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MANAGING the
CHALLENGES
in HumanService
Organizations
MANAGING the
CHALLENGES
in Human Service
Organizations
A CASEBOOK

Published in collaboration with the

Mack Center on Nonprofit Management in the Human Services
University of California, Berkeley, School of Social Welfare

University of California, Berkeley

Cleveland State University

San Diego State University

Copyright © 2009 by SAGE Publications, Inc.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form
or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or
by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing
from the publisher.

For information:

SAGE Publications, Inc. SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd.

2455 Teller Road B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative
Thousand Oaks, California 91320 Industrial Area
E-mail: [email protected] Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044
India

SAGE Publications Ltd. SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific

1 Oliver’s Yard Pte. Ltd.
55 City Road 33 Pekin Street #02-01
London EC1Y 1SP Far East Square
United Kingdom Singapore 048763

Printed in the United States of America

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Austin, Michael J.
Managing the challenges in human service organizations: a casebook/
Michael J. Austin, Ralph Brody, Thomas Packard.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4129-4127-3 (pbk.)
1. Human services—Management. I. Brody, Ralph. II. Packard,
Thomas Roy. III. Title.

HV41.A865 2009
361.0068—dc22 2008011029

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

08 09 10 11 12 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Acquisitions Editor: Kassie Graves

Editorial Assistant: Veronica K. Novak
Production Editor: Kristen Gibson
Typesetter: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Proofreader: Kevin Gleason
Indexer: Monica Smersh
Cover Designer: Candice Harman
Marketing Manager: Carmel Schrire
 Contents

Preface ix
Acknowledgments xiii

1. Introduction 1
Overview 2
The Uses of Case-Based Learning 2
The Value and Benefits of Case-Based Learning 3
Conceptual Frameworks 6
Managerial Roles 6
Competing Values 9
Management Functions 12
Using the Conceptual Frameworks 15
Summary 16
2. Case Assessment and Debriefing 17
Case Debriefing 19
Use and Organization of the Casebook 22
Summary 26
3. Governance, Environment, and Structure 39
Governance 39
Case 3.1 Meddling Trustees 39
Case 3.2 KidsCan 41
Case 3.3 Dorchester House Board of Directors 43
Case 3.4 The Perfect Storm 48
Case 3.5 Poor Leadership Boundaries 50
Environmental Relations 52
Case 3.6 The Cabal 52
Case 3.7 The Cost of a Tuxedo 54
Case 3.8 Choosing a Director 55
Case 3.9 Collapse of the Coalition 57
 Structure 59
Case 3.10 Merging Colossal and
Grassroots Agencies 59
Case 3.11 Poor Interdepartmental Communications
or Competing Service Ideologies? 61
Case 3.12 Whose Interests Are Being Served? 62
Case 3.13 Greenvale Residential Treatment Center 64
Chapter Exercises 68
4. Leadership and Ethics 71
Leadership 71
Case 4.1 Empowering Staff: Real or Imaginary? 71
Case 4.2 Caught in the Middle: Mediating
Differences in Gender and Work Style 73
Case 4.3 To Talk or Not To Talk 75
Case 4.4 Agency Director Uses a Personal
Coach to Address His Leadership Style 77
Case 4.5 Founder’s Syndrome 79
Case 4.6 Executive Leadership 87
Case 4.7 Marian Health Center 92
Case 4.8 Mosaic County Welfare Department 94
Case 4.9 Project Home 97
Ethics 102
Case 4.10 Damage Control 102
Case 4.11 Philosophy Versus Economics 103
Case 4.12 What? Me Worry? 104
Chapter Exercises 105
5. Planning and Program Design 113
Planning 113
Case 5.1 Mallard County Private Industry Council 113
Case 5.2 Be Careful What You Wish For 114
Case 5.3 Decision on Resource Allocation 116
Case 5.4 Rational Versus Political Decision Making 117
Case 5.5 The Achievement Crisis at Girls Works 119
Case 5.6 Cutbacks and Performance Pressure 124
Case 5.7 Hillside Community Center 128
Case 5.8 Empowering Staff to Advocate
for Chicano/Latina Clients 131
Program Design 138
Case 5.9 Banksville Human Services Center 138
Case 5.10 Massive Retrenchment 142
Case 5.11 Productivity and Performance 145
 Case 5.12 Responding to Changing Client
and Community Needs 148
Chapter Exercises 150
6. Financial Management and Information Systems 153
Fund Development 153
Case 6.1 Should We Accept the Gift? 153
Case 6.2 Changing the Ground Rules 155
Budgeting 156
Case 6.3 Showdown 156
Case 6.4 Improving Cash Flow 158
Case 6.5 Desperate for Program Funding 159
Case 6.6 Painful Choices 161
Information Systems 162
Case 6.7 Measuring Performance 162
Case 6.8 Information Services Overload 164
Case 6.9 Evaluating a Strategic Plan
for Children’s Services 166
Chapter Exercises 177
7. Human Resource Management and Supervision 179
Human Resource Management 179
Case 7.1 The Case of the Missing Staff 179
Case 7.2 Client-Centered Administration or
Organization-Centered Administration? 181
Case 7.3 Union Headache 183
Case 7.4 The Influence of Religious Beliefs 185
Case 7.5 Growing Pains 187
Case 7.6 Challenges on the Line 189
Case 7.7 Selecting a Clinical Director
for Friendly House 194
Case 7.8 Fire a Competent CFO? 198
Supervision 199
Case 7.9 SOS in DHS: A Problem of Motivation 199
Case 7.10 Deteriorating Performance of a Supervisee 201
Case 7.11 Helping Supervisors Manage Their Staff 202
Case 7.12 Supervising Five Case Managers 207
Case 7.13 Supervisory Leadership 212
Chapter Exercises 216
8. Organizational Dynamics and Change 219
Case 8.1 Implementing Organizational
Change as a Newcomer 219
 Case 8.2 Diagnosing Managerial Practice in
a Budget Crisis 221
Case 8.3 How Are We Doing? 223
Case 8.4 Jefferson Hospital 235
Case 8.5 Thurston High School 238
Case 8.6 The Leadership Challenges in Transforming
a Public Human Services Agency 242
Chapter Exercises 266

References 271
Index 275
About the Authors 283
 Preface

C ase-based learning is like looking through a one-way mirror to

observe the activities on the other side. It provides you with an
opportunity to observe the actions of others, in order to speculate on
how you might handle the same situations they face. Case-based learn-
ing places value on your own prior experiences and how they might
inform your views of a case situation. In a similar way, if the case repre-
sents a new situation for you, then your learning is enhanced by engag-
ing in a problem-solving process. When cases are assessed in a classroom
situation, you also gain the benefit of others who might bring a different
perspective based on their own experiences and/or critical thinking
skills. In essence, case-based learning is an interesting way to learn about
managing the real-life challenges of human service organizations.
This casebook also supplements the various textbooks in human
service management by bringing theory to life. It can complement both
classroom lectures and field-based internship learning. It provides a tool
for those of you who find learning to be more engaging when you are
applying practice principles or concepts to real-life situations. Case-based
learning builds upon your readiness to learn by providing you with the
opportunity to analyze different organizational situations. The cases are
designed to give you an opportunity to explore creative alternatives, as
well as to engage your initiative in group-based problem solving.
While some of these cases may seem overwhelming to some read-
ers, they all are based on real-life organizational situations. The cases
reflect the realities of organizational life, from the specific details of
single-issue cases, to the complexities of multi-issue cases in which it is
challenging to identify relevant theories or practice principles. These
cases also reflect real life with respect to the limited information avail-
able in a case. This limitation is similar to the reality of incomplete
information in organizational situations that lack a documented
history or specific details related to the problem. However, cases are
different in that you cannot go back and get more information before
planning and acting. In a positive vein, cases are distinct from real life

ix
x MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

in the sense that case analysis provides a safe place to be creative and
take risks with no fear of negative consequences. Finally, while the real
world rarely provides practitioners with opportunities to step back and
reflect, case-based learning does provide these opportunities for you:
to thoughtfully and carefully consider an organizational situation in all
its richness, to consciously apply theory or engage in evidence-informed
practice, and to assess your own learning about human services
management.
Case-based learning also provides you with a way of expanding
your base of experience. By reading, discussing, and analyzing the case
with a debriefing tool, you are adding to your understanding of the
complexities of agency management, as well as testing your analytic
and interactional skills by engaging in shared problem solving with
peers. The debriefing of a case also creates learning opportunities for
you and your peers with regard to refining teamwork skills as you col-
lectively engage in the process of considering and incorporating the
views of others. Team facilitation and leadership are often seen by expe-
rienced administrators as an essential skill set for effective agency man-
agement. In a similar way, you can enhance your advocacy and critical
thinking skills as a result of discussing various approaches to case-
based problem solving. In essence, case-based learning can enhance
some of your core management skills as you work with others to iden-
tify alternatives to complex organizational and interpersonal situations.
Case-based learning has value beyond its use as a classroom exercise,
especially when instructors select only a few of the cases in this book for
use in a course. For example, you could read the entire casebook using a
critical self-assessment perspective. In this situation, you could develop a
list of issues, skills, and questions that represent the most important learn-
ing issues for your current stage of development as a manager. This list
could form the basis of: (1) questions you raise in class, (2) questions you
explore with your fieldwork instructor, and (3) questions you wish to
address through more focused reading related to a term paper. Such a
paper might be included in a management course, but it could also be a
feature of a human behavior and social environment course in which
you could explore theories that might inform the management practices
that you found most challenging. This list could also be used to link man-
agement issues to the art and science of policy implementation when
studying the development and implementation of social policies. For
example, what are the management challenges associated with encourag-
ing staff to implement unfunded state-wide child-welfare mandates
when additional financial resources are not included in the policy imple-
mentation process (often referred to as “doing more with less”)?
 Preface xi

One of the most challenging aspects of using this casebook can

be found in the process of supplementing fieldwork. Given the limited
range of experiences that are possible in such an internship, the broad-
ranging issues in the casebook can serve as valuable discussion topics
within the traditional weekly or biweekly supervisory meetings between
you and your field instructor. The cases may represent situations that
do not exist in your current fieldwork agency but might appear in other
agencies. These discussions can complement the hands-on nature of
more narrowly focused fieldwork assignments. In essence, the breadth
and depth of case-based learning reflected in this casebook can provide
you with fewer surprises as you enter management practice.
The two primary co-editors (Austin and Packard) offer many years
of management experience, ranging from executive positions in not-for-
profit organizations to program evaluation and organization develop-
ment in local government and the deanship of a school of social work.
We both have teaching experience at the graduate and undergraduate
levels. We each keep one of our feet off-campus through active consult-
ing practices that inform our teaching. This helps to keep our teaching
real and credible, as we are able to assess the extent to which our teach-
ing does, in fact, adequately address current organizational life and
the challenges facing practicing administrators. We both receive student
feedback each semester about the relevance of our teaching and about
the call for more case examples. As students ask for examples of the
application of theories and principles, we continuously learn from them
about their perspectives and concerns and how well we are responding.
Life-long learning is a central feature of our careers, and case-based
teaching is an essential part of our teaching-management practice.
Before exploring the cases themselves, we encourage you to review
the first two chapters that are designed to help you maximize your
experiences in working with the cases. Chapter 1 reviews some of the
uses and benefits of case-based learning and presents several concep-
tual frameworks for use in analyzing and responding to cases. Chapter 2
describes the process of case assessment and debriefing, and provides
several debriefing tools. This chapter also includes a discussion of the
casebook’s structure and how the cases were organized into different
categories that also relate to the features of various textbooks on human
service management. This approach should help you and your instruc-
tor make the best use of the various cases.
Case-based learning provides an opportunity for students and
instructors to learn and grow together. This casebook’s development
has been a learning opportunity for us, and we are eager to hear from
those who use these cases in terms of what worked, what did not work,
xii MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

or what should have been included. The future updating of this case-
book will benefit greatly from new cases developed by the students
and faculty who use this casebook. We also hope that instructors will
share with us their approaches to case-based teaching so that these can
be included in future editions.
We encourage you to explore the wide variety of cases for use
as classroom discussion springboards, in-class experiential exercises,
and/or components of mid-term, final, or end-of-program exams. We
hope that the learning experiences will enrich all those who participate
and will help prepare the next generation of human services managers
to successfully anticipate and address the organizational challenges
that they will face in the years to come.
Michael J. Austin, PhD
Thomas Packard, DSW
 Acknowledgments

W e have many people to thank for their contributions to this case-

book. Ralph Brody, prior to his passing, had already acknowl-
edged his deep gratitude for the assistance he received from the following
people: Akia Foster-Churn, Alex Sanchez, Alisa Bridges, Ava Lucky, Bill
Eyman, Cheryl Lydston, Christopher Trunk, Debra Curlee, Dr. Russ
Kaye, Dr. Murali Nair, J. Toth, James Krauskopf, Jane Fumich, Joe Cistone,
Joe Gauntner, Karen Ponting, Kimberly Moss, La’Keisha Dorsey, Lisa
Thomas, Madhura Shaligram, Martie McParland, Maureen Dee, Meghan
Gaines, Michelle Larde, Paul Alandt, Randi Kassan, Ron Hill, Shannon
Ingle, Susan Griffin, Susan Schwarzwald, Ted Fabjan, Tiffany Hunt, Tina
Burnett, Tom Mendelsohn, Janie Bechtel, Donald Lichi, Eugene Norris,
Sherry Gedeon, Chris Buch, Walter Ginn, and Howard Bram. Special
thanks to Jessica Forsberg for typing assistance, Phyllis Brody for editing,
and Dr. Stuart Mendel and his Nonprofit Management class at the
College of Urban Affairs, Cleveland State University.
Tom Packard acknowledges the valuable assistance of Jacquelyn
Sorenson, Kay Traube, Dorothy Melia, and David Thomas for sharing
their agency experiences and helping in the development of cases. He
also has appreciated his Administration students who have enriched
his teaching and learning through their participation in stimulating
case discussions in classes over the last 20 years.
Mike Austin greatly values the contributions of his management
and planning MSW students at the University of California, Berkeley,
School of Social Welfare, for assisting with the development and field-
testing of many of these cases over the past decade—especially
Jennette Claassen and Amy Benton, who helped to organize and assist
with the selection of many of the cases, and Sharon Ikami, who helped
prepare the manuscript for publication.
We also want to acknowledge the substantial assistance we
received from our SAGE editor, Kassie Graves, who brought together
the editors when she discovered that we (Mike Austin and Tom
Packard) were developing our manuscript at the same time that Ralph
xiii
xiv MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

Brody was completing his casebook. We very much appreciate the sup-
port and encouragement of Ralph’s wife, Phyllis Brody, following
Ralph’s untimely passing in February 2006. We feel honored that she
gave us permission to include his excellent work in order to develop a
more comprehensive casebook. We also appreciate the editorial assis-
tance of Kristen Gibson at SAGE.
We are also most grateful to those colleagues who agreed to
include their previously published or unpublished cases in this collec-
tion. They include William Kahn, Maureen Borland, Janelle Cavanagh,
Jonathan Kidde, Wayne Feinstein, Art Blum, Gil Villagran, Dick O’Neil,
Sylvia Pizzini, John Oppenheim, and all of the authors whose copy-
righted work is also included.
As we put this manuscript together, we learned so much from each
other. We both have many years of classroom experience in preparing
graduate social work students for careers in the administration of
human service organizations. By sharing our different classroom expe-
riences, we were able to construct the conceptual framework for this
casebook as well as further refine our approaches to the development
of debriefing frameworks used to help students analyze cases and
develop practice-oriented strategies for dealing with routine and com-
plex situations. We have reflected on our shared learning in articles
being prepared for journal publication, which are identified in the ref-
erence section at the end of the casebook.
We want to expand our collaborative process by inviting faculty
and students to test these cases in the classroom as well as prepare new
cases that we plan to include in future editions of this casebook. We
hope you derive as much pleasure out of these cases as we did in devel-
oping and compiling them. We welcome your feedback.
Michael J. Austin, PhD
Mack Professor of Nonprofit Management
Director, Mack Center on Nonprofit Management
in the Human Services
School of Social Welfare
University of California, Berkeley
Berkeley, California
Thomas Packard, DSW
Associate Professor
School of Social Work
San Diego State University
San Diego, California
February 2008
 1
Introduction
❖ ❖ ❖

U sing teaching cases in professional education programs has gained

increased attention over the past several decades. However, there
are very few current casebooks in human service management and lead-
ership (Fauri, Wernet, & Netting, 2004; Mayers, Souffle, & Schoech,
1994). This shortage may be one reason that cases are not a primary focus
of teaching in human service management. In a recent assessment of
textbooks and casebooks in social work administration, Austin and
Kruzich (2004) conclude that new approaches to case study development
are needed in this field. This book seeks to address this need by compil-
ing a compendium of management and leadership cases covering a wide
range of subjects within a set of conceptual frameworks and debriefing
strategies for case analysis.
While the terms management and leadership can be defined in differ-
ent ways, our definitions (adapted from Kotter, 1990, by Northouse,
2004) feature management as promoting “order and consistency” related
to planning/budgeting, organizing/staffing, and controlling/problem
solving. In contrast, leadership focuses on “change and movement”
related to establishing direction through vision and strategy; aligning
individual and organizational goals; building teams; and motivating,
inspiring, and empowering staff (Northouse, 2004, Chap. 9). Both

1
2 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

management and leadership are essential to effective organizations.

Another approach is to use the term administration to capture both
aspects of management and leadership (Roberts-DeGennaro & Packard,
2002). In essence, both management and leadership issues should
be kept in mind when analyzing the organizational dilemmas in this
casebook.

 OVERVIEW

This chapter begins with a review of some of the ways in which case-
based learning may be used and some of the benefits of case-based
learning. Three conceptual frameworks are used to organize the cases
that describe and provide opportunities to assess the nature of man-
agerial work. The first framework features the managerial roles per-
spective developed by Menefee (2000); the second is the classic competing
values framework developed by Quinn (1988) and applied by Edwards
and Yankey (2006); and the third is the well-established framework of
managerial functions associated with organizational processes and sys-
tems (Lewis, Packard, & Lewis, 2007). In addition to these three con-
ceptual frameworks, five alternative frameworks for debriefing cases
are described in Chapter 2 for students and instructors to analyze and
discuss the cases. Chapter 2 concludes with a discussion of ways to use
the casebook and a description of the other chapters.

The Uses of Case-Based Learning

Teaching cases are often used to assist students in learning different
interventions, to understand multi-problem situations, to illustrate mod-
els of practice, and/or to promote new ways of conceptualizing practice
(Cossom, 1991). The use of teaching cases helps to create a learner-
centered environment in which students become participatory learners
through self-directed inquiry (Cossom, 1991). The classroom can become
a problem-solving laboratory where students are encouraged to raise
thoughtful questions. Case-based teaching helps to generate discussion
about the multiple alternatives to diverse situations (Cossom, 1991).
Case-based learning can also help to develop skills related to using
data and applying concepts to complex and real-life situations; making
decisions in the context of competing alternatives, perceptions, and
opinions among colleagues; and exploring different approaches to
influencing others. The case-based approach to learning draws upon
 Introduction 3

the existing knowledge and experiences of students while the instruc-

tor introduces concepts, theories, and practices within a framework that
promotes retention and retrieval.
One of the unique aspects of case-based learning is the opportunity
to link real-life managerial dilemmas with the theories and practice prin-
ciples identified in the literature. Case-based learning also provides a
venue for exploring the multiple aspects of practice wisdom—a complex
blending of knowledge, skills, and experience that seeks to blend action
and reflection. As Birren and Fisher (1990) note, wisdom is tested by cir-
cumstances in which we try to decide what is changeable and what is not.
Wisdom brings together previously separated processes of logical know-
ing with uncertainty and reflection. It also relies on interpersonal exchanges
in order to develop the ability to balance facts with questions about
ambiguous situations while avoiding rigidity in search of the truth.
Cases also provide a unique opportunity for students to critically
reflect upon three aspects of practice: (1) the relevance of theory to
practice, (2) the role of research that can inform practice, and (3) the use
of principles to guide decision-making behaviors. In an analysis of a
teaching case, the debriefing frameworks and the questions at the ends
of cases are designed to encourage students to acquire a managerial
mindset that values and uses research and theory to inform their deci-
sions and future practice.

The Value and Benefits of Case-Based Learning

The multiple benefits of using teaching cases in preparing future
human service managers, as well as some of the limitations of case-
based learning are described in the following section.

Simulating Administrative Dilemmas

Cases can address the interests of students who want to experience

different aspects of agency administration, where they can test their
understanding and refine their skills in situations that replicate some
aspects of actual practice. Many students enter graduate human service
administration courses with limited managerial experience (including
negative stereotypes of administrators whom they have observed).
They are interested in understanding the experience of administration.
This is probably one reason why the involvement of practicing adminis-
trators as guest speakers on campus is so well received by students.
Student interest in management practice is also addressed in their intern-
ship experiences, where they work daily with a practicing administrator.
4 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

Cases offer multiple dimensions of learning that can capture student

interests and go beyond students’ own experiences with internships
and guest speakers. Cases provide students with opportunities to think
like administrators and experience realistic dilemmas. Cases also offer
opportunities for an instructor to integrate theory and practice princi-
ples into the experiential learning of a case discussion.

Leveling the Learning Field

Students enter graduate human service management programs with

different managerial experiences. Case discussions are a way of leveling
the learning field. Irrespective of prior work experience, all students can
contribute to a case discussion. Equipped with concepts from theory and
practice courses, any student can make observations about what is hap-
pening in a case, analyze a situation using theory and practice principles,
and recommend courses of action based on course readings. Experienced
and inexperienced students benefit from class discussions where the crit-
ical thinking skills of less experienced students complement the practice
wisdom of more experienced students.

Speculating on Challenges

Third, one aspect of teaching management and leadership skills

involves orienting students to the challenges of administration by help-
ing them develop mental models linked to the values of client-centered
administration (Rapp & Poertner, 2007). Helping students approach the
administrative challenges found in teaching cases can be inherently
interesting, as opposed to being problematic, overwhelming, or intimi-
dating. Learning in this context can actually enhance students’ critical
thinking capacities while they take risks within the safe environment of
the classroom.

Enhancing Analytic Skills

Fourth, case-based learning can also help students develop a begin-

ning sense of competence and understanding of managerial work while
refining their analytic skills. A large part of effective management is the
framing of probing questions and weighing alternatives before acting, a
process that is not always possible to learn in high-pressure agency
internships, but one that is clearly available in case-based learning.
An old axiom related to these pressures suggests that practicing
managers make decisions using the targeting process of “ready, fire”
without spending time on “aiming,” while academics prefer “ready,
aim, aim . . .” since they are rarely called upon to “fire” (i.e., analysis
 Introduction 5

paralysis). Case discussions allow time for all phases: assessment, plan-
ning, and action. The development of analytical skills is a fundamental
component of graduate professional education—a learning opportu-
nity that is not always available through on-the-job experience.

Applying Analytic Frameworks

Fifth, case discussions also offer repeated learning opportunities

using different analytical frameworks. Different tools or frameworks
are useful when responding to complex practice situations. Practicing
administrators develop, often subconsciously, “theories in use”
(Argyris & Schon, 1996) that guide their thinking and decision making
on a daily basis. Case discussions, informed by relevant theory and
facilitated by discussion, help students identify and articulate their
mental models. This type of interactive learning enables them to raise
questions about their operating assumptions, as well as to identify
alternative frameworks to inform their decision making.

Supplement to Fieldwork

Sixth, case-based learning is an important supplement to fieldwork.

Consistent with the principles of adult learning, fieldwork is particularly
valuable for students who perceive its direct relevance to their goals of
becoming effective practitioners. However, the time demands of task
accomplishment in fieldwork agencies do not always allow for time
to debrief, reflect, assess, and integrate theory and practice. Case-based
learning about administrative dilemmas provides more time to reflect
and consider a broader array of alternatives than is found in most field
experiences. An instructor can introduce cases for any practice situation,
whereas internship experiences are sometimes limited, depending on
the availability of particular learning experiences. Case discussion also
allows for more opportunity to take risks and provides access to experi-
ences not often available in the field (e.g., staff supervision or executive-
board relations).
These six benefits of case-based learning need to be balanced with
the limitations inherent in an over-reliance on this pedagogic technique
for developing managerial competence and confidence. For example,
one of the limitations found in teaching only through the case method in
MBA programs is that it may overemphasize the skill of speaking “con-
vincingly to 40–90 people” (Mintzberg, 2004, p. 57) while neglecting
other skills related to give-and-take dialogue or self-reflection. Another
limitation is that students may assume that implementation involves
merely “giving orders” (Kelly & Kelly, 1986, p. 32). The major limitation
6 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

of the case method is that classroom participants can only speculate

about how they might act in a given situation. As a result, it is important
to place case-based learning within a context of multiple learning oppor-
tunities. For example, Mintzberg (2004, p. 267) argues for the blending of
several learning experiences; namely, lectures (“for conceptual inputs”),
cases (“to widen exposure”), action learning internships (“for new expe-
riences”), and self-reflection to capture the student’s own experiences.

 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORKS

Three conceptual frameworks are used in this casebook to organize the

diverse set of cases. As highlighted in Figure 1.1, the frameworks com-
plement each other in the sense that each offers unique strengths and
perspectives. The framework of managerial roles describes the differ-
ent roles that human service managers assume in their daily practice
(Menefee, 2000). The competing values framework (Quinn, 1988) cap-
tures the tensions created by competing priorities that affect manager-
ial decision making. The management functions framework, grounded
in systems theory, focuses on the organizational processes that are
needed to achieve organizational effectiveness and excellence (Lewis
et al., 2007). The framework elements are aligned in Figure 1.1 to reflect
the three major domains, as follows:

• Leadership roles and functions that focus on the external “big

picture” perspectives and the internal aspects of human service
organizations
• Analytic roles and functions that focus on assessing and man-
aging resources and technical processes
• Interactional roles and functions that emphasize the human
dimension of organizational life

These three major domains are vertically aligned to connect the ele-
ments of each of the three conceptual frameworks that are horizontally
displayed and described in the next section.

 MANAGERIAL ROLES

Over the past two decades, Menefee and others (Ezell, Menefee, &
Patti, 1989; Menefee, 1997; Menefee, 2000; Menefee & Thompson, 1994)
have developed an empirical basis for describing management activity
 Introduction 7

Figure 1.1 Conceptual Frameworks

Leadership Analytic Interactional

processes processes processes

Managerial Roles Boundary Spanner Resource Communicator

(Menefee, 2000) administrator
Innovator Evaluator Advocate
Organizer Policy practitioner Supervisor
Team leader Facilitator

Competing Values Creative/risk- Stability and Supportive and

(Quinn, 1988) taking (external) control (monitoring flexible (facilitating
and coordinating) and mentoring)
Directive and
goal-oriented
(internal)

Managerial Executive-board Program planning Human resource

Functions (Lewis, relations and design management
et al., 2007) (governance)
Environmental Program Supervisory
relations and evaluation management
strategy
Organizational Information and Organization
design and knowledge development
structure management
Leadership, Financial Change
vision, values management management

in terms of the roles that human service managers perform. Menefee

defined a set of roles that capture the nature of managerial work in the
human services field (Figure 1.2).
In the area of leadership, for example, a manager fulfills several
roles. The boundary-spanner role includes managing relationships,
including interorganizational relationships and partnerships. In this
role, the manager needs to network with and influence stakeholders,
including policy makers, funding sources, and other community
providers. This role also includes communicating to staff the needs and
expectations of external stakeholders, so that the agency can meet these
expectations through responsive and effective programs. In order to
effectively respond to changing conditions and expectations in the
environment, the manager also needs to assume the role of innovator,
forecasting trends and developing strategies in order to respond. This
role involves designing and implementing new programs, as well as
8 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

Figure 1.2 Managerial Roles

Leadership Roles
1. Boundary-spanner: Capacity to manage relationships, develop networks, and
influence others to foster interorganizational relationships, develop partnerships,
and integrate service delivery systems.
2. Innovator: Capacity to forecast trends in the external environment and develop
alternative and innovative strategies for responding to those forces.
3. Organizer: Capacity to arrange and structure the work of an agency to optimize
the use of human and material resources (including delegating and staffing) in
order to continuously modify internal structures, processes, and conditions to
adapt to external, often turbulent, environments.
4. Team builder/Leader: Capacity to build coalitions and teams (interagency,
intra-agency, interdisciplinary, etc.) by organizing and enlisting groups to ensure
service availability and effective agency operations, with special attention to
group maintenance and task functions of meeting management.

Interactional Roles
5. Communicator: Capacity to exchange written and verbal information, make formal
presentations, and keep internal and external stakeholders continuously informed
through the extensive use of technology.
6. Advocate: Capacity to represent the interests of individuals and groups by lobbying,
testifying, and fostering relationships with public officials and community leaders.
7. Supervisor: Capacity to direct and guide the delivery of agency services while
attending to the socio-emotional needs of staff through the use of coordinating,
supporting, and consultant advising activities needed to motivate staff, coordinate
workloads, set goals and limits, provide corrective feedback, and monitor work
processes and outcomes.
8. Facilitator: Capacity to enlist others in accomplishing the vision, mission, and
goals of an agency or community coalition by enabling, orienting, training, and
empowering others through modeling methods for collaboration and coordination
that can change and strengthen organizational culture.

Analytic Roles
9. Resource administrator: Capacity to manage efficiently and effectively the human,
financial, informational, and physical resources needed by agencies related to
fundraising, grant writing, marketing, media relations, and performance management.
10. Evaluator: Capacity to conduct needs assessments and program evaluations
related to the agency's impact on client populations and community needs based
on a strong understanding of research methods, as well as to supervise/contract
specialists related to continuous quality improvement and outcome assessment.
11. Policy practitioner: Capacity to develop/formulate, interpret, comply with, and
influence public policies, and the capacity to understand and articulate to staff the
full range of policy implementation issues and challenges.

SOURCE: Menefee (2000).

redesigning organizational structures and processes. In performing the

organizer role, managers address not only organizational structure, but
also processes such as the human resource management system (from
 Introduction 9

job design, to staff training and evaluation). And finally, the team
builder role includes building high-performing teams using group
process and meetings-management skills. This role also includes using
interagency coalitions to help shape new policies and services.
A key interactional role is that of communicator, including the use of
oral and written communication, as well as information technology. The
major tasks include formal presentations to groups such as agency boards
and informal communications with staff to keep them informed about
changes and developments inside and outside the agency. As an advo-
cate, the manager represents the interests of stakeholders (e.g., clients or
interest groups) in the community and the policy arena, often with a focus
on social justice and new service needs. As a supervisor, the manager
attends to the socio-emotional needs of staff by coordinating, supporting,
motivating, and monitoring. Supervision includes the three distinct ele-
ments of the administrative, educational, and supportive supervision
functions (Kadushin & Harkness, 2002), as well as fostering a learning
culture (Austin & Hopkins, 2004). The role of facilitator involves enlisting
others in accomplishing the agency’s vision and goals by enabling, ori-
enting, training, and empowering others. This role also includes model-
ing desired behavior to help shape the organization’s culture.
An essential analytic role is to serve as a resource administrator, one
who manages the agency’s human, financial, informational, and physical
resources. This includes not only securing resources, but also the effective
and efficient ongoing management of these resources—from acquiring
new funds, to the oversight of financial management systems. As an eval-
uator, the manager focuses on agency outcomes and continuous improve-
ment by using needs assessments and program evaluations. Finally, the
manager as a policy practitioner helps develop, influence, and implement
public policies. This also includes working with staff to ensure that they
understand the importance and implications of new policies.

 COMPETING VALUES

While the competing values perspective also includes managerial

roles, it focuses on the notion that organizational effectiveness is mul-
tidimensional and socially constructed, meaning different things to
different stakeholders (Herman & Renz, 1999; Quinn, 1988). The com-
peting values framework is built upon two dimensions representing
competing organizational values; namely, flexibility versus control and
an internal versus an external focus, as noted in Figure 1.3 (Edwards &
Yankey, 2006, p. 7).
 Figure 1.3 Competing Values Framework

10
Human Relations Skills Boundary-Spanning Skills
Toward a Responsive,
Open Style
Mentor Role Innovator Role
Caring, Empathetic Creative, Clever
(Shows Consideration) (Envisions Change) Toward an Intensive,
Toward a Concerned, Risk-Tasking Style
Supportive Style
Broker Role
Group Facilitator Role Resource-Oriented

Flexibility
Process-Oriented Politically Astute
(Facilitates Interaction) (Acquires Resources)

Toward a Cooperative, Longer Time Horizons External Focus Toward a Dynamic,

Team-Oriented Style Internal Focus Shorter Time Horizons Competitive Style

Producer Role
Monitor Role Task-Oriented
Technically Expert Work-Focused
(Collects Information) (Acquires Resources)

Control
Toward a Directive,
Toward a Conservative,
Coordinator Role Director Role Goal-Oriented Style
Cautious Style
Dependable, Reliable Decisive, Directive
(Maintains Structure) (Provides Structure)

Toward a Structured,
Coordinating Skills Formal Style Directing Skills

SOURCE: R. E. Quinn, Beyond Rational Management: Mastering the Paradoxes and Competing Demands of High Performance (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, ©
1988). Reprinted with permission.
 Introduction 11

The first dimension of flexibility and control is rooted in the findings

of Lawrence and Lorsch (1967), who noted that there are countervailing
forces toward integration and differentiation in complex organizations.
Most human service organizations, except for the smallest, typically
have multiple services that serve a range of client populations. In order
to effectively and efficiently respond to these populations, organiza-
tional units need to differentiate from one another based on both service
delivery and management processes. For example, financial manage-
ment systems need to be implemented in a routine, standard way, while
some service delivery processes are by nature nonroutine and require
varying types of staff skills. These differentiated functions need to be
pulled together through integrating mechanisms that can ensure both
coordination and enough control to allow the organization to operate
efficiently. Management functions, including finances, information sys-
tems, and human resources are typically centralized so that they oper-
ate in the same way throughout the agency. Service delivery, on the
other hand, is typically more decentralized, with different programs
requiring different practices and procedures. In fact, both control and
flexibility are needed for optimal agency functioning, and part of the
administrator’s job is to manage this tension.
The second dimension of competing values involves the tension
between an internal and external focus. Internally, the organization needs
to be maintained by attending to both the technical aspects of systems,
such as financial management, and the social aspects of human
resources, such as staff morale and commitment. Administrators need to
ensure that proper procedures are being used within the agency, while at
the same time monitoring morale and providing socioemotional support
to staff. At the other end of the continuum, administrators need to pay
attention to the external environment. This includes assessing changes in
the environment, strategically positioning the organization, marketing,
and ensuring the growth and survival of the organization. As is the case
with the dimension of flexibility and control, administrators need to
manage both sets of demands: ensuring the effectiveness of the organi-
zation’s internal functions while constantly monitoring and adapting to
external forces.
These two dimensions, when combined, represent four models of
organizational effectiveness: (1) the human relations model that attends to
flexibility and an internal focus, (2) the open systems approach that focuses
on flexibility and the external environment, (3) the rational goal model that
uses control to ensure accomplishment of goals expected by external
forces, and (4) the internal process model that addresses internal control
12 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

systems. As noted in Figure 1.3, these perspectives on values are then

overlaid with a set of leadership roles that are relevant to each model:

• The human relations model includes the mentor and facilitator

role.
• The open systems model includes the boundary spanning skills
of the innovator and broker roles.
• The rational goal model includes the directing skills of producer
and director roles.
• The internal process model includes the coordinating skills
related to the roles of coordinator and monitor.

While using the competing values framework leads to managerial

roles that are similar to those in the Menefee framework, it places more
emphasis on the performance of managerial roles in relationship to
each other to reflect the complexity of administrative work. Since there
is a continuous flow of different forces competing for the administra-
tor’s attention, managers find themselves working, consciously or not,
to balance these competing demands in order to optimize the organi-
zation’s effectiveness.

 MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS

A final lens through which to view organizational processes and man-

agerial work relates to a set of management functions needed for an
organization to grow and survive. This framework is based on systems
theory, in which an organization takes inputs from the environment
(including funding, staff, and clients) and transforms them into service
delivery programs and processes (e.g., information systems) to produce
outputs (e.g., improved client and/or community functioning) (Katz &
Kahn, 1978). Using the three subsystems of technical core, managerial
system, and institutional system developed by Thompson (1967),
Kettner (2002b) defines the technical core in terms of service provision,
the managerial system of financial and human resources management,
and the institutional system in terms of environmental relations.
Based on these systems concepts, Lewis et al. (2007) identify six
major management functions, as illustrated in Figure 1.4.
The framework for the six functions involves the management of
the organization’s external environment, including a constant monitor-
ing of the trends in the environment. This monitoring involves atten-
tion to political trends (e.g., welfare reform and the accountability
 Introduction 13

Figure 1.4 Management Functions

The Environment
Trends, Stakeholders, Governance

Planning and
Evaluation Program Design

Leadership, Ethics, Organization

Information
and Organizational Design and
Systems
Change Structure

Human Resource
Financial Management and
Management Supervision

SOURCE: Adapted from Lewis, Packard, and Lewis (2007).

movement), economic trends that affect human services financing (e.g.,

unemployment and dislocation), social and demographic trends (e.g.,
the aging of baby boomers), and human services technology trends
(e.g., the impact of Internet communications). The process of relating to
stakeholders is another important aspect of managing the environ-
ment, especially identifying and addressing stakeholder expectations.
Board relations and governance (as well as dealing with elected offi-
cials) are other aspects of managing the organization’s environment.
Some of the skills needed to assess the agency’s environment include
community needs assessments, marketing, and asset mapping.
The first of the six key management functions is planning. At the
broadest level, managers and policy makers can use strategic planning
14 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

to identify external opportunities and threats in the environment and

assess internally the agency’s strengths and areas for improvement in
order to develop strategic directions. At the program level, data from
needs assessments and asset mapping, coupled with knowledge of
evidence-based practices and promising practices, can be used to plan
and design new programs. Planning skills include the use of time lines,
Gantt Charts, and PERT charts, as well as the capacity to engage in
strategic planning.
The second management function relates to the organization design
that is used to structure program and administrative units that are
reflected on organization charts. The development and reassessment of
decision-making and communication processes are critical design ele-
ments within an organizational culture related to promoting coordina-
tion and efficient organizational functioning. For example, are reporting
relationships and roles clear, well understood, and appropriate? To what
extent do the organizational structure and related systems facilitate
effective coordination and communication across functions and
programs?
The third management function involves an agency’s human
resource management system. Such a system ensures that all programs
and positions are filled with competent, trained, and motivated staff.
The specific human resource skills include job design and descriptions,
recruitment (enhancing diversity), hiring, training, staff development,
performance appraisal, discipline, and termination. Within the human-
resource function, the supervision skills deserve special attention. To
ensure that staff members are able to use their full capacities effectively,
supervisors need to provide clear direction and guidance, demonstrate
a capacity to motivate and monitor staff, and promote staff develop-
ment and lifelong learning. Mentoring and coaching are other impor-
tant aspects of the supervision function. Supervision issues often
include the need to deal with inadequate job performance, work-
family stress, and workplace impairments such as substance abuse.
The fourth management function relates to the financial manage-
ment capacity needed to ensure that organizational resources are
properly used. This function includes fund development (e.g., writing
proposals for grants or contracts) and preparing and monitoring bud-
gets. Financial statements and audits are essential tools to ensure the
proper monitoring of funds. Irrespective of the nature of an organiza-
tional problem, managers need to be able to assess fiscal factors, to
ensure that revenue streams are stable and adequate, that expenditures
are within budget, and that accounting procedures are followed.
 Introduction 15

The fifth management function relates to the use of information

systems to measure and monitor the implementation of all aspects of
agency programs and processes. In human service organizations, infor-
mation systems include data on client and staff characteristics, types
and amounts of services delivered, outputs (e.g., the number of clients
completing a job training program) and outcomes (e.g., the number of
clients acquiring a full-time living wage job). The challenge in many
human service agencies is developing and implementing an informa-
tion system that adequately documents all aspects of the service-
delivery program by clearly addressing program goals and objectives.
The sixth and final management function involves the evaluation of
program implementation and results. The focus and methods of evalu-
ation can address questions from staff, funding organizations, policy
makers, or the community. Evaluations can focus on the process used
to implement a service program, as well as the outcomes of such
programs, with special attention to efficiency, effectiveness, and service
quality.
While the organization’s environment is an important context for
agency operations, the critical element needed to connect the core man-
agement functions is agency leadership. Organizational leadership is
essential to ensure that the organization accomplishes its stated goals
and objectives, in addition to functioning in ways consistent with its
mission and organizational values. The leadership challenge is to ensure
alignment among all the organizational functions and processes, espe-
cially the alignment between individual employees and organizational
goals. A key aspect of leadership is guiding organizational change and
improvement that can result, in part, from being alert to the internal and
external opportunities to improve organizational functioning. Another
key aspect of managerial leadership is the balancing of staff needs with
the needs of the organization. The ethical dimensions of managerial
leadership often involve the capacity to articulate clear ethical principles
and to ensure that these principles are followed throughout the agency.

Using the Conceptual Frameworks

While the context for the cases in this casebook includes the man-
agerial roles of leadership, analysis, or interaction (see Figure 1.1), the
chapters are organized by the major management functions described
above. In essence, the leadership roles relate to the strategic and vision-
ary management of external and internal environments, while the ana-
lytic roles focus on the adequacy of human, financial, and information
16 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

resources through careful planning, implementing, and monitoring of

organizational systems. The interactional roles involve the maintenance
of ongoing communication, staff support, and managing change in order
to improve the quality of organizational processes and outcomes.
In summary, different situations in organizational life call upon
different roles and functions. Over time, managers acquire the practice
wisdom to recognize which management roles are required, as well as
the related functions that need to be performed. The role perspective is
especially useful in determining the specific managerial behaviors that
are needed. The systems perspective underlying the management
functions is very useful for locating and assessing specific problem
areas. The competing values framework provides a context for recog-
nizing the need for balance and trade-offs in the process of planning,
managing, and evaluation.
In using case-based learning, both instructors and students can
select roles and functions that seem most relevant to a case, discuss their
shared or divergent perceptions, and identify principles that can be
used in practice. As described in the next chapter, instructors can select
cases for classroom use based on specific learning objectives and one
or more debriefing frameworks. Cases may also be used as part of an
examination for a course or as an end-of-program comprehensive
examination to assess the capacities of students to integrate knowledge
and skills by applying their analytic abilities to a case situation (Packard
& Austin, in press). And finally, the three conceptual frameworks pre-
sented here (managerial roles, competing values, and management
functions) all offer unique perspectives and provide a context for the
analysis and debriefing of a case.

 SUMMARY

We began this chapter with the identification of some of the uses and
benefits of case-based learning. We then presented three conceptual
frameworks that can be used to frame and analyze the cases: (1) the man-
agerial roles managers perform, (2) the competing values that underlie
an organization’s competing priorities, and (3) the management func-
tions related to organizational processes. Finally, we noted factors that
may suggest the best framework to use for particular learning needs, and
we suggested some of the ways in which cases can be used.
 2
Case Assessment
and Debriefing
❖ ❖ ❖

A teaching case, especially a complex one, can leave a student or

even an experienced manager overwhelmed with details and
without a clear indication of where to start. While the three conceptual
frameworks described in Chapter 1 provide a structure for how to place
a case within the context of management practice, a diagnostic checklist
can provide a structure for developing an analysis of the case. For
example, medical professionals use diagnostic categories to screen
patients for minor and major symptoms prior to forming a comprehen-
sive assessment. They do so by performing the following procedures:
checking vital signs, observing and feeling parts of the body, listening to
lungs and heart, asking about medications or allergies, etc. A similar
process of assessment is needed to make sense of the organizational fac-
tors in a teaching case.
Without the same degree of structure and standardization as a med-
ical professional, an experienced administrator uses a mental checklist
that can also check the vital signs of an organization. In searching for
additional information and areas needing special attention, a simple
checklist could include: environmental factors, current plans and com-
mitments, available information for evaluation, and the availability of
financial and human resources. Figure 2.1 provides an example of an
17
18 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

Figure 2.1 Case Assessment Checklist

I. Organizational Environment and Leadership

___ Issues regarding public policy or board policy?
___ Issues in the leadership behaviors of top management?
___ Issues reflecting ethical dilemmas?
___ Issues in the practices of other organizations that might relate to competition?

II. Planning and Coordinating

___ Issues related to the presence or absence of an agency strategic plan?
___ Issues related to the demographics of the client populations being served?
___ Issues related to the agency’s stage of organizational development (recently
established, struggling, or established organization related to growth or
contraction)?
___ Issues related to the structure of the agency, such as reporting relationships,
changing roles and responsibilities, resource allocation, coordination, and
communication?

III. Program Design and Evaluation

___ Issues regarding the use of service delivery technologies related to changing
client needs?
___ Issues related to program design emerging from new research findings or
evidence-based practice?
___ Issues related to service outcome measures or methods of dissemination?

IV. Financial and Information Systems

___ Issues related to the adequacy or appropriateness of information systems
related to computer resources, administrative data, or output/outcome
measures?
___ Issues related to financial management related to program revenues or
expenditures, cost benefit analysis, or accounting controls?

V. Human Resource Systems

___ Issues related to staff qualifications, performance evaluation, recruitment, and
training and supervision?
___ Issues related to the quality of working life related to salary and benefits, working
conditions, autonomy, growth opportunities, or employee rights and due process?
___ Issues related to staff diversity such as valuing diversity, staff-client demographics,
personnel policies, or discrimination?

assessment checklist to identify possible issues and information needed

before problem solving and decision making begins.
Just as a medical professional can quickly screen for basic informa-
tion prior to ordering a comprehensive battery of tests, a well-trained or
experienced manager can also quickly identify the type of information
needed to engage in a problem-solving process. While conducting a com-
prehensive problem analysis may not always be necessary, issues that
appear to be simple may benefit from a complete analysis, in order to
identify underlying causes that may need to be addressed. For example,
dealing with an employee who has been habitually violating a policy or
procedure (from lateness to not completing job duties) may involve
a simple modification in supervision or the application of disciplinary
 Case Assessment and Debriefing 19

procedures. On the other hand, a more comprehensive assessment may

indicate that there are agency procedures needing attention (e.g., the lack
of a well-defined performance appraisal and discipline process). Such an
assessment may even indicate that employee behaviors are part of a larger
issue of morale, climate, or even inadequate staff training.
With the use of a checklist, a student or manager assessing an orga-
nizational situation is better prepared to analyze problems and develop
strategies to address them. Building on the three conceptual frameworks
noted in the previous section, the checklist provides a useful foundation
for considering the debriefing frameworks described in the next section.

 CASE DEBRIEFING

Beyond the content-specific questions found at the end of cases,

instructors also have an opportunity to promote case-based learning
through different case debriefing strategies. Several strategies are iden-
tified and illustrated in Figures 2.2 to 2.6 and can be used by individ-
ual students or by groups.
The first debriefing strategy on managerial problem solving views the
case in the context of a manager needing to address an issue as if it had
arrived in his or her mail (e-mail or snail mail) or had emerged in a staff
meeting. Most managerial problem-solving strategies are a variation
on the components noted in Figure 2.2. The steps in this debriefing
strategy flow in a cycle, whereby the response to each step leads to the
next step until finally returning to the first step on problem identifica-
tion that seeks to address issues identified in the final step on monitor-
ing and evaluation. While instructors may approach managerial
problem solving in a different way, these six steps reflect the common
components of most problem-solving frameworks.
Brody (2005), in his management textbook, has designed a debrief-
ing strategy that features the analytic and interactional aspects of case
analysis. He introduces the ethical dimension of decision making and the
way staff members interact with each other to address problems. An
illustration of these interactional aspects, as well as the analytic dimen-
sions, is shown in Figure 2.3.
A debriefing strategy that features the process of executive coaching
can provide students with yet another way to discuss a case (Bloom,
Catagna, Moir, & Warren, 2005). This approach is based on the capacity to
develop help-seeking behaviors. Seeking consultation, supervision, or
mentoring often involves questions that are reflective in nature.
Developing insights into one’s own cognitive and affective domains is as
20 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

Figure 2.2 A Managerial Problem-Solving Strategy

Step 1: Problem Identification, in which the manager is encouraged to gather multiple

perceptions of others (staff) with regard to how to define or frame the problem.
Step 2: Identify the Underlying Assumptions that are often buried in the problem definition
(e.g., lack of support or funding to address this issue; it would take too long to address this
problem; no one really cares to resolve the problem; we would never get the director’s support
for a change), as well as the implicit or explicit values that operate within the agency’s culture
(e.g., client services are our top priority; staff feedback is expected and valued).
Step 3: Structuring the Involvement of Key Stakeholders to gather perceptions of the
problem and their motivations to address the problem.
Step 4: Developing Three Viable Options to address the problem by identifying the pros
and cons of each option.
Step 5: Selecting One of the Three Options and developing an action plan for implementing
the option over time (e.g., who should be involved, what resources are needed, what is
a realistic time frame).
Step 6: Monitoring and Evaluating the option selected in terms of specifying the criteria
by which the selected solution could be evaluated three to six months from the launch of
the implementation process. (The goal is to identify what is working and what is not in
order to start the problem identification process all over again.)

Figure 2.3 The Analytic and Interactional Dimensions of Case Analysis

I. Analytic Dimensions
a. How does the problem/situation impact the entire organization? What are the
short- and long-term implications? Can the problem be reframed to create a
win-win situation?
b. How can key stakeholders embrace/grasp the complexity of the problem? What
are the root causes?
c. What is the best way to assess the trade-offs in exploring alternative
approaches? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the options?
d. How can participants distinguish between decisions that must be made
expeditiously and those that require “going with the flow of events” (muddling
through) or “watchful waiting”? Is more information needed to solve this problem?
e. How can participants plan ahead to deal with the problem but still be open to
change along the way? What new problems may occur, and what contingency
plans could be made?

II. Interactional Dimensions

a. What is the best way to capture/consider the perspectives of different stakeholders?
b. How can participants be open and honest with others in the organization as well
as with themselves?
c. How would participants determine that the decision(s) reached were based on
fair play? Are there existing precedents that should be followed or reconsidered?
d. How would participants aggressively pursue the true nature of the problem/
situation (e.g., searching for information, asking challenging questions, and
conducting intense and robust discussions)?
e. How would participants determine if the key players cared enough to make tough
decisions? Do the decision makers need to work to be bold enough to make a
decision that may be unpopular?
 Case Assessment and Debriefing 21

Figure 2.4 Help-Seeking Behaviors Related to Analyzing Teaching Cases

Step 1: What aspect of the problem(s) presented in the teaching case is most perplexing
to you?
Step 2: Which actions taken in the case are least familiar to you (unsure of how you
would actually carry out the actions)?
Step 3: What type of advice/consultation would be most helpful to you?
• Can you identify the areas in this case where you feel least confident or where you
lack sufficient experience?
• Do you need additional information, and where might you find it?
• Which aspects of the case represent areas where consultation with others might
improve your understanding of this case?
• What kind of feedback would be most useful to you in terms of the ways in which you
analyzed this case?
Step 4: With whom might you consult to explore different ways of approaching the
situations in this case?
• How might follow-up consultation address your concerns about this case?
• What type of mentoring or coaching would you find most useful in terms of expanding
your own managerial skill set related to the issues in this case?

important for managerial practice as it is for effective clinical practice.

It involves moving past ambivalence about seeking help from others
because of: (1) a fear of appearing ignorant or incompetent, (2) a concern
about being unclear about the advice being sought, (3) a lack of compe-
tence about how to gather and make use of alternative perspectives, (4) a
fear that more advice will simply add confusion, and/or (5) a belief that
asking for advice takes too much time. There are probably many other
reasons for not seeking help. Figure 2.4 illustrates an array of questions
that can be used to debrief a case from the perspective of the case analyst.
The debriefing framework related to strategic issues management
is defined as a process of identifying strategic issues in a case and
developing a plan for addressing them. Each of the following steps is
described in Figure 2.5: (1) issue identification (a condition that needs
attention), (2) goal setting (specifying change goals in the form of out-
comes), (3) intervention planning (goal-related change activities), and
(4) evaluating the intervention plan (gathering data and reflecting
upon outcomes). The conceptual foundation for each of these steps is
described in more detail in Packard and Austin (in press).
Finally, a debriefing strategy that is more relevant to the policy prac-
tice dimension of decision making is useful for managers involved in a
policy implementation process (Hill & Hupe, 2002). For Brock (2003), the
focus of the case analysis process is on the impact of new policies on
organizational missions as they relate to opportunities and constraints,
22 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

Figure 2.5 Strategic Issues Management Approach to Case Analysis

1. Key Issues: Assess the organizational and administrative situation with supportive
data. Include a list and description of key issues and problems. Also note organizational
strengths and how these may be relevant to the issues. Discuss the top 3–4 issues,
including why they need attention and the effects they are having on the organization.
Use relevant theories, administrative principles, and research to support and elaborate
upon your analysis.
2. Major Goals: List immediate and long-term goals for a change plan, in priority order,
with rationales for each goal. Relate these to the top identified issues and problems
listed above.
3. The Plan: Describe your intervention/change plan for the accomplishment of each
change goal. Describe specific strategies, techniques, or activities to be used. Include
your rationales for each, and how the activities will be evaluated. Use relevant theories,
administrative principles, and research to support your plan.
4. Evaluation: Describe how you would evaluate the outcomes of your intervention,
using any relevant program evaluation or other research methods. Be specific about
the design and process for each element. These should relate to the above assessment,
goals, and intervention plan.

as well as to short-term and long-term objectives. An adaptation of Brock’s

framework is noted in Figure 2.6.

Use and Organization of the Casebook

While some cases in this book are presented in the third person,
most use a first-person perspective. Generally, a reader can assume
the role of the administrator or supervisor in the case and imagine
how she or he would assess the situation and then develop a plan of
action. Alternatively, the reader can play the role of a consultant
invited by the agency’s executive to do an assessment and suggest
recommendations.
The organization of the cases in the following chapters corresponds
with the elements of the managerial functions framework. The cases focus
on multiple administrative concepts and principles because they represent
real practice situations. Each case was assigned to a particular chapter
based on the editors’ perceptions of the key issues in that case. Within
these chapters, the cases are generally ordered in increasing complexity. In
nearly every case, there are secondary issues as well. For example, the
more complex case entitled “The Cabal” is located in the chapter on
agency governance because of the board’s role in overseeing the work of
the agency’s chief executive. However, this case also raises issues about
financial management and supervision (a bookkeeper’s misallocation of
discretionary funds, presumably without the executive’s knowledge).
 Case Assessment and Debriefing 23

Figure 2.6 Policy-Oriented Case Analysis

Step 1: Assessing Problems and Risks

• What are the most important components of the situation (prioritized)?
• What factors led to the situation?
• What are the risks to the organization and those associated with the actions of others?
Step 2: Assessing Impact on Organizational Mission and Legacy
• How might the organization’s mission be affected by the problem/situation?
• How does the organization’s external environment impact/influence the problem?
• How might this situation affect the organization’s future/legacy?
Step 3: Identifying External and Internal Actors
• Who can help address the problem, and who might interfere?
• What might be the motives and interests of both sets of actors and how might they
be addressed?
• What kind of power or influence is held by each set of actors, and how might it be
exercised?
Step 4: Identifying Opportunities and Constraints
• What might be potential improvements in organizational processes?
• What are the opportunities to build working relationships with internal and external
stakeholders?
Step 5: Identifying Outcomes and Related Strategies
• What are some of the key aspects of successful outcomes?
• How do the outcomes move the organization toward the organization’s mission?
• How might opposition to the outcomes destabilize the organization?
• How might the outcomes strengthen the organization’s capacity in the future?
• How do the outcomes make use of available tools, address current organizational
constraints, and make use of available time for implementation?
• What strategies are needed to implement the outcomes (a plan with prioritized action
steps, a timeframe, and an assessment of needed resources and support)?
Step 6: Identifying the Manager’s Short-term and Long-term Objectives
• What are the short-term objectives to successfully address the problem and set the
stage for long-term objectives?
• What are the long-term objectives, and how might the current situation affect future
success/accomplishments/goals?
SOURCE: Adapted from Brock (2004).

The managerial functions have been organized into six chapters.

We begin at the broadest level: governance, dealing with the environ-
ment, and organizational structures. Next, we present cases involving
agency leadership and ethics issues. Subsequent chapters address
issues of planning and program design; financial management and
information systems (including evaluation); human resource manage-
ment and supervision; and, finally, a chapter addressing organizational
change and organizational dynamics such as organizational culture.
Chapter 3 begins with the big picture. It includes cases on agency
governance (working with boards of directors), managing the environment,
24 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

and issues of organization design and structure. Many of these cases

highlight the tensions regarding the respective roles of board and staff.
There are no clear answers or solutions when considering an executive’s
discretion in issues ranging from program philosophy to the appropri-
ateness of various fundraising expenditures. An executive director also
needs to manage the fine line between board “meddling” and its legiti-
mate involvement in policy development.
Chapter 4 includes issues of leadership and ethics in the agency set-
ting. The extent to which a manager’s leadership style should be partic-
ipative and empowering is a common issue in organizations. These cases
also raise ethical issues, from staff theft to the mismanagement of funds.
Chapter 5 focuses on planning and program design. Topics range
from the temptation to acquire problematic grant funds to deciding
how to allocate limited resources. At the program level, managers often
need to make adjustments in programs without compromising the
program’s integrity.
Chapter 6 addresses the two key organizational systems of financial
management (including fund development) and management of informa-
tion (including program evaluation). Fund-development issues range
from getting the board involved in fundraising to dealing with the expec-
tations of prospective funding sources. When expenses exceed revenues,
difficult budgeting choices (e.g., increasing fees or cutting staff or services)
must be made. The cases on management information systems focus on
documenting the need for services and determining what data should be
collected to monitor and evaluate program progress and outcomes.
Chapter 7 focuses on human resources management and supervi-
sion. The issues raised in these cases range from inappropriate com-
munications between staff and board members to working with a
union regarding performance appraisal and termination. The supervi-
sion cases deal with gaining worker compliance with agency account-
ability expectations (e.g., paperwork) and the challenge of managing,
including answering to one’s immediate supervisor.
Chapter 8 features cases on organizational dynamics and change. In
some cases, crises force an agency into organizational changes. In oth-
ers, new executives see opportunities for organizational improvements
and introduce methods to create change. One of these is a comprehen-
sive case study of a county human services agency that provides many
examples of successful organizational change strategies and tactics.
Each chapter includes more complex cases featuring multiple
issues involved with organizational change. The first challenge in these
 Case Assessment and Debriefing 25

multi-issue cases is identifying the key issues out of an abundance of

detail. There may be an overriding issue that needs particular attention
because it represents a crisis or because it affects other issues. After
issues are identified, sorted, combined, or prioritized, considerable
analysis is needed to determine what should be done to achieve
desired outcomes, including the consideration of options and the iden-
tification of roles to be played by those involved in the case. Of course,
there are no correct answers, although some options are likely to be
more successful than others. There is no single debriefing framework
that can address all the issues.
One approach to case analysis is to: (1) determine if all the available
information is accessible (see checklist in Figure 2.1), (2) select the
debriefing framework most appropriate for the case situation, and
(3) identify the conceptual framework that can facilitate the greatest
learning following the case analysis. Each case ends with debriefing
questions specific to the case that may be used for debriefing and dis-
cussion. Also included for each case is a suggested debriefing frame-
work. Of course, an instructor may use any of the debriefing frameworks
on a particular case or others not included here.
While case-based learning provides one approach to educating
future and current practitioners, other forms of experiential learning
should be noted. For example, the practices of observing and reporting
on group decision making outside the agency, as well as comparing
organization charts from different agencies, provide learners with a
more individualized learning experience. In order to provide suggestions
for additional experiential-learning experiences, a set of classroom-based
exercises is noted at the end of each of the case-based chapters.
The matrix at the end of this chapter (Figure 2.7) lists each case in
order. Columns indicate specific case subjects. Two Xs in a box indicate
the primary subject. A single X indicates subjects that are also present
in the case. Of course, readers may disagree about some of these
designations. They are provided as general guidelines, especially
for instructors searching for cases that incorporate particular issues.
The top of the matrix also indicates relevant chapters in three
current human services management textbooks (Brody, 2005; Kettner,
2002a; Kettner, Moroney, & Martin, 1999; Lewis, Packard, & Lewis,
2007) that parallel the conceptualization of management functions
used here. Those books—or others—can be used to provide conceptual
and empirical underpinnings for case analysis as well as relevant prac-
tice wisdom.
26 MANAGING THE CHALLENGES

 SUMMARY

Using the management functions framework described in Chapter 1,

we provided an assessment checklist to use in assessing cases prior to
engaging in problem solving and/or decision making. Since manager-
ial decision making involves critical thinking skills, five debriefing
frameworks were described. Any one of them could be used to address
a case. The debriefing frameworks include: (1) managerial problem
solving, (2) analytic and interactional aspects of ethical decision
making, (3) help-seeking behaviors related to consultation, (4) strategic
management, and (5) policy-analytic decision making.
We concluded this chapter with a description of the subsequent
chapters in the casebook, beginning with specific cases reflecting
the organizational environment and governance and concluding with
cases on organizational change. Given our approach to framing cases
by using three conceptual frameworks of managerial practice and five
debriefing strategies, case-based learning can be an effective way to
educate future managerial practitioners. This learning approach can
help such students explore their assumptions and perceptions while
applying their acquired knowledge and skills to the complexities and
uncertainties of contemporary human service organizations.
 Figure 2.7 Matrices of Case Topics

Chapter 3: Matrix of Case Topics

a. Financial
Management a. Organizational
a. Governance a. Planning b. Information Change
b. Environment a. Leadership b. Program Systems a. HRM b. Organizational
Case c. Structure b. Ethics Design c. Evaluation b. Supervision Dynamics

Chapter 3. Governance, Environment, a. b. c. a. b. a. b. a. b. c. a. b. a. b.

and Structure

Relevant Chapters from:

Brody (2005) 20 1 2 3, 4 12–16 7, 8, 10 4 5, 9,

11 17–19

Kettner (2002) 3 4 2, 6 8 7 14 5, 6, 12, 1

9–11 13

Kettner, Moroney, & Martin, (2008) 3–5 2 6–8 10, 11 9 12,

13

Lewis, Packard, & Lewis, (2007) 2 2 5 11 11 3 3 8 9 10 6 7 4, 11 4, 12

Governance

3.1 Meddling Trustees XX X X X

3.2 KidsCan XX X

3.3 Dorchester House Board of XX X X

Directors

3.4 The Perfect Storm XX X X

3.5 Poor Leadership Boundaries XX X X X

27
(Continued)
 Figure 2.7 (Continued)

Chapter 3: Matrix of Case Topics

28
a. Financial
Management a. Organizational
a. Governance a. Planning b. Information Change
b. Environment a. Leadership b. Program Systems a. HRM b. Organizational
Case c. Structure b. Ethics Design c. Evaluation b. Supervision Dynamics

Chapter 3. Governance, Environment, a. b. c. a. b. a. b. a. b. c. a. b. a. b.

and Structure

Environment

3.6 The Cabal XX X X

3.7 The Cost of a Tuxedo XX X X

3.8 Choosing a Director XX X X

3.9 Collapse of the Coalition XX X X

Structure

3.10 Merging Colossal and Grassroots XX X

Agencies

3.11 Poor Interdepartmental XX X

Communication or Competing Service
Ideologies

3.12 Whose Interests Are Being XX X X

Served?

3.13 Greenvale Residential Treatment XX X X X X X

Center

NOTE: XX = Primary subject; X = Secondary subject

 Chapter 4: Matrix of Case Topics

a. Financial
Management a. Organizational
a. Governance a. Planning b. Information Change
b. Environment a. Leadership b. Program Systems a. HRM b. Organizational
Case c. Structure b. Ethics Design c. Evaluation b. Supervision Dynamics

Chapter 4. Leadership and Ethics a. b. c. a. b. a. b. a. b. c. a. b. a. b.

Relevant Chapters from:

Brody (2005) 20 1 2 3, 4 12–16 7, 8, 10 4 5, 9,

11 17–19

Kettner (2002) 3 4 2, 6 8 7 14 5, 6, 12, 1

9–11 13

Kettner, Moroney, & Martin, (2008) 3–5 2 6–8 10, 11 9 12, 13

Lewis, Packard, & Lewis, (2007) 2 2 5 11 11 3 3 8 9 10 6 7 4, 11 4, 12

Leadership

4.1 Empowering Staff: Real or X XX

Imaginary?

4.2 Caught in the Middle: Mediating XX X

Differences in Gender and Work Style

4.3 To Talk or Not to Talk XX X X

(Continued)

29
 Figure 2.7 (Continued)

30
Chapter 4: Matrix of Case Topics

a. Financial
Management a. Organizational
a. Governance a. Planning b. Information Change
b. Environment a. Leadership b. Program Systems a. HRM b. Organizational
Case c. Structure b. Ethics Design c. Evaluation b. Supervision Dynamics

Chapter 4. Leadership and Ethics a. b. c. a. b. a. b. a. b. c. a. b. a. b.

4.4 Agency Director Uses a Personal XX X

Coach to Address His Leadership Style

4.5 Founder’s Syndrome X XX X X X

4.6 Executive Leadership XX X X

4.7 Marian Health Center XX X X X X X

4.8 Mosaic County Welfare XX X X X X
Department

4.9 Project Home XX X X X X X

Ethics

4.10 Damage Control XX

4.11 Philosophy vs. Economics XX X

4.12 What? Me Worry? XX X

NOTE: XX = Primary subject; X = Secondary subject

 Chapter 5: Matrix of Case Topics

a. Financial
Management a. Organizational
a. Governance a. Planning b. Information Change
b. Environment a. Leadership b. Program Systems a. HRM b. Organizational
Case c. Structure b. Ethics Design c. Evaluation b. Supervision Dynamics

Chapter 5. Planning and a. b. c. a. b. a. b. a. b. c. a. b. a. b.

Program Design

Relevant Chapters from:

Brody (2005) 20 1 2 3, 4 12–16 7, 8, 10 4 5, 9,

11 17–19

Kettner (2002) 3 4 2, 6 8 7 14 5, 6, 12, 1

9–11 13
Kettner, Moroney, & Martin (2008) 3–5 2 6–8 10, 11 9 12, 13

Lewis, Packard, & Lewis (2007) 2 2 5 11 11 3 3 8 9 10 6 7 4, 11 4, 12

Planning

5.1 Mallard County Private Industry XX

Council

5.2 Be Careful What You Wish For XX

5.3 Decision on Resource Allocations XX X

(Continued)

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