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MTTC Chemistry
18 Teacher Certification Exam

By: Sharon Wynne, M.S

Southern Connecticut State University

XAMonline, INC.
Boston
Copyright © 2007 XAMonline, Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may
be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, recording or by any information storage and retrievable
system, without written permission from the copyright holder.

To obtain permission(s) to use the material from this work for any purpose
including workshops or seminars, please submit a written request to:

XAMonline, Inc.
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Toll Free 1-800-509-4128
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Web www.xamonline.com
Fax: 1-781-662-9268

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wynne, Sharon A.
Chemistry 18: Teacher Certification / Sharon A. Wynne. -2nd ed.
ISBN 978-1-60787-847-6
1. Chemistry 18 2. Study Guides. 3. MTTC
4. Teachers’ Certification & Licensure. 5. Careers

Disclaimer:
The opinions expressed in this publication are the sole works of XAMonline and
were created independently from the National Education Association,
Educational Testing Service, or any State Department of Education, National
Evaluation Systems or other testing affiliates.

Between the time of publication and printing, state specific standards as well as
testing formats and website information may change that is not included in part or
in whole within this product. Sample test questions are developed by XAMonline
and reflect similar content as on real tests; however, they are not former tests.
XAMonline assembles content that aligns with state standards but makes no
claims nor guarantees teacher candidates a passing score. Testing companies
such as NES or ETS determine numerical scores and compare them with
individual state standards. A passing score varies from state to state.

Printed in the United States of America œ-1

MTTC: Chemistry 18
ISBN: 978-1-60787-847-6
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Table of Contents

SUBAREA I. REFLECTING ON AND CONSTRUCTING

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

Competency 1.0 Understand the principles and procedures of scientific

inquiry ...................................................................................... 1

Skill 1.1 Formulating research questions and investigations in chemistry .......... 1

Skill 1.2 Developing valid experimental designs for collecting and analyzing
data and testing hypotheses ................................................................. 2

Skill 1.3 Recognizing the need for control groups in experiments ...................... 7

Skill 1.4 Understanding procedures for collecting and interpreting data to ..........
minimize bias ........................................................................................ 8

Skill 1.5 Recognizing independent and dependent variables and analyzing the
role of each in experimental design ...................................................... 8

Skill 1.6 Identifying the most appropriate method (e.g., graph, table, formula) for
presenting data for a given purpose .................................................... 9

Skill 1.7 Applying mathematics to investigations in chemistry and the analysis of

data ..................................................................................................... 13

Skill 1.8 Interpreting results presented in different formats............................... 15

Skill 1.9 Evaluating the validity of conclusions ................................................. 15

Skill 1.10 Assessing the reliability of sources of information .............................. 16

Competency 2.0 Apply knowledge of methods and equipment used in

scientific investigations ...................................................... 18

Skill 2.1 Selecting and using appropriate data collection and measurement
devices and methods .......................................................................... 18

Skill 2.2 Identifying uncertainties in measurement............................................ 22

Skill 2.3 Evaluating the accuracy and precision of a measurement in a given

situation .............................................................................................. 28

Skill 2.4 Identifying procedures and sources of information related to the safe
use, storage, and disposal of materials and equipment related to
chemistry investigations ...................................................................... 29

CHEMISTRY ii
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Skill 2.5 Identifying hazards associated with laboratory practices

and materials ...................................................................................... 30

Skill 2.6 Applying procedures for preventing accidents and dealing with
emergencies ....................................................................................... 34

Competency 3.0 Understand the nature of scientific thought, inquiry, and

history .................................................................................... 45

Skill 3.1 Demonstrating knowledge of the reliance of scientific investigations on

empirical data, verifiable evidence and logical reasoning ................... 45

Skill 3.2 Recognizing the effect of researcher bias on scientific investigations

and the interpretation of data .............................................................. 46

Skill 3.3 Demonstrating an awareness of the contributions made to chemistry

by individuals of diverse backgrounds and different time periods ....... 46

Skill 3.4 Recognizing the dynamic nature of scientific knowledge, including

ways in which scientific knowledge is acquired and modified ............. 54

Competency 4.0 Understand the relationship of chemistry to contemporary,

historical, technological, and societal issues .................... 55

Skill 4.1 Recognizing the relationships between science and technology ........ 55

Skill 4.2 Analyzing historical, political, and social factors that affect
developments in chemistry, including current issues related to
chemistry research and technology (e.g., alternative fuels, polymers) 55

Skill 4.3 Evaluating the credibility of scientific claims made in various forums
(e.g., mass media, professional journals, advertising) ........................ 56

Competency 5.0 Understand interrelationships among the physical, life,

and earth/space sciences and their connections to
mathematics and technology .............................................. 57

Skill 5.1 Recognizing major unifying themes and concepts that are common to
the various scientific disciplines (e.g., patterns, cause and effect,
conservation of energy, entropy) ........................................................ 57

Skill 5.2 Describing the integration and interdependence of the sciences,

mathematics, and technology and their applications in real-world
contexts .............................................................................................. 58

CHEMISTRY iii
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

SUBAREA II USING INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Competency 6.0 Apply the rules of chemical nomenclature and notation .. 62

Skill 6.1 Applying basic rules of nomenclature to identify and name inorganic
substances.......................................................................................... 62

Skill 6.2 Interpreting symbols and chemical notation for elements, isotopes,
ions, molecules, and compounds........................................................ 66

Competency 7.0 Understand atomic and molecular

structure and bonding .......................................................... 67

Skill 7.1 Identifying the parts of an atom and their characteristics .................... 67

Skill 7.2 Comparing historic models of the atom............................................... 67

Skill 7.3 Using the periodic table to predict the properties of a given element
............................................................................................................ 71

Skill 7.4 Representing atoms, ions, and compounds withelectron-dot diagrams

............................................................................................................ 77

Skill 7.5 Analyzing the characteristics of different types of bonds (covalent,

ionic, metallic), including the role of electrons in bonding ................... 78

Skill 7.6 Predicting physical and chemical properties based on the bonding in a
substance .......................................................................................... 83

Skill 7.7 Using VSEPR theory to explain molecular geometry and polarity ...... 86

Skill 7.8 Identifying types of intermolecular forces and relating them to the
physical properties of molecular substances ...................................... 90

Competency 8.0 Apply the mole concept and the principles and methods of
stoichiometry ........................................................................ 92

Skill 8.1 Defining a mole and recognizing the significance of the mole concept
............................................................................................................ 92

Skill 8.2 Calculating the number of moles in a given mass or volume of a

substance (partial void volume) ......................................................... 93

Skill 8.3 Solving problems involving molecular and formula masses and percent
composition......................................................................................... 94

Skill 8.4 Determining empirical and molecular formulas ................................... 96

CHEMISTRY iv
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Skill 8.5 Applying the law of conservation of mass to solve problems involving
moles, mass, and volume and problems involving solution chemistry
............................................................................................................ 97

Skill 8.6 Balancing chemical equations ............................................................ 97

Skill 8.7 Solving problems involving limiting reagents and percent yield .......... 99

Skill 8.8 Recognizing net ionic equations ....................................................... 101

Competency 9.0 Apply knowledge of chemical equilibrium and reaction

rates ..................................................................................... 102

Skill 9.1 Analyzing the effects of concentration, pressure, temperature, and

catalysts on chemical equilibrium and applying Le Chatelier's principle
to chemical systems.......................................................................... 102

Skill 9.2 Solving problems involving equilibrium constants and

reaction quotients ............................................................................. 106

Skill 9.3 Solving problems involving solubility product constants of slightly

soluble salts and the common-ion effect ........................................... 109

Skill 9.4 Analyzing everyday phenomena in terms of chemical equilibrium .... 110

Skill 9.5 Describing how temperature, concentrations, and catalysts affect

reaction rates .................................................................................... 112

Skill 9.6 Analyzing potential energy versus reaction coordinate diagrams ..... 114

Skill 9.7 Identifying first-order and second-order reactions from the rate law for
a reaction ......................................................................................... 115

Skill 9.8 Determining the rate law of a reaction from experimental data ......... 115

Skill 9.9 Recognizing the relationship between a reaction mechanism and the
rate law ............................................................................................. 119

Competency 10.0 Understand the principles and applications of acid-base

chemistry .......................................................................... 121

Skill 10.1 Analyzing acids and bases according to acid-base theories (i.e.,
Arrhenius, Brønsted-Lowry, Lewis) ................................................... 121

Skill 10.2 Distinguishing between strong and weak acids and bases and
identifying conjugate acid-base pairs ................................................ 124

CHEMISTRY v
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Skill 10.3 Calculating the hydronium or hydroxide ion concentration and the pH
or pOH of various acid and base solutions ....................................... 125

Skill 10.4 Predicting the acid-base properties of various salts .......................... 126

Skill 10.5 Analyzing the composition and function of buffer solutions .............. 128

Skill 10.6 Applying the principles of acid-base titration, including the selection of
indicators, and interpreting the results of acid-base titrations ........... 128

Skill 10.7 Identifying applications of acid-base chemistry ................................. 134

Competency 11.0 Understand the principles and applications of

electrochemistry .............................................................. 135

Skill 11.1 Interpreting the behavior of common substances in terms of oxidation-

reduction reactions ........................................................................... 135

Skill 11.2 Determining oxidation numbers and balancing oxidation-reduction

reactions (e.g., half-reaction method) ............................................... 136

Skill 11.3 Analyzing the feasibility of given reactions based on electrode

potentials at standard conditions and nonstandard conditions.......... 138

Skill 11.4 Analyzing the components, operating principles, and potentials of

electrochemical and electrolytic cell .................................................. 139

Skill 11.5 Relating cell potentials to spontaneity and equilibrium constants .... 142

Skill 11.6 Demonstrating knowledge of methods and applications of

electrochemical analysis .................................................................. 142

Skill 11.7 Identifying applications of electrochemistry....................................... 147

Competency 12.0 Understand qualitative analysis ...................................... 149

Skill 12.1 Demonstrating knowledge of various separation techniques (e.g.,

distillation, filtration, chromatography) and their basic principles ...... 149

Skill 12.2 Selecting an appropriate separation technique in a given situation

.......................................................................................................... 151

Skill 12.3 Demonstrating knowledge of the methods and equipment used for
determining the types of substances present in a sample ............... 151

Skill 12.4 Identifying everyday applications of qualitative analysis ................... 151

CHEMISTRY vi
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

SUBAREA III USING PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY

Competency 13.0 Understand chemical thermodynamics and

thermochemistry .............................................................. 153

Skill 13.1 Differentiating among forms of energy

(e.g., heat, chemical, nuclear)........................................................... 153

Skill 13.2 Analyzing how the laws of thermodynamics

apply to chemical systems ................................................................ 155

Skill 13.3 Predicting the spontaneity of given reactions based on enthalpy

changes, entropy changes, and temperatures of the systems .......... 156

Skill 13.4 Analyzing endothermic and exothermic reactions............................. 159

Skill 13.5 Distinguishing between heat and temperature .................................. 160

Skill 13.6 Demonstrating knowledge of the principles of calorimetry ................ 160

Skill 13.7 Analyzing the results of calorimetry experiments .............................. 163

Skill 13.8 Solving enthalpy problems using Hess's law, standard enthalpies of
formation, and bond energies ........................................................... 163

Competency 14.0 Apply methods for measuring the physical properties of

solids, liquids, and gases ................................................ 164

Skill 14.1 Comparing physical properties (e.g., melting point, density, solubility)
of solids, liquids, and gases .............................................................. 164

Skill 14.2 Demonstrating knowledge of methods and equipment used for

measuring the physical properties of substances ............................ 164

Skill 14.3 Using the physical properties of a substance to identify it................. 165

Competency 15.0 Apply knowledge of the kinetic molecular theory to the

states of matter, phase changes, and the gas laws ...... 166

Skill 15.1 Identifying the basic tenets of the kinetic molecular theory ............... 166

Skill 15.2 Using the kinetic theory to describe and explain characteristics of the
states of matter, including changes of state ...................................... 167
Skill 15.3 Explaining the dynamic equilibrium between phases ........................ 168
Skill 15.4 Analyzing heating and cooling curves ............................................... 169
Skill 15.5 Analyzing vapor pressure curves and phase diagrams .................... 171

CHEMISTRY vii
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Skill 15.6 Analyzing the relationships among pressure, temperature, and volume
of a gas or mixture of gases.............................................................. 174
Skill 15.8 Setting up and solving problems involving gas law relationships ...... 178

Competency 16.0 Understand characteristics and

properties of solutions .................................................... 179

Skill 16.1 Analyzing the colligative properties of solutions................................ 179

Skill 16.2 Recognizing factors that affect solubility, including intermolecular

forces ................................................................................................ 185

Skill 16.3 Interpreting solubility curves ............................................................. 187

Skill 16.4 Solving problems involving concentrations of solutions (e.g., molarity,

molality, percent by mass percentage) ............................................. 188

Skill 16.5 Analyzing the process of dissociation in solution .............................. 192

Skill 16.6 Identifying properties of strong and weak electrolyte solutions ......... 195

Skill 16.7 Applying solubility rules of inorganic salts to predict the occurrence of
precipitation reactions ....................................................................... 197

Competency 17.0 Understand quantum mechanics .................................... 198

Skill 17.1 Identifying basic features of the quantum mechanical

model of the atom ............................................................................. 198

Skill 17.2 Recognizing the experimental evidence for the quantum mechanical
model of the atom ............................................................................. 200

Skill 17. 3 Analyzing the relationships among electron energy levels, photons,
and atomic spectra ........................................................................... 203

Skill 17.4 Demonstrating a basic understanding of quantum numbers ............. 206

Skill 17.5 Describing atomic orbitals ................................................................. 208

Skill 17.6 Predicting the electron configurations of neutral atoms and ions of
given elements.................................................................................. 210

Skill 17.7 Relating photon energy to the wavelength and frequency of light..... 213

CHEMISTRY viii
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Competency 18.0 Understand the basic principles and methods of

spectroscopy ..................................................................... 215

Skill 18.1 Includes demonstrating knowledge of the basic principles

used in spectroscopy, limited to UV, visible, infrared,
and mass spectroscopy .................................................................... 215

Skill 18.2 Recognizing the kind of information that can be determined using
spectroscopic analysis ...................................................................... 215

Skill 18.3 Identifying everyday applications of spectroscopy ............................ 217

SUBAREA IV USING ORGANIC CHEMISTRY AND BIOCHEMISTRY

Competency 19.0 Understand the structure and nomenclature of organic

compounds ....................................................................... 219

Skill 19.1 Classifying hydrocarbons (e.g., alkane, aromatic) based on the type of
carbon-carbon bonds ........................................................................ 219

Skill 19.2 Identifying the main families of organic compounds by means of their
functional groups .............................................................................. 228

Skill 19.3 Using IUPAC rules to name simple organic compounds .................. 231

Skill 19.4 Identifying heterocyclic compounds.................................................. 231

Skill 19.5 Recognizing isomers of organic compounds,

including stereoisomers .................................................................... 232

Competency 20.0 Understand organic reactions of major

functional groups ............................................................. 236

Skill 20.1 Demonstrating knowledge of the reactions of the major functional

groups (addition, condensation, elimination, substitution)................. 236

Skill 20.2 Identifying the processes by which organic polymers are formed ..... 239

Skill 20.3 Identifying everyday applications of organic reactions ..................... 240

CHEMISTRY ix
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Competency 21.0 Understand the structure and function

of biomolecules ................................................................ 242

Skill 21.1 Recognizing and distinguishing the structures of the major classes of
biomolecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids)............ 242

Skill 21.2 Identifying the primary functions of the various types of biomolecules
and relating these functions to molecular structure ........................... 247

Skill 21.3 Recognizing the role of enzymes in biological systems ................... 247

Skill 21.4 Recognizing factors that affect enzyme kinetics ............................... 248

Skill 21.5 Recognizing the importance and role of buffers in

biological systems ............................................................................. 249

Competency 22.0 Understand biochemical reactions and processes ....... 251

Skill 22.1 Using chemical principles (including thermodynamics) to analyze

important biochemical processes (e.g., synthesis, degradation,
electron transport, oxidative phosphorylation) .................................. 251

Skill 22.2 Identifying the overall chemical equations for the metabolic reactions of
photosynthesis and respiration ......................................................... 252

Sample Test ..................................................................................................... 254

Answer Key ..................................................................................................... 279

Rationales with Sample Questions ............................................................... 280

Sample Open-Response Questions .............................................................. 350

CHEMISTRY x
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Great Study and Testing Tips!

What to study in order to prepare for the subject assessments is the focus of this
study guide but equally important is how you study.

You can increase your chances of truly mastering the information by taking some
simple, but effective steps.
Study Tips:

1. Some foods aid the learning process. Foods such as milk, nuts, seeds,
rice, and oats help your study efforts by releasing natural memory enhancers
called CCKs (cholecystokinin) composed of tryptophan, choline, and
phenylalanine. All of these chemicals enhance the neurotransmitters associated
with memory. Before studying, try a light, protein-rich meal of eggs, turkey, and
fish. All of these foods release the memory enhancing chemicals. The better the
connections, the more you comprehend.

Likewise, before you take a test, stick to a light snack of energy boosting and
relaxing foods. A glass of milk, a piece of fruit, or some peanuts all release
various memory-boosting chemicals and help you to relax and focus on the
subject at hand.

2. Learn to take great notes. A by-product of our modern culture is that we

have grown accustomed to getting our information in short doses (i.e. TV news
sound bites or USA Today style newspaper articles.)

Consequently, we’ve subconsciously trained ourselves to assimilate information

better in neat little packages. If your notes are scrawled all over the paper, it
fragments the flow of the information. Strive for clarity. Newspapers use a
standard format to achieve clarity. Your notes can be much clearer through use
of proper formatting. A very effective format is called the “Cornell Method.”

Take a sheet of loose-leaf lined notebook paper and draw a line all the way down
the paper about 1-2” from the left-hand edge.

Draw another line across the width of the paper about 1-2” up from the bottom.
Repeat this process on the reverse side of the page.

Look at the highly effective result. You have ample room for notes, a left hand
margin for special emphasis items or inserting supplementary data from the
textbook, a large area at the bottom for a brief summary, and a little rectangular
space for just about anything you want.

CHEMISTRY xi
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

3. Get the concept then the details. Too often we focus on the details and
don’t gather an understanding of the concept. However, if you simply memorize
only dates, places, or names, you may well miss the whole point of the subject.
A key way to understand things is to put them in your own words. If you are
working from a textbook, automatically summarize each paragraph in your mind.
If you are outlining text, don’t simply copy the author’s words.

Rephrase them in your own words. You remember your own thoughts and words
much better than someone else’s, and subconsciously tend to associate the
important details to the core concepts.

4. Ask Why? Pull apart written material paragraph by paragraph and don’t
forget the captions under the illustrations.

Example: If the heading is “Stream Erosion”, flip it around to read “Why do

streams erode?” Then answer the questions.

If you train your mind to think in a series of questions and answers, not only will
you learn more, but it also helps to lessen the test anxiety because you are used
to answering questions.

5. Read for reinforcement and future needs. Even if you only have 10
minutes, put your notes or a book in your hand. Your mind is similar to a
computer; you have to input data in order to have it processed. By reading, you
are creating the neural connections for future retrieval. The more times you read
something, the more you reinforce the learning of ideas.

Even if you don’t fully understand something on the first pass, your mind stores
much of the material for later recall.

6. Relax to learn so go into exile. Our bodies respond to an inner clock called
biorhythms. Burning the midnight oil works well for some people, but not
everyone.

If possible, set aside a particular place to study that is free of distractions. Shut
off the television, cell phone, pager and exile your friends and family during your
study period.

If you really are bothered by silence, try background music. Light classical music
at a low volume has been shown to aid in concentration over other types.

Music that evokes pleasant emotions without lyrics are highly suggested. Try just
about anything by Mozart. It relaxes you.

CHEMISTRY xii
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

7. Use arrows not highlighters. At best, it’s difficult to read a page full of
yellow, pink, blue, and green streaks.

Try staring at a neon sign for a while and you’ll soon see my point, the horde of
colors obscure the message.

8. Budget your study time. Although you shouldn’t ignore any of the material,
allocate your available study time in the same ratio that topics may appear
on the test.

CHEMISTRY xiii
 TEACHER CERTIFICATION STUDY GUIDE

Testing Tips:
1. Get smart, play dumb. Don’t read anything into the question. Don’t
make an assumption that the test writer is looking for something else than what is
asked. Stick to the question as written and don’t read extra things into it.

2. Read the question and all the choices twice before answering the
question. You may miss something by not carefully reading, and then re-
reading both the question and the answers.

If you really don’t have a clue as to the right answer, leave it blank on the first
time through. Go on to the other questions, as they may provide a clue as to
how to answer the skipped questions.

If later on, you still can’t answer the skipped ones . . . Guess. The only penalty
for guessing is that you might get it wrong. Only one thing is certain; if you don’t
put anything down, you will get it wrong!

3. Turn the question into a statement. Look at the way the questions are
worded. The syntax of the question usually provides a clue. Does it seem more
familiar as a statement rather than as a question? Does it sound strange?

By turning a question into a statement, you may be able to spot if an answer

sounds right, and it may also trigger memories of material you have read.

4. Look for hidden clues. It’s actually very difficult to compose multiple-foil
(choice) questions without giving away part of the answer in the options
presented.

In most multiple-choice questions you can often readily eliminate one or two of
the potential answers. This leaves you with only two real possibilities and
automatically your odds go to Fifty-Fifty for very little work.

5. Trust your instincts. For every fact that you have read, you subconsciously
retain something of that knowledge. On questions that you aren’t really certain
about, go with your basic instincts. Your first impression on how to answer a
question is usually correct.

6. Mark your answers directly on the test booklet. Don’t bother trying to fill
in the optical scan sheet on the first pass through the test.
Just be very careful not to mis-mark your answers when you eventually
transcribe them to the scan sheet.
7. Watch the clock! You have a set amount of time to answer the questions.
Don’t get bogged down trying to answer a single question at the expense of 10
questions you can more readily answer.

CHEMISTRY xiv
 Group 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
I II III IV V VI VII VIII
VIII
IA IIA IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
hydrogen
A
helium
Period
1 2

CHEMISTRY
1 H Periodic Table of the Elements He
1.0079 4.0026
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.941 9.0122 10.811 12.011 14.007 15.999 18.998 20.180
sodium magnesium aluminum silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.990 24.305 26.982 28.086 30.974 32.065 35.453 39.948
potassium calcium scandium titanium vanadium chromium manganese iron cobalt nickel copper zinc gallium germanium arsenic selenium bromine krypton
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.098 40.078 44.956 47.867 50.942 51.996 54.938 55.845 58.933 58.693 63.546 65.409 69.723 72.64 74.922 78.96 79.904 83.798
rubidium strontium yttrium zirconium niobium molybdenum technetium ruthenium rhodium palladium silver cadmium indium tin antimony tellurium iodine xenon

xv
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.468 87.62 88.906 91.224 82.906 95.94 [98] 101.07 102.91 106.42 107.87 112.41 114.82 118.71 121.76 127.60 126.90 131.29
cesium barium hafnium tantalum tunngsten rhenium osmium iridium platinum gold mercury thallium lead bismuth polonium astatine radon
55 56 57-71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba * Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.91 137.33 178.49 180.95 183.84 186.21 190.23 192.22 195.08 196.97 200.59 204.38 207.2 208.98 [209] [210] [222]
francium radium rutherfordium dubnium seaborgium bohrium hassium meitnerium darmstadtium roentgenium
87 88 89-103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111
7 Fr Ra ** Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg
[223] [226] [261] [262] [266] [264] [277] [268] [271] [272]
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lanthanum cerium praseodymium neodymium promethium samarium europium gadolinium terbium dysprosium holmium erbium thulium ytterbium lutetium
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
*Lanthanoids La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
138.91 140.12 140.91 144.24 [145] 150.36 151.96 157.25 158.93 162.50 164.93 167.26 168.93 173.04 174.97
actinium thorium protactinium uranium neptunium plutonium americium curium berkelium californium einsteinium fermium mendelevium nobelium lawrencium
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
**Actinoids Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md No Lr
[227] 232.04 231.04 238.03 [237] [244] [243] [247] [247] [251] [252] [257] [258] [259] [262]
Atomic mass values from IUPAC review (2001): http://www.iupac.org/reports/periodic_table/
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SUBAREA I. REFLECTING ON AND CONSTRUCTING

SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE

COMPETENCY 1.0 UNDERSTAND THE PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES

OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY

Skill 1.1 Formulating research questions and investigations in

chemistry

While an inquiry may start at any point in this method and may not involve all of
the steps here is the pattern.

Observations
Scientific questions result from observations of events in nature or events
observed in the laboratory. An observation is not just a look at what happens. It
also includes measurements and careful records of the event. Records could
include photos, drawings, or written descriptions. The observations and data
collection lead to a question. In chemistry, observations almost always deal with
the behavior of matter. Having arrived at a question, a scientist usually
researches the scientific literature to see what is known about the question.
Maybe the question has already been answered. The scientist then may want to
test the answer found in the literature. Or, maybe the research will lead to a new
question.

Sometimes the same observations are made over and over again and are always
the same. For example, you can observe that daylight lasts longer in summer
than in winter. This observation never varies. Such observations are called laws
of nature. Probably the most important law in chemistry was discovered in the
late 1700s. Chemists observed that no mass was ever lost or gained in chemical
reactions. This law became known as the law of conservation of mass.
Explaining this law was a major topic of chemistry in the early 19th century.

Hypothesis
If the question has not been answered, the scientist may prepare for an
experiment by making a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement of a possible
answer to the question. It is a tentative explanation for a set of facts and can be
tested by experiments. Although hypotheses are usually based on observations,
they may also be based on a sudden idea or intuition.

Experiment
An experiment tests the hypothesis to determine whether it may be a correct
answer to the question or a solution to the problem. Some experiments may test
the effect of one thing on another under controlled conditions. Such experiments
have two variables. The experimenter controls one variable, called the
independent variable. The other variable, the dependent variable, is the change
caused by changing the independent variable.

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For example, suppose a researcher wanted to test the effect of vitamin A on the
ability of rats to see in dim light. The independent variable would be the dose of
Vitamin A added to the rats’ diet. The dependent variable would be the intensity
of light that causes the rats to react. All other factors, such as time, temperature,
age, water given to the rats, the other nutrients given to the rats, and similar
factors, are held constant. Chemists sometimes do short experiments “just to
see what happens” or to see what products a certain reaction produces. Often,
these are not formal experiments. Rather they are ways of making additional
observations about the behavior of matter.

In most experiments, scientists collect quantitative data, which is data that can be
measured with instruments. They also collect qualitative data, descriptive
information from observations other than measurements. Interpreting data and
analyzing observations are important. If data is not organized in a logical manner,
wrong conclusions can be drawn. Also, other scientists may not be able to follow
your work or repeat your results.

Conclusion
Finally, a scientist must draw conclusions from the experiment. A conclusion
must address the hypothesis on which the experiment was based. The
conclusion states whether or not the data supports the hypothesis. If it does not,
the conclusion should state what the experiment did show. If the hypothesis is
not supported, the scientist uses the observations from the experiment to make a
new or revised hypothesis. Then, new experiments are planned.

Skill 1.2 Developing valid experimental designs for collecting and

analyzing data and testing hypotheses

Modern science began around the late 16th century with a new way of thinking
about the world. Few scientists will disagree with Carl Sagan’s assertion that
“science is a way of thinking much more than it is a body of knowledge” (Broca’s
Brain, 1979). Thus science is a process of inquiry and investigation. It is a way of
thinking and acting, not just a body of knowledge to be acquired by memorizing
facts and principles. This way of thinking, the scientific method, is based on the
idea that scientists begin their investigations with observations. From these
observations they develop a hypothesis, which is extended in the form of a
predication, and challenge the hypothesis through experimentation and thus
further observations. Science has progressed in its understanding of nature
through careful observation, a lively imagination, and increasingly sophisticated
instrumentation. Science is distinguished from other fields of study in that it
provides guidelines or methods for conducting research, and the research
findings must be reproducible by other scientists for those findings to be valid.

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It is important to recognize that scientific practice is not always this systematic.

Discoveries have been made that are serendipitous and others have not started
with the observation of data. Einstein’s theory of relativity started not with the
observation of data but with a kind of intellectual puzzle.

The Scientific Method is a logical set of steps that a scientist goes through to
solve a problem. The main purpose of using the Scientific Method is to eliminate,
as much as possible, preconceived ideas, prejudices and biases by presenting
an objective way to study possible answers to a question. Only by designing a
way to study one variable at a time can each possible answer be ruled out or
accepted for further study. There are as many different scientific methods as
there are scientists experimenting. However, there seems to be some pattern to
their work.

While an inquiry may start at any point in this method and may not involve all of
the steps, here is the pattern.

Observations
Scientific questions result from observations of events in nature or events
observed in the laboratory. An observation is not just a look at what
happens. It also includes measurements and careful records of the event.
Records could include photos, drawings, or written descriptions.

Question
The observations and data collection lead to a question. In chemistry,
observations almost always deal with the behavior of matter.
Information Gathering / Research
Having arrived at a question, a scientist usually researches the scientific
literature to see what is known about the question. This research can be
done by using scientific journals, by reading papers presented at
conferences, by asking scientists at other institutions and in industry, and
by researching the internet. Maybe the question has already been
answered. The scientist then may want to test the answer found in the
literature. Or, maybe the research will lead to a new question.

Sometimes the same observations are made over and over again and are
always the same. For example, you can observe that daylight lasts longer
in summer than in winter. This observation never varies. Such
observations are called laws of nature. Probably the most important law in
chemistry was discovered in the late 1700s. Chemists observed that no
mass was ever lost or gained in chemical reactions. This law became
known as the law of conservation of mass. Explaining this law was a major
topic of chemistry in the early 19th century.

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Hypothesis
If the question or some aspect of the question has not been answered, the
scientist may prepare for an experiment by making a hypothesis. A
hypothesis is a statement of a possible answer to the question. It is a
tentative explanation for a set of observations and must be stated in
positive terms and in such a way that can be tested by experiments.
Although hypotheses are usually based on observations, they may also be
based on a sudden idea or intuition.

Experiment
An experiment tests the hypothesis to determine whether it may be a
correct answer to the question or a solution to the problem. Designing an
appropriate experiment can be challenging. Experiments need to have
clearly defined controls (standards), variables, constants, and procedures
that truly do test the variable in the question and hypothesis. Some
experiments may test the effect of one thing on another under controlled
conditions. Such experiments have two variables. The experimenter
controls one variable, called the independent variable. The other variable,
the dependent variable, is the change caused by changing the
independent variable.

For example, suppose a researcher wanted to test the effect of vitamin A

on the ability of rats to see in dim light. The independent variable would be
the dose of Vitamin A added to the rats’ diet. The dependent variable
would be the intensity of light to which the rats respond. All other factors,
such as time, temperature, age, water and other nutrients given to the rats
would be held constant.
Chemists sometimes do short experiments “just to see what happens” or
to see what products a certain reaction produces. Often, these are not
formal experiments. Rather they are ways of making additional
observations about the behavior of matter.

When students are involved in designing experiments, they better understand

what scientists are doing as well as the difficulty of designing appropriately
controlled experiments. An ideal experiment at the high school level should not
last more than 12-14 days.

Data Collection
In most experiments, scientists collect quantitative data, which are data
that can be measured with instruments. Quantitative data involves
numbers and measurements against a standard. Those measurements
may be taken at specified time intervals. They also collect qualitative
data, descriptive information from observations other than measurements.
Qualitative data includes any observations made with the senses of
hearing or seeing such as a popping sound or a color change.

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Data Analysis / Interpretation

Interpreting data and analyzing observations are important. If data are not
organized in a logical manner, incorrect conclusions can be drawn. Also, other
scientists may not be able to follow or reproduce the results. By placing data into
charts and graphs, the scientist may see patterns or lack thereof. The scientist
will also be able to understand if the experiment truly tested the hypothesis.
Induction is drawing conclusions based on facts or observations. Deduction is
drawing conclusions based on generalizations.

Conclusion
Finally, a scientist must draw conclusions from the experiment. A conclusion
must address the hypothesis on which the experiment was based. The
conclusion states in writing whether or not the data supports the hypothesis. If it
does not, the conclusion should state what the experiment did show. If the
hypothesis is not supported, the scientist uses the observations from the
experiment to make a new or revised hypothesis. Then, new experiments are
planned.

Effective written communication is necessary to present the research to a

teacher or to a scientific journal. Effective oral communication is needed to
present the research to a group whether that group is a class or other scientists.
Students must recognize that, in this age of communication, those who cannot
communicate effectively will be left behind. Accordingly, the evaluation system of
the use of the scientific method should make provision for communication skills
and activities.

Defending results
Defending results is as important as conducting an experiment. One can
honestly defend one’s own results only if the results are reliable, and
experiments must be well-controlled and repeated at least twice to be
considered reliable. It must be emphasized to the students that honesty
and integrity are the foundation for any type of investigation.

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Steps of a Scientific Method

Data Develop
supports conclusion
hypothesis

Design and
Observations Formulate conduct
that lead to a a Collect and
experiment analyze
question hypothesis to test data
hypothesis

Data does
not support
hypothesis

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The Development of a Scientific Theory using the Scientific Method

When a hypothesis survives many experimental tests to determine its
validity, the hypothesis may evolve into a theory. A theory explains a body
of facts and laws that are based on the facts. A theory also reliably
predicts the outcome of related events in nature. For example, the law of
conservation of matter and many other experimental observations led to a
theory proposed early in the 19th century. This theory explained the
conservation law by proposing that all matter is made up of atoms which
are never created or destroyed in chemical reactions, only rearranged.
This atomic theory also successfully predicted the behavior of matter in
chemical reactions that had not been studied at the time. As a result, the
atomic theory has stood for 200 years with only small modifications.

A theory also serves as a scientific model. A model can be a physical

model made of wood or plastic, a computer program that simulates events
in nature, or simply a mental picture of an idea. A model illustrates a
theory and explains nature. In your chemistry course, you will develop a
mental (and maybe a physical) model of the atom and its behavior.
Outside of science, the word theory is often used to describe someone’s
unproven notion about something. In science, theory means much more. It
is a thoroughly tested explanation of things and events observed in nature.

A theory can never be proven true, but it can be proven untrue. All that is
required to prove a theory untrue is to show one exception to the theory.

Skill 1.3 Recognizing the need for control groups in experiments

Experimental controls prevent factors other than those under study from
impacting the outcome of the experiment. A test sample in a controlled
experiment is the unknown that is compared against one or more control
samples. Control samples should be selected to be as identical to the test
sample as possible in every way other than the one variable being tested.

A negative control is a control sample that is known to lack the effect. A

positive control is known to contain the effect. Positive controls of varying
strengths or concentrations are often used to generate a calibration curve (also
called a standard curve).

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For example, a scientist may wish to measure the level of arsenic in drinking
water in a former mining area. A negative control would consist of water similar to
that being tested that does not contain arsenic. This insures that there has been
no cross-contamination during the experiment, and that the instruments are
recording properly. Positive controls are also prepared consisting of water
samples with increasing known concentrations of arsenic. The curve of
concentration responses obtained is called a calibration curve, and is compared
to past curves to ensure that the instrument is recording accurate and precise
measurements across a wide concentration range.

When determining the concentration of a component in a mixture, an internal

standard is a known concentration of a different substance that is added to the
experimental sample. An external standard is a known concentration of the
substance of interest. External standards are more commonly used. They are
not added to the experimental sample; they are analyzed separately. These
standards are frequently used to evaluate potential bias in the results, which may
be caused by poor instrument calibration, interference from other compounds, or
loss of the substance during sample pre-processing.

Skill 1.4 Understanding procedures for collecting and interpreting data

to minimize bias

Experimental bias occurs when a researcher favors one particular outcome

over another in an experimental setup. In order to avoid bias, it is imperative to
set up each experiment under exactly the same conditions, including a control
experiment, an experiment with a known negative outcome. Additionally, in
order to avoid experimental bias, a researcher must not “read” particular results
into data.
An example of experimental bias can be seen in the example of the mouse in the
maze experiment. In this example, a researcher is timing mice as they move
through the maze towards a piece of cheese. The experiment relies on the
mouse’s ability to smell the cheese as it approaches. If one mouse chases a
piece of cheddar cheese, while another chases Limburger, or so called “stinky”
cheese, clearly the Limburger mouse has a huge advantage over the mouse
chasing cheddar. To remove the experimental bias from this experiment, the
same cheese should be used in both tests.

Skill 1.5 Recognizing independent and dependent variables and

analyzing the role of each in experimental design

See Skill 1.2.

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Skill 1.6 Identifying the most appropriate method (e.g., graph, table,
formula) for presenting data for a given purpose

Scientific data are initially organized into tables, spreadsheets, or databases.

However, trends or patterns in data can be difficult to identify using tables of
numbers. For example, the table below presents carbon dioxide concentrations
taken over many years from the Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii.

Atmospheric CO2 concentrations at Mauna Loa

Year Jan. Feb. March April May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. Annual
1958 -99.99 -99.99 315.71 317.45 317.5 -99.99 315.86 314.93 313.19 -99.99 313.34 314.67 -99.99
1959 315.58 316.47 316.65 317.71 318.29 318.16 316.55 314.8 313.84 313.34 314.81 315.59 315.98
1960 316.43 316.97 317.58 319.03 320.03 319.59 318.18 315.91 314.16 313.83 315 316.19 316.91
1961 316.89 317.7 318.54 319.48 320.58 319.78 318.58 316.79 314.99 315.31 316.1 317.01 317.65
1962 317.94 318.56 319.69 320.58 321.01 320.61 319.61 317.4 316.26 315.42 316.69 317.69 318.45
1963 318.74 319.08 319.86 321.39 322.24 321.47 319.74 317.77 316.21 315.99 317.07 318.36 318.99
1964 319.57 -99.99 -99.99 -99.99 322.23 321.89 320.44 318.7 316.7 316.87 317.68 318.71 -99.99
1965 319.44 320.44 320.89 322.13 322.16 321.87 321.21 318.87 317.81 317.3 318.87 319.42 320.03
1966 320.62 321.59 322.39 323.7 324.07 323.75 322.4 320.37 318.64 318.1 319.79 321.03 321.37
1967 322.33 322.5 323.04 324.42 325 324.09 322.55 320.92 319.26 319.39 320.72 321.96 322.18
1968 322.57 323.15 323.89 325.02 325.57 325.36 324.14 322.11 320.33 320.25 321.32 322.9 323.05
1969 324 324.42 325.64 326.66 327.38 326.7 325.89 323.67 322.38 321.78 322.85 324.12 324.62
1970 325.06 325.98 326.93 328.13 328.07 327.66 326.35 324.69 323.1 323.07 324.01 325.13 325.68
1971 326.17 326.68 327.18 327.78 328.92 328.57 327.37 325.43 323.36 323.56 324.8 326.01 326.32
1972 326.77 327.63 327.75 329.72 330.07 329.09 328.05 326.32 324.84 325.2 326.5 327.55 327.46
1973 328.54 329.56 330.3 331.5 332.48 332.07 330.87 329.31 327.51 327.18 328.16 328.64 329.68
1974 329.35 330.71 331.48 332.65 333.09 332.25 331.18 329.4 327.44 327.37 328.46 329.58 330.25
1975 330.4 331.41 332.04 333.31 333.96 333.59 331.91 330.06 328.56 328.34 329.49 330.76 331.15
1976 331.74 332.56 333.5 334.58 334.87 334.34 333.05 330.94 329.3 328.94 330.31 331.68 332.15
1977 332.92 333.42 334.7 336.07 336.74 336.27 334.93 332.75 331.58 331.16 332.4 333.85 333.9
1978 334.97 335.39 336.64 337.76 338.01 337.89 336.54 334.68 332.76 332.54 333.92 334.95 335.5
1979 336.23 336.76 337.96 338.89 339.47 339.29 337.73 336.09 333.91 333.86 335.29 336.73 336.85
1980 338.01 338.36 340.08 340.77 341.46 341.17 339.56 337.6 335.88 336.01 337.1 338.21 338.69
1981 339.23 340.47 341.38 342.51 342.91 342.25 340.49 338.43 336.69 336.85 338.36 339.61 339.93
1982 340.75 341.61 342.7 343.56 344.13 343.35 342.06 339.82 337.97 337.86 339.26 340.49 341.13
1983 341.37 342.52 343.1 344.94 345.75 345.32 343.99 342.39 339.86 339.99 341.16 342.99 342.78
1984 343.7 344.51 345.28 347.08 347.43 346.79 345.4 343.28 341.07 341.35 342.98 344.22 344.42
1985 344.97 346 347.43 348.35 348.93 348.25 346.56 344.69 343.09 342.8 344.24 345.56 345.9
1986 346.29 346.96 347.86 349.55 350.21 349.54 347.94 345.91 344.86 344.17 345.66 346.9 347.15
1987 348.02 348.47 349.42 350.99 351.84 351.25 349.52 348.1 346.44 346.36 347.81 348.96 348.93
1988 350.43 351.72 352.22 353.59 354.22 353.79 352.39 350.44 348.72 348.88 350.07 351.34 351.48
1989 352.76 353.07 353.68 355.42 355.67 355.13 353.9 351.67 349.8 349.99 351.3 352.53 352.91

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1990 353.66 354.7 355.39 356.2 357.16 356.22 354.82 352.91 350.96 351.18 352.83 354.21 354.19
1991 354.72 355.75 357.16 358.6 359.34 358.24 356.17 354.03 352.16 352.21 353.75 354.99 355.59
1992 355.98 356.72 357.81 359.15 359.66 359.25 357.03 355 353.01 353.31 354.16 355.4 356.37
1993 356.7 357.16 358.38 359.46 360.28 359.6 357.57 355.52 353.7 353.98 355.33 356.8 357.04
1994 358.36 358.91 359.97 361.26 361.68 360.95 359.55 357.49 355.84 355.99 357.58 359.04 358.88
1995 359.96 361 361.64 363.45 363.79 363.26 361.9 359.46 358.06 357.75 359.56 360.7 360.88
1996 362.05 363.25 364.03 364.72 365.41 364.97 363.65 361.49 359.46 359.6 360.76 362.33 362.64
1997 363.18 364 364.57 366.35 366.79 365.62 364.47 362.51 360.19 360.77 362.43 364.28 363.76
1998 365.32 366.15 367.31 368.61 369.3 368.87 367.64 365.77 363.9 364.23 365.46 366.97 366.63
1999 368.15 368.86 369.58 371.12 370.97 370.33 369.25 366.91 364.6 365.09 366.63 367.96 368.29
2000 369.08 369.4 370.45 371.59 371.75 371.62 370.04 368.04 366.54 366.63 368.2 369.43 369.4
2001 370.17 371.39 372 372.75 373.88 373.17 371.48 369.42 367.83 367.96 369.55 371.1 370.89
2002 372.29 372.94 373.38 374.71 375.4 375.26 373.87 371.35 370.57 370.1 371.93 373.63 372.95

(Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center (CDIAC))

However, more often than not, the data are then compiled into graphs or charts.
Graphs help scientists visualize and interpret the variations and patterns in data.
Depending on the nature of the data, there are many types of graphs that may be
useful. Bar graphs, pie charts and line graphs are just a few methods used to
pictorially represent numerical data.

Atmospheric CO2 measured at Mauna Loa. This is a famous graph called the
Keeling Curve (courtesy NASA)

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In the graph above, the x-axis represents time in units of years and the y-axis
represents CO2 concentration in units of parts per million (ppm). The best fit line
(solid dark line) shows the trend in CO2 concentrations during the time period.
The steady upward-sloping line indicates a trend of increasing CO2
concentrations during the time period of 1958 to 2002. However, the light blue
line which indicates monthly mean CO2 levels shows a periodic variation in CO2
concentrations during each year. This periodic variation is accounted seasonal
effects. In the spring and summer, deciduous trees and plants undergo
increased photosynthesis and remove more CO2 from the atmosphere in the
Northern Hemisphere than in the fall and winter when they have no leaves.
There are seven basic types
of graphs and charts.
Column Graphs
Column graphs, consist of
patterned rectangles
displayed along a baseline
called the x-category or the
horizontal axis. The height
of the rectangle represents
the amount of the variable
shown on the y-axis.
Column graphs best show:
• changes in data over time
(short time series)
• comparisons of several items (relationship between two series)
Bar Graphs
Bar graphs are column graphs in which the rectangles are arranged horizontally.
The length of each rectangle represents its value. Bar graphs are sometimes
referred to as histograms. Bar graphs best show data series with no natural
order.
Bar graphs are good for
looking at differences among
similar things. If the data are
a time series, a carefully
chosen column graph is
generally more appropriate
but bar graphs can be used to
vary a presentation when
many column graphs of time
series are used. One
advantage of bar graphs is
that there is greater horizontal
space for variable descriptors
because the vertical axis is the
category axis.
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Line Graphs
Line graphs show data points connected by
lines; different series are given different line
markings (for example, dashed or dotted) or
different tick marks. Line graphs are useful
when the data points are more important
than the transitions between them. They are
best for showing the comparison of long
series of data points. a general trend in the
data, or changes over time.

Pie Charts
A pie chart is a circle with radii connecting the
center to the edge. The area between two radii is
called a slice. Data values are proportionate to
the angle between the radii.

Pie charts best show parts of a whole. Be careful

not to include too many slices since that results
in a cluttered graph. Six slices are usually as
many as can be handled on one pie.

Area Charts
Area charts show the relative contributions over
time that each data series makes to a whole picture and are “stacked line
graphs” in the sense that the variables are added together (e.g., principal +
interest = total payment). Unlike line graphs, the space between lines is filled with
shadings to emphasize variation among the variables over time.

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Scatter Graphs
A scatter plot is the simplest
type of graph. It simply plots
the data points against their
values, without adding any
connecting lines, bars or
other features. The first
variable is measured along
the x-axis and the second
along the y-axis. Because of
this, scatter graphs do not
have descriptors in the
same sense as other
graphs.

Scatter graphs best show possible relationships between two variables. The
purpose of the graph is to try to decide if some partial or indirect relationship—a
correlation—exists.

Skill 1.7 Applying mathematics to investigations in chemistry and the

analysis of data

To more easily manage large amounts of data, statistical measures are

employed to characterize trends in the data. In many systems, the data fits a
normal distribution, which has a concentration of data points in the center and
two equally sized tails (the ends of the distributions). This type of distribution
looks like this:

A distribution is considered skewed if one tail is larger than the other. To further
characterize these distributions, a variety of statistical measures are used. The
following are the most commonly used statistical measures:

Arithmetic Mean: The arithmetic mean is the same as the arithmetic mean or
average of a distribution – the sum of all the data points divided by the number
of data points. The arithmetic mean is a good measure of the central tendency of
roughly normal distributions, but may be misleading in skewed distributions. In
cases of skewed distributions, other statistics such as the median or geometric
mean may be more informative.

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Median: The median is the middle of a distribution: half the scores are above the
median and half are below it. Unlike the mean, the median is not highly sensitive
to extreme data points. This makes the median a better measure than the mean
for finding the central tendency of highly skewed distributions. The median is
determined by organizing the data points from lowest to highest. When there is
an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle number. For
example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of
numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median
of the numbers 2, 4, 7, 12 is (4+7)/2 = 5.5.

Mode: The mode is the most frequently occurring data point in a distribution
and is used as a measure of central tendency. The advantage of the mode as a
measure of central tendency is that its meaning is obvious. However, the mode
is greatly subject to sample fluctuations and so is not recommended for use as
the only measure of central tendency. Additionally, many distributions have more
than one mode. Note also that in the case of a perfectly normal distribution, the
mean, median, and mode are identical.

Percentile: Percentiles are similar to a median, but may represent any point in
the data set. For example, the 90th percentile represents that point at which 90%
of the data points are below that value and 10% of the data points are above that
value. Quartiles, representing the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles of a data set, are
often used to describe a distribution.

Variance: The variance is used to give a measure of the variability in a

distribution. It is computed as the average squared deviation of each number
from its mean. For example, for the numbers 1, 2, and 3, the mean is 2 and the
variance (σ2) is:

σ2= [(1-2)2+(2-2)2+(3-2)2]/3=0.667

Standard deviation: Like variance, standard deviation is a measure of the

spread of the distribution, but it is the more commonly used statistic. The
standard deviation is simply the square root of the variance.

Note that the standard deviation can be used to compute the percentile rank
associated with a given data point (if the mean and standard deviation of a
normal distribution are known). In such a normal distribution, about 68% of the
data points are within one standard deviation of the mean and about 95% of the
data points are within two standard deviations of the mean.

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Skill 1.8 Interpreting results presented in different formats

The interpretation of data and the construction and interpretation of graphs are
central practices in science. Graphs are effective visual tools which relay
information quickly and reveal trends easily. While there are several different
types of graphical displays, extracting information from them can be described in
three basic steps.

1. Describe the graph: What does the title say? What is displayed on the x-axis
and y-axis, including the units.

• Determine the set-up of the graph.

• Make sure the units used are understood.
For example, g·cm3 means g/cm3
• Notice symbols used and check for legend or explanation.
2. Describe the data: Identify the range of data. Are patterns reflected in the
data?
3. Interpret the data: How do patterns seen in the graph relate to other
variables? What conclusions can be drawn from the patterns?
Skill 1.9 Evaluating the validity of conclusions

A scientific conclusion may either be made on an inductive basis through appeal

to evidence or on a deductive basis through appeal to general laws and
principles. Since science deals with the physical world in large part through
empirical observation and measurement, general principles can only be derived
inductively. Consequently, scientific laws and principles must always be treated
as at least somewhat tentative. The validity of induced principles or laws,
therefore, is a crucial foundation for the validity of any conclusion that is based
upon them. So long as the general concepts are acceptable, then any valid
conclusion that is deduced from them must, likewise, be acceptable. If the
general principles upon which the conclusion is based come under scrutiny, then,
logically, the conclusion must likewise be questioned, if not rejected.

The validity of conclusions based on induction is less clear than those based on
deduction. Since no investigation can test every possible application of a theory
or hypothesis, the conclusions made based upon that theory or hypothesis must
be evaluated in a tentative or probabilistic sense. Conclusions based on a theory
that has withstood a long period of empirical scrutiny with unmitigated success
may be judged to be more valid than those based on a theory with fewer
scientific credentials. Thus, the validity of a conclusion must be judged based on
logic and the relative weight of the evidence that supports it.

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Skill 1.10 Assessing the reliability of sources of information

There are many possible source of information about science. Their reliability
and relevance are varied and each one may be particularly suited to a given
circumstance.

Popular articles and books

When investigating an unfamiliar science-related topic, articles in popular science

magazines, such as Science, Popular Science and even National Geographic,
can be a helpful starting point. Such magazines often provide articles on
scientific discoveries and ideas that cover the topic at an introductory level that is
accessible to most readers. In addition to presenting some of the basic (and,
sometimes, more advanced) concepts, these articles almost invariably also use
at least some vocabulary associated with the topic. Many popular books also
serve the same purpose as their counterparts in periodical literature, but provide
a more thorough presentation of the topic. Although such popular articles and
books may provide a good starting point when learning about some subject, they
seldom offer a solid foundational or mathematical understanding. As a result,
other sources must be consulted for more in-depth knowledge.

Textbooks

Student-oriented textbooks are a good resource for acquiring a more

fundamental overview of a topic related to science. Textbooks regularly define
critical terms and vocabulary, and very often include a bibliography that can be
used as a starting point for more in-depth reading or research. Although
textbooks often provide a reasonable theoretical foundation for understanding a
particular subject, the discussion of relevant examples, current issues, and other
specific information is often highly limited for the sake of brevity. Additionally,
even classic textbooks that adequately cover certain topics may be out of date
with respect to recent advances and controversies. As a result, textbooks are not
an ideal source of information for highly specific or novel research. Some books
that cover more specific topics are available and may be better resources than
textbooks, however.

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Peer-reviewed literature

The most up-to-date and informative literature dealing with specific issues and
controversies in science is found in the peer-reviewed publications. These
publications report new discoveries and findings and provide the most
unadulterated view of the current status of a particular field of science. Due to the
high-level technical nature of these publications, however, they are often
inaccessible to readers not already familiar with at least the basics of the field.
Also, knowledge of most of the technical vocabulary is assumed in journal
articles. Nevertheless, with appropriate research, most papers can be unraveled
and information can be gleaned from their pages. Furthermore, many of these
technical articles have extensive bibliographies that can be used to do further
background or related research.

Strategies for acquiring information

How one goes about studying or learning about a specific science-related topic
or field depends largely on the specificity and technical level of the desired
understanding, as well as on the background of the investigator. Someone new
to a particular field may need to start at the level of a popular article or book and
then build up, by way of textbooks and other middle-level resources, to peer-
reviewed literature. Those with a solid background in a field who are seeking to
do original research on a specific topic may find it sufficient to go directly to the
peer-reviewed literature. The best strategy for learning about a science-related
topic must take into account these and other considerations.

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COMPETENCY 2.0 APPLY KNOWLEDGE OF METHODS AND EQUIPMENT

USED IN SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS

Skill 2.1 Selecting and using appropriate data collection and

measurement devices and methods

A lab notebook is used as the record of lab work and data collection as it
occurs. Researchers often use lab notebooks to document hypotheses and
data analysis. A good lab notebook should allow another scientist to follow the
same steps. Electronic lab notebooks are growing in popularity.
Quantitative data involves a number, and qualitative data does not. Qualitative
data may be a description such as a slight/moderate/intense color change or a
weak/strong/explosive reaction or it may simply be the absence/presence of an
event.

Simple quantitative data

Many standard lab activities use simple measuring devices such as a

thermometer, a clock (or wristwatch, chronometer or stopwatch), a ruler (or
micrometer or tape measure), or an electrical meter (e.g. voltmeter, ammeter).
Humidity is measured with a hygrometer.

The pressure in a vessel is measured with a pressure

gauge or a manometer (shown at left). The unknown
pressure Punknown is applied to one side of a U-shaped tube
and a known reference pressure is applied to the other.
Pknown may be another vessel or the atmospheric
pressure that is determined with a barometer. The
difference in liquid levels h may be converted to a
pressure (e.g., 760 mm mercury=1 atm). If the liquid
level is higher on the Pknown side, ∆h is added to Pknown to obtain Punknown. If the
liquid level is higher on the Punknown side as in the example shown, ∆h is
subtracted from Pknown to obtain Punknown.

Volumetric data is often found by determining the level of liquid in a

graduated cylinder (shown at right) or a buret. Volumetric flasks
(shown on the left) are designed to hold a defined volume. A mark on
the neck indicates when that volume has been reached. Volumetric
containers are usually labeled with TC or TD. TC is an abbreviation for
"To Contain." These are containers for measuring an unknown
volume or creating a stock solution. TD means
"To Deliver." These are used for pouring a known
volume into another vessel. To read a volume
level, position your eye at the level of the
meniscus. The meniscus is the liquid/air interface. Read the volume level at
the bottom of the meniscus as shown by the arrow.
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A graduated pipet (or pipette) is used to transfer small quantities of liquid. A

pipet bulb is a rubber ball that is squeezed and released to generate the suction
for drawing liquid into a pipet. A micropipet is used for microliters of liquid.

An automatic pipet uses a button press to fill and discharge a defined volume of
liquid. Pipets are always calibrated "to deliver."

A eudiometer tube contains volumetric graduations and is used

to measure the volume of gases. The tube is
filled with liquid (usually water) and is inverted in a
container of the liquid (as shown at left). Gas is
bubbled into the eudiometer and the volume is
read. The tube sometimes contains a sparking
device to create a reaction in the gases inside.

If the eudiometer is raised or lowered until the

level of liquid inside and outside the tube are
the same (as shown at right) then the total
pressure inside the eudiometer is identical to
atmospheric pressure as found with a barometer. Vapor pressure of the liquid
may be found from its temperature. Using Dalton's Law of partial pressures, this
vapor pressure is subtracted from the barometric pressure to determine the
partial pressure of the gas.
P = Ptotal − Pvapor

If the temperature of the gas is found, it may be used along with P and V in the
ideal gas law to determine the number of moles of the gas in the eudiometer.
PV
n=
RT

If the mass, m, of the gas is known then M, its molecular weight, may be
found.
m
M=
n

Mass is measured with a balance. The terms "mass" and "weight" are often
used interchangeably in the lab. A container is placed on the weighing pan, and
either its mass is recorded (this is called a tare weight) or a button is pressed to
reset the balance to zero. The material is then added to the container and its
weight is recorded. Tare weight must be subtracted from this gross weight to
obtain the net weight of the substance. When creating a stock solution of
known concentration, do not try to measure out an exact mass. Obtain a
mass near the amount desired and measure out the appropriate volume of liquid.

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Radioactivity is measured using a Geiger counter or a scintillation counter.

A dosimeter is any device to measure a person's exposure to a hazardous
substance, but it usually refers to radioactive exposure.

Heat measurements involved in thermochemistry are made using a

thermometer in a thermally insulated device called a calorimeter. Food calories
are determined by a bomb calorimeter.

Concentration, molecular weight, separation and identification

A pH meter or the color of a pH indicator is used to measure hydrogen ion

concentration.

A photometer is any instrument that measures the intensity of light. A

spectrometer is any instrument that separates light or mass into its component
parts by a scattering process.

An unknown concentration of a solute in a liquid solution is typically determined

using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer to measure the amount of light that
passes through the solution. Concentrated solutions have a higher absorption of
light, so less light passes through the liquid. Different solutes absorb light at
different wavelengths. This phenomenon is visible to the naked eye in the case
of dilute and concentrated solutions of different food colorings or inks. The
solution is placed in a clear square container called a cuvette (or cuvet), and the
cuvette is placed in the instrument. Solutions of known concentrations are
prepared first and used as standards to generate a calibration curve of light
absorption as a function of concentration. The absorption of the unknown is
found from the instrument, and its concentration is determined from the
calibration curve. Colorimeters use color filters to separate visible light into broad
components. Spectrophotometers make more detailed measurements at defined
wavelengths of light. Most spectrophotometers are called UV/Vis because they
measure absorption at ultra-violet and visible wavelengths. Other types are NIR
for "near infrared" and IR for infrared.

An unknown concentration of a metal element in a sample may be found in an

atomic absorption spectrometer. The sample is broken up into free atoms in a
very hot flame, and light is passed through the flame to measure absorbance.

The molecular weights of atoms or molecules in a mixture are determined

with a mass spectrometer. The sample is vaporized, this gas is ionized, and
these ions are deflected towards a magnet that separates them according to their
mass. There are many specialized applications of mass spectrometry, so there
are dozens of variations to the process. Mass spectrometry is used to determine
the ratio of 2H/1H in water, 14C dating, and to characterize polymers and
biological molecules with molecular weights of over a million.

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Chromatography is a method for separating mixtures by passing the sample

through a stationary material. The instrument is called a chromatograph.
Different components of the mixture travel at different rates. After the separation,
the time that component took to emerge from the instrument (or its location within
the stationary phase) is found with a detector. The result is a chromatogram
like the one shown below. The identity of an unknown peak is found by
comparing its location on the chromatogram to standards. The concentration of
a component is found from signal strength or peak area by comparison to
calibration curves of known concentrations.

250

200

150

100

50

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (sec)

In paper chromatography and thin layer chromatography (TLC), the sample

rises up by capillary action through a solid phase.

In gas chromatography (GC), the sample is vaporized and forced through a

column filled with a packing material. GC is often used to separate and determine
the concentration of low molecular weight volatile organic compounds.

In liquid chromatography (LC), the sample is a liquid. It is either allowed to

seep through an open column using the force of gravity or it is forced through a
closed column under pressure. The variations of liquid chromatography depend
on the identity of the packing material. For example, an ion-exchange liquid
chromatograph contains a material with a charged surface. The mixture
components with the opposite charge interact with this packing material and
spend more time in the column. LC is often used to separate large organic
polymers like proteins.

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Skill 2.2 Identifying uncertainties in measurement

A large proportion of errors in research and engineering as well as in the

classroom are due to treating units as if they were not part of the number. In all
scientific disciplines, it is essential that a unit be associated with every value in
every calculation unless the value is a dimensionless quantity. On September
23, 1999, NASA's $125 million Mars Climate Orbiter was lost because of a data
transfer where units were not included as part of the number. Most students first
learn the importance of associating numbers with units in their high school
chemistry class.

SI units

SI is an abbreviation of the French Système International d'Unités or the

International System of Units. It is the most widely used system of units in the
world and is the system used in science.

The use of many SI units in the United States is increasing outside of science
and technology. There are two types of SI units: base units and derived units.
The base units are:

Quantity Unit name Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Amount of substance mole mol
Time second s
Temperature kelvin K
Electric current ampere A
Luminous intensity candela cd

Amperes and candelas are rarely used in chemistry. The name "kilogram"
occurs for the SI base unit of mass for historical reasons. Derived units are
formed from the kilogram, but appropriate decimal prefixes are attached to the
word "gram."

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Derived units measure a quantity that may be expressed in terms of other

units. The derived units important for chemistry are:

Expression in
Derived quantity Unit name Symbol
terms of other units
Area square meter m2
cubic meter m3
Volume
liter dm3 = 10–3 m3 L or l
Mass unified atomic mass unit (6.022X1023)–1 g u or Da
minute 60 s min
Time hour 60 min = 3600 s h
day 24 h = 86400 s d
Speed meter per second m/s
Acceleration meter per second squared m/s2
Temperature* degree Celsius K °C
Mass density gram per liter g/L = 1 kg/m3
Amount-of-substance
molar mol/L M
concentration (molarity†)
Molality‡ molal mol/kg m
Chemical reaction rate molar per second† M/s = mol/(L•s)
Force newton m•kg/s2 N
pascal N/m2 = kg/(m•s2) Pa
Pressure
standard atmosphere§ 101325 Pa atm
joule N•m = m3•Pa = m2•kg/s2 J
Energy, Work, Heat
nutritional calorie§ 4184 J Cal
Heat (molar) joule per mole J/mol
Heat capacity, entropy joule per kelvin J/K
Heat capacity (molar),
joule per mole kelvin J/(mol•K)
entropy (molar)
Specific heat joule per kilogram kelvin J/(kg•K)
Power watt J/s W
Electric charge coulomb s•A C
Electric potential,
volt W/A V
electromotive force
Viscosity pascal second Pa•s
Surface tension newton per meter N/m

*Temperature differences in kelvin are the same as those differences in degrees

Celsius. To obtain degrees Celsius from Kelvin, subtract 273.15.
†
Molarity is considered to be an obsolete unit by some physicists.
‡
Molality, m, is often considered obsolete. Differentiate m and meters (m) by
context.
§
These are commonly used non-SI units.

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Decimal multiples of SI units are formed by attaching a prefix directly before the
unit and a symbol prefix directly before the unit symbol. SI prefixes range from
10–24 to 1024. Only the prefixes you are likely to encounter in chemistry are
shown below:

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

109 giga— G 10–1 deci— d
106 mega— M 10–2 centi— c
103 kilo— k 10–3 milli— m
102 hecto— h 10–6 micro— µ
1 –9
10 deca— da 10 nano— n
10–12 pico— p

Example: 0.0000004355 meters is 4.355 x 10-7 m or 435.5 x 10–9 m. This length

is also 435.5 nm or 435.5 nanometers.

Example: Find a unit to express the volume of a cubic crystal that is 0.2 mm on
each side so that the number before the unit is between 1 and 1000.

Solution: Volume is length x width x height, so this volume is (0.0002 m)3 or 8 x

10–12 m3. Conversions of volumes and areas using powers of units of
length must take the power into account. Therefore:
1 m3 = 103 dm3 = 10 6 cm3 = 109 mm3 = 1018 µm3 ,
The length 0.0002 m is 2 x 102 µm, so the volume is also 8 x 106 µm3.
This volume could also be expressed as 8 x 10–3 mm3, but none of
these numbers is between 1 and 1000.

Expressing volume in liters is helpful in cases like these. There is no

power on the unit of liters, therefore:
1 L = 103 mL = 10 6 µL=109 nL .
Converting cubic meters to liters gives
103 L
8 × 10 −12 m3 × = 8 × 10 −9 L .
1 m3
The crystal's volume is 8 nanoliters (8 nL).

Example: Determine the ideal gas constant, R, in L•atm/(mol•K) from its SI value
of 8.3144 J/(mol•K).

Solution: One joule is equal to one m3•Pa (see the table of SI units).
m3 • Pa 1000 L 1 atm L • atm
8.3144 × × = 0.082057
mol • K 1m 3
101325 Pa mol • K

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Significant figures
Significant figures or significant digits are the digits indicating the precision
of a measurement. There is uncertainty only in the last digit.

Example: You measure an object with a ruler marked in millimeters. The reading
on the ruler is found to be about 2/3 of the way between 12 and 13 mm. What
value should be recorded for its length?
Solution: Recording 13 mm does not give all the information that you found.
2
Recording 12 mm implies that an exact ratio was determined.
3
Recording 12.666 mm gives more information than you found. A value
of 12.7 mm or 12.6 mm should be recorded because there is
uncertainty only in the last digit.
There are five rules for determining the number of significant digits in a
quantity.

1) All nonzero digits are significant and all zeros between nonzero digits are
significant.

Example: 4.521 kJ and 7002 u both have four significant digits.

2) Zeros to the left of the first nonzero digit are not significant.

Example: 0.0002 m contains one significant digit.

3) Zeros to the right of a non-zero digit and the decimal point are significant
figures.

Example: 32.500 g contains five significant digits.

4) The significance of numbers ending in zeros that are not to the right of the
decimal point can be unclear, so this situation should be avoided by
using scientific notation or a different decimal prefix. Sometimes a
decimal point is used as a placeholder to indicate the units-digit is
significant. A word like "thousand" or "million" may be used in informal
contexts to indicate the remaining digits are not significant.

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Example: 12000 Pa would be considered to have five significant digits by

many scientists, but in the sentence, "The pressure rose from 11000 Pa to
12000 Pa," it almost certainly only has only two. "12 thousand Pa" only has
two significant digits, but 12000. Pa has five, indicated by the decimal point.
The value should be represented as 1.2 x 104 Pa (or 1.2000 x 104 Pa). The
best alternative would be to use 12 kPa or 12.000 kPa.

5) Exact numbers have no uncertainty and contain an infinite number of

significant digits. These relationships are definitions. They are not
measurements.

Example: There are exactly 1000 L in one cubic meter.

There are four rules for rounding off significant digits:.

1) If the leftmost digit to be removed is a four or less, then round down. The
last remaining digit stays as it was.
Example: Round 43.4 g to two significant digits. Answer: 43 g.

2) If the leftmost digit to be removed is a six or more, then round up. The last
remaining digit increases by one.
Example: Round 6.772 g to two significant digits. Answer: 6.8 g.

3) If the leftmost digit to be removed is a five that is followed by nonzero

digits, then round up. The last remaining digit increases by one.
Example: Round 18.502 g to two significant digits. Answer 19 g.

4) If the leftmost digit to be removed is a five followed by nothing or by only

zeros, then force the last remaining digit to be even. If it is odd then round
up by increasing it by one. If it is even (including zero) then it stays as it
was. Examples: Round 18.50 g and 19.5 g to two significant digits.
Answers: 18.50 g rounds to 18 g and 19.5 g rounds to 20 g.

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There are three rules for calculating with significant figures.

1) For multiplication or division, the result has the same number of significant
digits as the term with the least number of significant digits.
Example: What is the volume of a compartment in the shape of a
rectangular prism 1.2 cm long, 2.4 cm high and 0.9 cm deep?

Solution: Volume = length x height x width.

Volume = 1.2 cm × 2.4 cm × 0.9 cm = 2.592 cm (as read on a calculator)

Round to one digit because 0.9 cm has only one significant digit.
Volume = 3 cm3

2) For addition or subtraction, the result has the same number of digits after
the decimal point as the term with the least number of digits after the
decimal point.
Example: Volumes of 250.0 mL, 26 µ L, and 4.73 mL are added to a
flask. What is the total volume in the flask?

Solution: Only identical units may be added to each other, so 26 µ L is

first converted to 0.026 mL.

Volume = 250.0 mL + 0.026 mL + 4.73 mL = 254.756 mL (calculator value)

Round to one digit after the decimal because 250.0 mL has only one digit
after the decimal. Volume = 254.8 mL.

3) For multi-step calculations, maintain all significant digits when using a

calculator or computer and round off the final value to the appropriate
number of significant digits after the calculation. When calculating by
hand or when writing down an intermediate value in a multi-step
calculation, maintain the first non-significant digit. In this text, non-
significant digits in intermediate calculations are shown in italics except in
the examples for the two rules above.

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Precision and Accuracy

A measurement is precise when individual measurements of the same quantity

agree with one another. A measurement is accurate when they agree with
the true value of the quantity being measured. An accurate measurement is
valid. We get the right answer. A precise measurement is reproducible. We
get a similar answer each time. These terms are related to sources of error in a
measurement.

Precise measurements are near the arithmetic mean of the values. The
arithmetic mean is the sum of the measurements divided by the number of
measurements. The mean is commonly called the average. It is the best
estimate of the quantity.

Random error results from limitations in equipment or techniques. Random

error decreases precision. Remember that all measurements reported to
proper number of significant digits contain an imprecise final digit to reflect
random error.

Systematic error results from imperfect equipment or technique. Systematic

error decreases accuracy. Instead of a random error with random fluctuations,
there is a biased result that on average is too large or small.

Skill 2.3 Evaluating the accuracy and precision of a measurement in a

given situation

A measurement is precise when individual measurements of the same quantity

agree with one another. For example, three arrows that land very close to each
other on a target are precise. A measurement is accurate when it agrees with
the true value of the quantity being measured. As an example, an arrow that
lands on or near the bull’s-eye is accurate. An accurate measurement is valid.
We get the right answer. Measurements can be both accurate and precise. A
precise measurement is reproducible. We get a similar answer each time.
These terms are related to sources of error in a measurement. Precise
measurements are near the arithmetic mean of the values.

CHEMISTRY 28
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