found more of the layout of the city of
Sargon II (Place 1867-70).
Soon thereafter the Englishman, A.H. Layard, began work at Nimrud in
1845.16 Like Botta, he also thought he had found Nineveh, and his famous
work, Nineveh and its Remains is in fact primarily a discussion of material

14. Botta and Flandin 1849-50; Botta 1843-44. For a recent discussion of the
French involvement in the mid-nineteenth century, see Fontan (ed.) 1994.
15. Moorey 1991:8. For French interest in Mesopotamian and biblical connections,
seeVigouroux 1877.
16. Layard 1849; 1849-53; 1853. A compendium of Layard's (and Botta's) work
was done by Bonomi 1852.
26 Mesopotamia and the Bible

from Nimrud. Layard found at Nimrud the first dramatic sculptural link to
the Old Testament, the Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III and the citation
concerning Jehu of Israel. This, of course, was not proven until the obelisk
was deciphered years later. At this early date there was a general under-
standing that the Assyrians and Babylonians led away the Israelites and
Judahites captive (Sennacherib and Nebuchadnezzar were household
names to the European public).17 Layard's finds were quickly disseminated
and became topics for newspapers and popular journals. They impressed
British and American societies who were still immersed in Old Testament
piety. They not only hoped that Layard's investigations would help
provide the correct understanding of Scripture, they were convinced that
the Bible had been vindicated by his finds, especially since they believed
that it confirmed the destruction of the Assyrian cities as foretold by the
biblical prophets. Thus, Layard had to step very carefully as he came to
conclusions about the finds and their relevance to the Old Testament,
knowing that controversies were brewing back home. But, as long as the
texts could not be read with any certainty, nothing could be firmly
established.18 Others, however, were more cynical and supposed that if
Layard attached biblical importance to his discoveries, he would become
more famous and receive the backing of the religious public.I9 Thus,
Layard created a sensation with his books, both in Europe and America.20
Many of the responses by theologians about the finds were premature and
often irresponsible, as they tried to appeal to religious sensibilities
(Kildahl 1959: 2-20). However, much of the hoopla about theological
fears of the budding discipline of Assyriology was soon displaced with
Darwin's revolutionary ideas.
Although both Botta and Layard knew their Bible as well as their
classics, neither appeared to be interested in trying to prove the historical

17. Hincks in 1849 had deciphered the names of Esarhaddon and Sennacherib in
the Layard's reliefs (185 Ib: 977); and Grotefend read Shalmaneser (Moorey 1991:10).
See Hincks 1851b; 1852; and H.C. Rawlinson found the names of the Israelite and
Judahite kings of Jehu and Menahem in the Assyrian annals, e.g., see Rawlinson 1850.
Also see Hincks 1853; 1850.
18. See the discussion in Larsen 1996: 155-64.
19. See Saggs 1984: 306; and Bamett 1960. Layard did not hesitate to make
biblical correlations, e.g., 18491:75-76. Unfortunately, many of his preliminary ideas
were preached from British pulpits, giving rise to widespread 'logorrhea', according to
Kildahl 1959: 55-59, 147-49.
20. Others quickly followed with works of the same ilk; see Vaux 1855; Bonomi
1869. For Layard's influence in Britain and the US, see Kildahl 1959.
 CHAVALAS Assyriology and Biblical Studies 27

veracity of either traditions in regards to Mesopotamia. Of course, the

public was interested in the elucidation of the Old Testament, while
academics saw in their work an interesting specimen for understanding the
evolution of the arts through sculpture and the like (Larsen 1996:68). But
the academic world was somewhat slow in incorporating the material
uncovered by them.
In 1852, now ten years after the first excavations in the Tigris-Euphrates
region, J.C. Hoefer published Chaldee, Assyrie, Medie, Babylonie, Meso-
potamie, Phenicie, Palmyrene,2] where he collected all of the biblical and
classical references to Mesopotamia, as well as descriptions of the area
by travelers from medieval times to his present. Little, however, was
discussed about the new finds. In the same year, E. Hincks and H.C.
Rawlinson were able to partially decipher Sennacherib's account of the
invasion of Judah, which appears to be remarkably similar to the biblical
account in 2 Kgs 18.13-16.22 At last, many thought there was now
convincing proof of the connections of Assyria and Israel, and that the
Assyrian texts really did contain information that would help explain Old
Testament passages. Although there was initial enthusiasm from the reli-
gious community, theologians were not able to explain the discrepancies
in the two accounts. Ten years later Rawlinson published a provisional
chronology of Assyrian history that provided a datum point for comparing
it with biblical history. He also was able to figure out an account of
Shalmaneser Ill's war with Jehu of Israel, which provoked great interest in
Great Britain.23 However, even Rawlinson's brother George, an Anglican
clergyman, felt that the investigation of the Assyrian palaces had to be
stopped because they came 'uncomfortably close to the holy text'.24 Henry
saw this as 'downright rot'.25 At any rate, the decipherment of Assyrian
cuneiform caused Assyriology to be acknowledged as a legitimate dis-
cipline.26 Although there were apparent contradictions in the Assyrian and

21. Paris: Firmin Didot Freres, 1852.

22. See the discussion by Hincks and Rawlinson in Layard 1853: 118-24.
23. His magnum opus was H. Rawlinson 1860-84.
24. Although he came to see the usefulness of Mesopotamian studies on shedding
light upon the Old Testament world; see G. Rawlinson 1862: vi; 1859; 1871.
25. British Library 38977,219-24,31 March 1847 (as listed in Larsen 1996:366);
but see G. Rawlinson 1885. At any rate, Hincks was more open to stating biblical
connections than was Rawlinson: see Hincks 1862a; 1862b.
26. The decipherment became official when Rawlinson, Talbot, Hincks and Oppert
(1857) independently translated an inscription of Tiglath Pileser I.
28 Mesopotamia and the Bible

biblical records, the two disciplines were intertwined, and continued to

retain close ties, at least for the time being. By this time, over 50 personal
and place names from the Bible had been identified in the Assyrian
records (Layard 1849: 626-28). In fact, the natural link between the two
disciplines was recognized by the founding of the Society of Biblical
Archaeology in London in 1870. The Society's goal was to investigate the
archeology and history of Assyria, as well as other biblical lands.
Arguably, the most sensational find of the early periods was made by
George Smith, who had been enthralled with the Bible since he was a
youth, and was almost obsessed with knowing more about the historical
books of the Old Testament (Smith 1875:9). On 3 December 1872, Smith
addressed the Society of Biblical Archaeology and revealed a Babylonian
account of the flood story, causing an ecclesiastical and scientific sensation
in both Britain and France, even greater than that of Layard's time. Public
interest in Mesopotamia was renewed. The flood texts were viewed by
the public at the British Museum with great interest. Assyriology was
now viewed as a sword to pierce the emerging German school of'Higher
Criticism', which was seen to be undermining the authority of the Old
Testament.27 Smith was offered funding to find the missing portion of
the tablet back in northern Iraq. Although the Bible had had priority as
having the oldest records of humanity, this new-found deluge text clearly
delineated a problem.28 How was there an earlier version of the Holy
Text? Did it no longer have chronological priority? Smith refrained from
providing his own interpretation. Was this just a later perverted version
from a different religious system, or the origin of all flood stories? In
retrospect, these issues ultimately caused the public to be wary of the
Assyriology, a discipline which was not regarded as being encumbered
with the authority of Scripture. It is at this point that the two disciplines
began to drift further apart (Tadmor 1985: 265). Hebrew scholars began
to suspect many of the Assyriologist's translations of texts. Based upon
the cumulative effect of Assyriological discoveries and finds in other
fields, the British resistance to biblical criticism was weakened (Kraeling
1955: 92).

27. Wiseman 1962: 11; Saggs 1999: 78. Many of these scholars, such as J. Well-
hausen and R. Smith, were Semiticists who were drawn to biblical comparisons with
Arabic studies, rather than Assyriology.
28. Smith 1876. B. Denys, in a review of Smith's work (The Chaldean Account of
Genesis [London: Thomas Scott, 1877]), was one of the few who appreciated the
seriousness of the issue.
 CHAVALAS Assyriology and Biblical Studies 29

Smith's successors in the British Museum continued in his tradition of

looking for biblical parallels. W. Boscawen caused a public excitement by
claiming that many of the difficulties in the book of Daniel, including the
identity of Darius the Mede, had been cleared up.29 Another Assyriologist
interested in biblical connections was A.H. Sayce, an Anglican priest who
was a prolific writer who periodically attempted to prove historical details
of the Old Testament from Assyrian and Babylonian sources.30 Sayce
identified Nimrod with Gilgamesh, and while others identified from
cuneiform sources the kings who fought with Abraham in Genesis 14.
Others who were influenced by Smith were T. Pinches (1902), and
indirectly S.R. Driver (1904), C.H.W. Johns (who became interested in
Assyriology as a boy by reading the works of G. Smith [see Johns 1914]),
A.T. Clay (1915; 1922), and L.W. King.31 We are even told by Wallis
Budge that one wealthy banker paid an Assyriologist a retaining fee to
look for biblical parallels (Budge 1925: 271). Many imaginary parallels
concerning creation (see Delano 1985), paradise,32 the fall of man, Cain
and Abel, and the Tower of Babel were reputedly found.33 At any rate, by
the end of the nineteenth century, Sayce was confident to say that the
'wave of historical skepticism' was ending before its spirit and principles
had influenced popular thought (Sayce 1894b).
American involvement (which was slow in manifesting itself)34 in the
Near East stemmed profoundly from its interest in the historical veracity
of the Bible and its interest in Semitic studies (see Brown 1888-89; 1909).
In fact, the American Oriental Society was formed in 1842, just about the

29. Boscawen's best known work was Boscawen 1903.

30. E.g. see Sayce 1885; 1888; 1891; 1894a; 1895; 1907.
31. King 1918. For a study of King's impact on biblical and Assyriological studies,
see Smith 1968.
32. E.g. see Neuman 1876: 66-67. Neuman, an American doctor of divinity, was
convinced that 'disentombing' the dead past would go far to strengthen the faith of the
weak and to dissipate the doubts of others (see Larsen 1992).
33. Observe the full title of Smith's work; The Chaldean Account of Genesis
containing the Description of the Creation, Fall of Man, the Deluge, the Tower of
Babel, the Times of the Patriarchs, and Nimrod; Babylonian Fables, and Legends of
the Gods; from the Cuneiform Inscriptions (Smith 1876).
34. Kildahl (1959: 194-212) argues that the Americans were too preoccupied with
domestic concerns until after the Civil War. There were only a handful of works
describing the relationship of the new finds to the Bible; e.g. Davis 1852; Kidder 1851;
Ward 1870; Tufton 1874; Merrill 1885. For an recent overview of American involve-
ment in the Near East, see Kuklick 1996.
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