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Authors
John J. Newman, Ed.D., served for many years as an Advanced Placement® U.S. History
teacher and the Department Coordinator of Art, Foreign Language, and Social Studies at
Naperville North High School, Naperville, Illinois. He continued his career as Adjunct
Professor of History at the College of DuPage and Adjunct Assistant Professor of History
Education at Illinois State University.
John M. Schmalbach, Ed.D., taught Advanced Placement® U.S. History and was Social
Studies Department head at Abraham Lincoln High School, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He
continued his career as Adjunct Assistant Professor at Temple University.

This book is dedicated to our wives,

Anne Newman and Rosemarie Schmalbach;
our children, Louise Newman, and
John, Suzanne, and Robert Schmalbach; and
our students, who share our study of America’s past.

Reviewers and Consultants

Chris Averill, Former Member of the AP® U.S. History Development Committee
Cosby High School | Midlothian, Virginia
Paul Faeh, AP® U.S. History Exam Leader
Hinsdale South High School | Darien, Illinois
Kamasi Hill, AP® U.S. History Teacher
Evanston Township High School | Evanston, Illinois
John P. Irish, Former Co-Chair of the AP® U.S. History Development Committee
Carroll Senior High School | Southlake, Texas
Michael Kim, AP® U.S. History Exam Table Leader
Schurr High School | Montebello, California
Susan Pingel, AP® U.S. History Exam Table Leader
Skaneateles High School (retired) | Skaneateles, New York
James Sabathne, Former Co-Chair of the AP® U.S. History Development Committee
Hononegah Community High School | Rockton, Illinois
 Contents
Preface xxv
Introduction xxvi

UNIT 1—Period 1: 1491–1607

Topic 1.1 Contextualizing Period 1 1
Learning Objective: Explain the context for European encounters in the
Americas from 1491 to 1607.
Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 2
Topic 1.2 Native American Societies Before European Contact 3
Learning Objective: Explain how various native populations interacted
with the natural environment in North America in the period before
European contact.
Cultures of Central and South America 3
Cultures of North America 4
Topic Review and Practice 6
Topic 1.3 European Exploration in the Americas 8
Learning Objective: Explain the causes of exploration and conquest of the
New World by various European nations.
The European Context for Exploration 8
Expanding Trade 9
Developing Nation-States 10
Dividing the Americas 10
Topic Review and Practice 12
Topic 1.4 Columbian Exchange, Spanish Exploration, and Conquest 14
Learning Objective: Explain causes of the Columbian Exchange and its
effect on Europe and the Americas during the period after 1492.
Christopher Columbus 14
The Columbian Exchange 15
The Rise of Capitalism 15
Historical Perspectives: Was Columbus a Great Hero? 15
Topic Review and Practice 16
Topic 1.5 Labor, Slavery, and Caste in the Spanish Colonial System 19
Learning Objective: Explain how the growth of the Spanish Empire in
North America shaped the development of social and economic structures
over time.
Spanish Exploration and Conquest 19
Spanish Caste System 20
Topic Review and Practice 20
Topic 1.6 Cultural Interactions in the Americas 23
Learning Objective: Explain how and why European and Native American
perspectives of others developed and changed in the period.
European Treatment of Native Americans 23

iv UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION

 Survival Strategies by Native Americans 25
The Role of Africans in America 25
Topic Review and Practice 25
Topic 1.7 Causation in Period 1 27
Learning Objective: Explain the effects of the development of transatlantic
voyages from 1491 to 1607.
Questions About Causation 27
Think as a Historian: Analyzing Evidence 28
UNIT 1—Period 1 Review: 1491–1607 30
Write As a Historian: Checklist for a Long Essay Answer 30
Long Essay Questions 31

UNIT 2—Period 2: 1607–1754

Topic 2.1 Contextualizing Period 2 32
Learning Objective: Explain the context for the colonization of North
America from 1607 to 1754.
Early Settlements 32
Sources of Labor 33
Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 33
Topic 2.2 European Colonization in North America 34
Learning Objective: Explain how and why various European colonies
developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754.
Spanish Colonies 34
French Colonies 35
Dutch Colonies 35
British Colonies 36
Topic Review and Practice 36
Topic 2.3 The Regions of British Colonies 38
Learning Objective: Explain how and why environmental and other factors
shaped the development and expansion of various British colonies that
developed and expanded from 1607 to 1754.
Early English Settlements 38
Development of New England 41
Restoration Colonies 43
Early Political Institutions 46
Topic Review and Practice 46
Topic 2.4 Transatlantic Trade 49
Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of transatlantic trade
over time.
Triangular Trade 49
Mercantilism and the Empire 50
The Dominion of New England 52
Ongoing Trade Tensions 52
Topic Review and Practice 52

CONTENTS v
Topic 2.5 Interactions Between American Indians and Europeans 54
Learning Objective: Explain how and why interactions between various
European nations and American Indians changed over time.
Conflict in New England 54
Conflict in Virginia 55
Spanish Rule and the Pueblo Revolt 56
Topic Review and Practice 56
Topic 2.6 Slavery in the British Colonies 59
Learning Objective 1: Explain the causes and effects of slavery in the
various British colonial regions.
Learning Objective 2: Explain how enslaved people responded to slavery.
Demand for Labor 59
The Institution of Slavery 60
Topic Review and Practice 61
Topic 2.7 Colonial Society and Culture 63
Learning Objective 1: Explain how and why the movement of a variety
of people and ideas across the Atlantic contributed to the development of
American culture over time.
Learning Objective 2: Explain how and why the different goals and
interests of European leaders and colonists affected how they viewed
themselves and their relationship with Britain.
Population Growth 63
The Structure of Colonial Society 65
The Great Awakening 67
Cultural Life 68
The Enlightenment 70
The Colonial Relationship with Britain 70
Politics and Government 71
Historical Perspectives: Was Colonial Society Democratic? 72
Topic Review and Practice 73
Topic 2.8 Comparisons in Period 2 75
Learning Objective: Compare the effects of the development of colonial
society in the various regions of North America.
Questions About Comparison 76
Think as a Historian: Argumentation 77
UNIT 2—Period 2 Review: 1607–1754 78
Write As a Historian: Historical Thinking Skills and Long Essays 78
Long Essay Questions 79
Document-Based Question 80

vi UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION

UNIT 3—Period 3: 1754–1800
Topic 3.1 Contextualizing Period 3 84
Learning Objective: Explain the context in which America gained
independence and developed a sense of national identity.
Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 85
Topic 3.2 The Seven Years’ War 86
Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the Seven Years’
War (the French and Indian War).
Empires at War, 1689–1763 86
The First Three Wars 86
The Decisive Conflict 87
Reorganization of the British Empire 89
Topic Review and Practice 90
Topic 3.3 Taxation Without Representation 92
Learning Objective: Explain how British colonial policies regarding North
America led to the Revolutionary War.
British Actions and Colonial Reactions 92
New Revenues and Regulations 93
Second Phase of the Crisis, 1767–1773 94
Renewal of the Conflict 95
Intolerable Acts 96
The Demand for Independence 96
Topic Review and Practice 97
Topic 3.4 Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution 100
Learning Objective: Explain how and why colonial attitudes about
government and the individual changed in the years leading up to the
American Revolution.
Enlightenment Ideas 100
Thomas Paine’s Argument for Independence 101
Historical Perspectives: Why Did the Colonies Rebel? 101
Topic Review and Practice 102
Topic 3.5 The American Revolution 104
Learning Objective: Explain how various factors contributed to the
American victory in the Revolution.
The First Continental Congress 104
Fighting Begins 105
The Second Continental Congress 106
Peace Efforts 106
The Declaration of Independence 106
The Revolutionary War 107
The Competing Sides 107
Initial American Losses and Hardships 108
Alliance with France 108

CONTENTS vii
 Victory 109
Topic Review and Practice 109
Topic 3.6 The Influence of Revolutionary Ideals 111
Learning Objective 1: Explain the various ways the American Revolution
affected society.
Learning Objective 2: Describe the global impact of the American
Revolution.
Women in the Revolutionary Era 111
The Status of Enslaved African Americans 112
Native Americans and Independence 112
International Impact of the American Revolution 112
Historical Perspectives: How Unusual Was the Revolution? 113
Topic Review and Practice 114
Topic 3.7 The Articles of Confederation 117
Learning Objective: Explain how different forms of government developed
and changed as a result of the Revolutionary Period.
Organization of New Governments 117
State Governments 117
The Articles of Confederation 118
The United States Under the Articles, 1781–1789 118
Weaknesses of the Articles 120
Topic Review and Practice 120
Topic 3.8 The Constitutional Convention and Debates Over Ratification 123
Learning Objective: Explain the differing ideological positions on the
structure and function of the federal government.
The Annapolis Convention 123
Drafting the Constitution at Philadelphia 123
The Delegates 124
Key Issues at the Convention 125
Federalists and Anti-Federalists 126
The Federalist Papers 127
The Path to Ratification 127
Topic Review and Practice 128
Topic 3.9 The Constitution 130
Learning Objective: Explain the continuities and changes in the structure
and functions of the government with the ratification of the Constitution.
Federalism 130
Separation of Powers 131
The Bill of Rights 131
Topic Review and Practice 132

viii UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION

Topic 3.10 Shaping a New Republic 135
Learning Objective 1: Explain how and why competition intensified conflict
among peoples and nations from 1754 to 1800.
Learning Objective 2: Explain how and why political ideas, institutions,
and party systems developed and changed in the new republic.
Washington’s Presidency 135
Organizing the Federal Government 135
Hamilton’s Financial Program 136
Foreign Affairs Under Washington 137
Domestic Concerns under Washington 138
The First Political Parties 139
Origins 140
Differences Between the Parties 140
Washington’s Farewell Address 141
John Adams’ Presidency 141
Topic Review and Practice 142
Topic 3.11 Developing an American Identity 145
Learning Objective: Explain the continuities and changes in American
culture from 1754 to 1800.
Social Change 145
Political Change 146
Cultural Change 147
Topic Review and Practice 147
Topic 3.12 Movement in the Early Republic 149
Learning Objective 1: Explain how and why migration and immigration to
and within North America caused competition and conflict over time.
Learning Objective 2: Explain the continuities and changes in regional
attitudes about slavery as it expanded from 1754 to 1800.
Migration and Settlement 149
American Indians 149
Population Change 151
Slavery 151
Topic Review and Practice 152
Topic 3.13 Continuity and Change in Period 3 155
Learning Objective: Explain how the American independence movement
affected society from 1754 to 1800.
Questions About Continuity and Change 155
Think As a Historian: Developments and Processes 156
UNIT 3—Period 3 Review: 1754–1800 157
Write As a Historian: Analyze the Question 157
Long Essay Questions 158
Document-Based Question 159

CONTENTS ix
UNIT 4—Period 4: 1800–1848
Topic 4.1 Contextualizing Period 4 163
Learning Objective: Explain the context in which the republic developed
from 1800 to 1848.
Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 164
Topic 4.2 The Rise of Political Parties and the Era of Jefferson 165
Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of policy debates in
the early republic.
The Election of 1800 165
Jefferson’s Presidency 166
Aaron Burr 169
John Marshall’s Supreme Court and Federal Power 170
Madison’s Presidency 172
Topic Review and Practice 172
Topic 4.3 Politics and Regional Interests 175
Learning Objective: Explain how different regional interests affected
debates about the role of the federal government in the early republic.
The Era of Good Feelings 175
Western Settlement and the Missouri Compromise 178
Topic Review and Practice 180
Topic 4.4 America on the World Stage 182
Learning Objective: Explain how and why American foreign policy
developed over time.
Jefferson’s Foreign Policy 182
President Madison’s Foreign Policy 183
The War of 1812 184
Monroe and Foreign Affairs 189
Topic Review and Practice 191
Topic 4.5 Market Revolution 193
Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the innovations in
technology, agriculture, and commerce over time.
Development of the Northwest 193
Transportation 194
Communication 195
Growth of Industry 195
Commercial Agriculture 197
Cotton and the South 197
Topic Review and Practice 197
Topic 4.6 Effects of the Market Revolution on Society and Culture 200
Learning Objective: Explain how and why innovation in technology,
agriculture, and commerce affected various segments of American society
over time.
Women 200
Economic and Social Mobility 201

x UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION

 Population Growth and Change 201
Organized Labor 202
Topic Review and Practice 203
Topic 4.7 Expanding Democracy 205
Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the expansion of
participatory democracy from 1800 to 1848.
Greater Equality 205
Changes to Parties and Campaigns 206
Historical Perspectives: The Jacksonians and Expanding Democracy 207
Topic Review and Practice 208
Topic 4.8 Jackson and Federal Power 210
Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of continuing policy
debates about the role of the federal government from 1800 to 1848.
Jackson Versus Adams 210
The Presidency of Andrew Jackson 211
The Two-Party System 214
The Western Frontier 216
Topic Review and Practice 218
Topic 4.9 The Development of an American Culture 222
Learning Objective: Explain how and why a new national culture
developed from 1800 to 1848.
Cultural Nationalism 222
A Changing Culture: Ideas, the Arts, and Literature 222
Topic Review and Practice 226
Topic 4.10 The Second Great Awakening 229
Learning Objective: Explain the causes of the Second Great Awakening.
Causes of Religious Reform 229
Revivals 229
New Denominations 231
Reforms Backed by Religion 231
Topic Review and Practice 231
Topic 4.11 An Age of Reform 234
Learning Objective: Explain how and why various reform movements
developed and expanded from 1800 to 1848.
Improving Society 234
Changes in Families and Roles for Women 236
Antislavery Movement 237
Other Reforms 238
Topic Review and Practice 239
Topic 4.12 African Americans in the Early Republic 241
Learning Objective: Explain the continuities and changes in the
experience of African Americans from 1800 to 1848.
Free African Americans 242

CONTENTS xi
 Resistance by the Enslaved 242
Topic Review and Practice 244
Topic 4.13 Southern Society in the Early Republic 247
Learning Objective: Explain how geographic and environmental factors
shaped the development of the South from 1800 to 1848.
Agriculture and King Cotton 247
Slavery, the “Peculiar Institution” 248
White Society 249
Topic Review and Practice 250
Historical Perspectives: What Was the Nature Of Slavery? 250
Topic 4.14 Causation in Period 4 253
Learning Objective: Explain the extent to which politics, economics,
and foreign policy promoted the development of American identity from
1800 to 1848.
Questions About Causation 253
Think As a Historian: Claims and Evidence in Sources 254
UNIT 4—Period 4 Review: 1800–1848 255
Write As a Historian: Gather and Organize the Evidence 255
Long Essay Questions 256
Document-Based Question 257

UNIT 5—Period 5: 1844–1877

Topic 5.1 Contextualizing Period 5 260
Learning Objective: Explain the context in which sectional conflict
emerged from 1844 to 1877.
Analyze the Context and Landmark Events 261
Topic 5.2 The Idea of Manifest Destiny 262
Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of westward expansion
from 1844 to 1877.
Conflicts Over Texas, Maine, and Oregon 262
Settlement of the Western Territories 265
Expansion After the Civil War 268
Topic Review and Practice 268
Topic 5.3 Manifest Destiny and the Mexican–American War 271
Learning Objective: Explain the causes and effects of the Mexican–
American War.
Conflict with Mexico 271
Consequences of the War 272
Historical Perspectives: WhyWas Manifest Destiny Significant? 273
Topic Review and Practice 273
Topic 5.4 The Compromise of 1850 276
Learning Objective: Explain the similarities and differences in how
regional attitudes affected federal policy in the period after the Mexican–
American War.

xii UNITED STATES HISTORY: AP ® EDITION

 Southern Expansion 276
Conflict Over Status of Territories 277
Compromises to Preserve the Union 278
Topic Review and Practice 279
Topic 5.5 Sectional Conflict: Regional Differences 282
Learning Objective 1: Explain the effects of immigration from various parts
of the world on American culture from 1844 to 1877.
Learning Objective 2: Explain how regional differences related to slavery
caused tension in the years leading up to the Civil War.
Immigration Controversy 282
Ethnic Conflict in the Southwest 284
The Expanding Economy 284
Agitation Over Slavery 285
Topic Review and Practice 287
Topic 5.6 Failure of Compromise 289
Learning Objective: Explain the political causes of the Civil War.
National Parties in Crisis 289
Extremists and Violence 290
Constitutional Issues 292
Topic Review and Practice 294
Topic 5.7 Election of 1860 and Secession 297
Learning Objective: Describe the effects of Lincoln’s election.
The Road to Secession 297
A Nation Divided 300
Historical Perspectives: What Caused the Civil War? 301
Topic Review and Practice 302
Topic 5.8 Military Conflict in the Civil War 304
Learning Objective: Explain the various factors that contributed to the
Union victory in the Civil War.
War 304
First Years of a Long War: 1861–1862 305
Foreign Affairs and Diplomacy 308
The Union Triumphs, 1863–1865 309
Topic Review and Practice 310
Topic 5.9 Government Policies During the Civil War 313
Learning Objective: Explain how Lincoln’s leadership during the Civil War
impacted American ideals over the course of the war.
The End of Slavery 313
Effects of the War on Civilian Life 315
Assassination of Lincoln 317
Topic Review and Practice 318
Topic 5.10 Reconstruction 320
Learning Objective: Explain the effects of government policy during
Reconstruction on society from 1865 to 1877.

CONTENTS xiii
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