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Report 1 1st Edition National Research Council Division Of
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A Royal Second Chance Summer 1st Edition Viv Royce
Norwegian
Perspectives
on Education and
Cultural Diversity
Norwegian
Perspectives
on Education and
Cultural Diversity
Edited by

Lars Anders Kulbrandstad,

Thor Ola Engen
and Sidsel Lied
Norwegian Perspectives on Education and Cultural Diversity

Edited by Lars Anders Kulbrandstad, Thor Ola Engen, and Sidsel Lied

This book first published 2018

Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Copyright © 2018 by Lars Anders Kulbrandstad, Thor Ola Engen,

Sidsel Lied and contributors

All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without
the prior permission of the copyright owner.

ISBN (10): 1-5275-0587-1

ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-0587-2
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Section One: Profile and Perspectives

Chapter One ................................................................................................. 2

Education and Diversity: Introduction of a Multidisciplinary Research
Group
Thor Ola Engen, Lise Iversen Kulbrandstad, Lars Anders Kulbrandstad
and Sidsel Lied

Section Two: Diversity, Literacy and Inclusion

Chapter Two .............................................................................................. 40

Developing Research-based Literacy Teaching Practices for Diverse
Schools in Norway
Lise Iversen Kulbrandstad

Chapter Three ............................................................................................ 65

Inclusion of Newly Arrived Students: Why Different Introductory
Models can be Successful Models
Thore-André Skrefsrud

Chapter Four .............................................................................................. 83

Missing Recognition? Inclusive Education and Language Minority
Students in Norwegian Schools
Kari Nes

Chapter Five ............................................................................................ 103

«It’s just in my heart»: A Portrait of a Translingual Young Person
as a Writer of Poetry
Joke Dewilde

Chapter Six .............................................................................................. 121

Jim Cummins’ Hypotheses on Transfer of Linguistic Skills from the First
to the Second Language: A Refutation of a Refutation
Thor Ola Engen
vi Table of Contents

Section Three: Diversity, Language and Assessment

Chapter Seven.......................................................................................... 142

Increased Linguistic Diversity in Norway: Attitudes and Reflections
Lars Anders Kulbrandstad

Chapter Eight ........................................................................................... 160

Creating Challenging Language Learning Spaces in Multilingual Early
Childhood Education Contexts
Gunhild Tomter Alstad

Chapter Nine............................................................................................ 183

Standardized Testing Mantling Linguistic Diversity?
Marte Monsen and Steinar Laberg

Chapter Ten ............................................................................................. 202

Assessment of Language Awareness in Multilingual First Grade Students
Gunhild Tveit Randen

Section Four: Diversity, History and Religion

Chapter Eleven ........................................................................................ 224

A Farewell to the World? Non-Western History in Norwegian Curricula
Morten Løtveit

Chapter Twelve ....................................................................................... 244

Memory of Diversity
Eva Marie Syversen

Chapter Thirteen ...................................................................................... 264

The Discourse on Religious Literacy and the Implications of Empirical
Research
Kolbjørn Kjørven

Chapter Fourteen ..................................................................................... 281

Children’s Dialogue with Values: Values in Children’s Memorial
Messages in the Aftermath of July 22nd 2011
Sidsel Lied
 Norwegian Perspectives on Education and Cultural Diversity vii

Afterword ................................................................................................ 303

Jim Cummins

Contributors ............................................................................................. 307

 SECTION ONE:

PROFILE AND PERSPECTIVES

 CHAPTER ONE

EDUCATION AND DIVERSITY:

INTRODUCTION OF A MULTIDISCIPLINARY
RESEARCH GROUP

THOR OLA ENGEN,

LISE IVERSEN KULBRANDSTAD,
LARS ANDERS KULBRANDSTAD
AND SIDSEL LIED

The present anthology has contributions from members of Education and

Diversity, a multidisciplinary research group at Inland Norway University
of Applied Sciences (before January 1st 2017, Hedmark University of
Applied Sciences). The chapters of the book deal with the current research
topics in the group. This introductory chapter describes some connecting
threads by presenting some key concepts and epistemological assumptions
of the research group, following its development from cooperation
between two researchers with roots in education and linguistics in the
early 1980s to the current position, involving more than twenty
researchers, now also including religious studies, history, social studies,
literature and music. The introduction is followed by a presentation of the
articles in the book.

Introduction
The multidisciplinary research group Education and Diversity (ED) was
formally appointed a strategic research area at the former Hedmark
University of Applied Sciences (HUAS) in the late 1990s. Teaching and
research activities can, however, be traced back to the early 1980s. At the
time, most immigrants to Norway came to find work in industry and thus
made their homes in the cities. But when Vietnamese refugees, who had
escaped from their home countries by boat and been picked up by
 Education and Diversity: Introduction of a Multidisciplinary Research Group 3

Norwegian merchant ships, were granted residence permits, several

established their new homes outside the cities. Some came to the agricultural
county of Hedmark, north of Oslo. Very soon an in-service programme for
teachers was developed at HUAS, and a few years later a textbook in
migration pedagogy for higher education was published (Engen ed. 1985).
Since then, Norwegian society has undergone important transformations–
and so has Norwegian teacher education. In 1995, 5% of people living in
Norway had immigrant family backgrounds, which means that either they
themselves have immigrated to Norway or they were born in Norway of two
immigrant parents. In 2016, 16% had an immigrant family background
(Statistics Norway 1996, 2016). This development has put multicultural and
multilingual topics at the top of the agenda and the activities of ED have
moved from the periphery to the centre of educational research.
While Norwegian research on the implications of increased cultural
and linguistic diversity for education aligns with research elsewhere in
overarching questions, theories and methods, there are historical and
political circumstances that form a unique context for this research in
Norway. Likewise, while the research activities in the Education and
Diversity group have much in common with research at other universities
in the country, there are characteristics in the background of the group, its
competence profile and organisation that make it stand out as distinctive.
From the outset, the research agenda of the ED group was influenced
not only by international research, but also by theoretical ideas developed
by Norwegians–earlier and in other contexts. Some of these ideas originate
in Sami1 school experiences in a Norwegian majority school; others in
Norwegian majority experiences in a historical era where the school had a
central role in the struggle to relieve Norway from historically rooted,
institutionalised Danish cultural influence2, in order to transform the
country from an inferior semi-colony to a position as an independent state.
We will take these aspects of the early history of multi- or intercultural
education in Norway as our point of departure.
The early ED research efforts are presented in close relation to these
theoretical ideas, since we aim to identify some possibly distinctive
Norwegian contributions to the field of multi- or intercultural education.
The ED researchers were also, of course, inspired by international
research, not least on second language and bilingual education teaching

1
The Sami population is mostly located in Northern Norway, but small groups of
the inter Scandinavian Southern Sami population lives in other counties, included
Hedmark County.
2
Norway was a Danish colony for four hundred years, ending in 1814 when
Norway entered a union with Sweden, which lasted until 1905.
4 Chapter One

and learning. This influence became more and more evident when
membership of the ED group steadily increased and researchers from
different academic backgrounds joined the group. In the second part of the
chapter, we will therefore present projects and research work from ED
researchers and discuss how they communicate with the present
international body of research.

Two inspiring pioneers from Northern Norway

Although some noteworthy measures to meet the educational needs of
Sami children in the northernmost of the Norwegian counties, Finnmark,
had been taken already in the early 18th century (Niemi 2003; Darnell and
Hoëm 1996), we will, however, start with the work of Sami teacher, writer
and labour party politician, Per Fokstad (1890–1973). He entered the field
of multi- or intercultural education in 1917 with the publication of well-
informed academic arguments against the ongoing Norwegianisation in
schools, advocating the use of the mother tongue (Sami) as the language of
instruction (Fokstad 1917). Over the following decades, mainly through
his academic-political activity, Fokstad gradually built a position as
probably the most central voice in the early history of multi- or
intercultural education in Norway. His ideas in favour of a transition
model for Sami education with the curriculum taught in the Sami
language, for at least the first three years of schooling and with Norwegian
taught as a foreign language, were for a long time ignored. However, in the
preparation of a new Primary Education Act in 1963, Norwegian authorities
accepted recommendations of teaching through the Sami language from the
committee appointed to examine Sami issues, of which Fokstad was a
central member (Darnell and Hoëm 1996; Zachariassen 2012).
At this time, Fokstad had acquired powerful allies also internationally,
such as the European Convention on Human Rights (1950), and the UN
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, which in article 27
stated that:
In those States in which ethnic, religious or linguistic minorities exist,
persons belonging to such minorities shall not be denied the right, in
community with the other members of their group, to enjoy their own
culture, to profess and practise their own religion, or to use their own
language (United Nations 1966).

The UN covenant did not come into effect until 1976, but in the 1960s and
-70s worldwide revitalisation movements anticipated its implementation,
by strongly challenging:
 Education and Diversity: Introduction of a Multidisciplinary Research Group 5

[…] the assimilationist conception of citizenship education […]

Indigenous peoples and ethnic groups within the various Western nations–
such as American Indians in the United States, Aborigines in Australia,
Maori in New Zealand, African Caribbeans in the United Kingdom, and
Moluccans in the Netherlands–wanted their histories and cultures to be
reflected in their national cultures and in the school, college, and
university curricula (Banks 2004, 297)

According to James Banks, these movements were triggered by the Civil

Rights Movement in the US and echoed throughout the world. Based on
his experiences as a Sami student and teacher, Fokstad had advocated the
idea that the history and culture of the Sami people should be reflected in
the school curriculum in its own right almost fifty years earlier, and for
this reason, the Sami people might have been mentioned among the groups
listed by Banks. In any case, Fokstad’s persistent efforts deserve to be
regarded as a unique contribution to the field of multi- or intercultural
education (cf. Zachariassen 2012).
Fokstad’s work was published in Norwegian, so it is no wonder why
Banks did not know about it. But even among Norwegian mainstream
educationalists, few were familiar with his writings until the 1990s, when
ED member Lars Anders Kulbrandstad drew attention to it in an article
(Kulbrandstad 1992). Indirectly, Fokstad’s ideas were nevertheless a major
influence to ED from the start, as they were mediated by the work of
Anton Hoëm, an educational sociologist also from Finnmark. Based on a
series of empirical studies in Sami areas in the 1960s, Hoëm (1978)
synthesised his findings in a comprehensive theory of socialisation, which
turned out to be a powerful conceptual tool when it came to analysing
(minority) students' achievements, motivation structure and identity
development in school and kindergarten (for short introductions in English,
see Engen 1994, Engen 2009a). And as Hoëm’s theory of socialisation, either
explicitly or implicitly, also anticipated concepts like cultural capital
(Bourdieu), empowerment (Cummins) and recognition (Honneth), his work
should too be considered as a distinct Norwegian contribution to the field of
multi- or intercultural education (Beck et al. 2010).
Historically, Fokstad’s and Hoëm’s academic efforts–and in this way
also the early research agenda of ED–must be understood in light of the
emergence of the Norwegian unitary school, which was founded by the
Liberal Party government in 1889, with the aim to grant equal rights and
equal possibilities for all students, irrespective of their background. This
ambition was realised by opening equal access for all students to the same
institution, but at the same time school was also given the nation-building
mission of transcending ethnic diversity in the student population through
6 Chapter One

cultural homogenisation, i.e. Norwegianising (cf. national literacy

teaching) (Nes et al. 2002; Engen 2010a). Hence, it is hardly surprising
that it had a discriminatory impact on students of Sami and Kven
backgrounds, as Fokstad pointed out. As implied by Hoëm’s socialization
theory, it had similar consequences for all underprivileged groups who did
not share the school’s value basis, for example students of Forrest Finn,
Romani and Roma backgrounds and children from the working class
(Engen 1979; Engen 2010b). By identifying the central discriminatory
mechanisms involved, Hoëm’s theory of socialisation influenced school
authorities to formalise the educational rights of Sami students in the
National Curriculum of 1973, and to expand them even further by granting
them the right to mother tongue education, together with Norwegian as
second language instruction and bilingual teaching in the National
Curriculum of 1987 (NC87).

The National Curriculum of 1987 and the education

of linguistic minority children
In the 1970s and 1980s it gradually became obvious that children of newly
arrived immigrant workers from countries like Pakistan, India and Turkey
(in the 1970s), and children of refugees with Vietnamese, Chilean and
Iranian backgrounds (in the 1980s) fell behind in the Norwegian school
(Engen, Sand, and Kulbrandstad 1996; Sætersdal 1979–1985). With the
National Curriculum of 1987, these groups of students were granted
similar rights as the Sami and the Kvens. For the new language minorities,
however, the justification for a new approach was just as much influenced
by international experiences with bilingual programmes, like the
transition, the maintenance or enrichment models and the immersion and
submersion programmes (Baker 2011; Skutnabb-Kangas 1981, 1985;
Øzerk 2006). Further, Cummins’ hypotheses as to what psychological
mechanisms are involved in successful bilingual education, and his
identification of the more precise conditions under which certain bilingual
education programmes are successful (cf. Cummins, Baker, and
Hornberger 2001), were influential (for a detailed discussion, see Engen’s
chapter in this volume).

The Research activities of the Education and Diversity group

The influence of these international impulses is demonstrated by the
previously mentioned edited volume from 1985 (Engen ed. 1985). And as
the international theories were interpreted through the lenses of Hoëm’s
 Education and Diversity: Introduction of a Multidisciplinary Research Group 7

theory of socialisation, they proved to be well suited also to define an

interdisciplinary research agenda. Engen (ed. 1985) not only collected but
also indirectly contrasted articles on topics such as migration and culture,
racism, bilingualism and bilingual education, and Norwegian language
teacher education for diverse classrooms. In the following years, new
theoretical ideas partly rooted in Hoëm’s work, partly in international
research, were developed. The new ideas were strongly related to the
distinctive historical experiences associated with Norway’s transition from
a semi-colony to an independent state. The ideas also proved to be
powerful in substantiating a new multicultural religious study subject in
teacher education, as well as in primary and secondary school.

The Christianity, Religion and Philosophy subject

As pointed out in the above quote from the Convention on Civil and
Political Rights’, persons belonging to minorities should not be denied the
right to profess and practise their own religion. Although this principle
traditionally had been respected in Norwegian schools, the National
Curriculum of 1997 took its implementation one step further, by introducing a
new subject called Christianity, Religion and Philosophy (CRP). As in the
case of the nation building school, one justification for the new subject was
to offer all students in the same classroom the same content programme
about different religions and beliefs. But in contrast to the nation-building
school, the concept of mainstreaming was, within this subject, given a
meaning more in line with the principle of inclusion, so that the CRP
subject’s cultural context was no longer monocultural. On the one hand, all
students should be taught about the life interpretation they were familiar
with from their home backgrounds; on the other hand they should also be
introduced to those world views they met through their schoolmates.
The argument for placing all students in the same mainstream
classroom, and for including Christianity, other world religions, beliefs as
well as philosophy and ethics in the same curriculum was at one level
aimed to facilitate a face-to-face dialogue between representatives of
different life view backgrounds within the context of formal socialisation,
and to stimulate contact between the groups in the context of informal
socialisation. At another level, the CRP subject was constructed to put into
practice the OECD assumption (2005) that knowledge about both one’s
own and the culture of others is a precondition for openness, tolerance and
dialogue (for extended discussions, see Engen and Lied 2011; Gravem
2004). Thus, even the CRP subject may be seen as a distinctive
contribution to multi- or intercultural education.
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