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Polymer Melt
Fracture
Polymer Melt
Fracture
Rudy Koopmans
Jaap den Doelder
Jaap Molenaar

Boca Raton London New York

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Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
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To our families and friends
 There is nothing stable in this world; uproar’s your only music.

John Keats
English poet (1795–1821)

Remember that there is nothing stable in human affairs; therefore

avoid undue elation in prosperity, or undue depression in adversity.

Socrates
Greek philosopher in Athens (469 BC–399 BC)
Contents
Foreword .................................................................................................................. xv
Preface....................................................................................................................xvii
Authors ....................................................................................................................xxi

Chapter 1 Polymer Melt Fracture Pictures............................................................ 1

1.1 Optical Microscopy ...................................................................2
1.2 Scanning Electron Microscopy ............................................... 10
Reference ............................................................................................20

Chapter 2 Polymer Characteristics ..................................................................... 21

2.1 Polymers .................................................................................. 22
2.1.1 Polymer Architecture .................................................24
2.1.2 Molar Mass Distribution ............................................28
2.1.3 Polymerization Processes ........................................... 32
2.2 Polymer Characterization ........................................................ 35
2.2.1 Polymer Architecture ................................................. 35
2.2.1.1 Spectrometry: Ultraviolet,
Visible, Infrared, and Raman ..................... 36
2.2.1.2 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Spectrometry............................................... 36
2.2.1.3 Density ........................................................ 39
2.2.1.4 Thermal Analysis ....................................... 39
2.2.2 Molar Mass, Molar Mass Distribution .......................40
2.2.2.1 Dilute Solution Viscosity ............................ 41
2.2.2.2 Light Scattering .......................................... 43
2.2.2.3 Colligative Property Measurement
Techniques ..................................................44
2.2.2.4 Gel Permeation Chromatography ............... 45
2.2.2.5 Fractionation ...............................................46
2.2.2.6 Rheology ..................................................... 47
2.3 General Observation ................................................................ 49
References .......................................................................................... 50

Chapter 3 Polymer Rheology .............................................................................. 53

3.1 Continuum Mechanics ............................................................. 53
3.2 Scalars, Vectors, and Tensors .................................................. 54
3.3 Stress Tensor ............................................................................ 58

ix
x Contents

3.4 Strain Tensors .......................................................................... 59

3.4.1 Finger Tensor .............................................................. 59
3.4.2 Rate of Deformation and Vorticity Tensor ................. 63
3.4.3 Relation between Finger Tensor B and Rate of
Deformation Tensor D ................................................ 65
3.5 Equations of Motion ................................................................ 65
3.5.1 Transport Theorem .....................................................66
3.5.2 Mass Balance.............................................................. 67
3.5.3 Momentum Balance ................................................... 68
3.6 Constitutive Equations ............................................................. 71
3.6.1 Elastic Behavior.......................................................... 71
3.6.2 Viscous Behavior........................................................ 72
3.6.3 Viscoelastic Behavior ................................................. 75
3.6.4 Linear Viscoelasticity................................................. 78
3.6.5 Compliance Function .................................................80
3.7 General Observation ................................................................84
References ..........................................................................................84

Chapter 4 Polymer Processing ............................................................................ 87

4.1 Extrusion ................................................................................. 87
4.1.1 Granulation ................................................................. 88
4.1.2 Film Blowing .............................................................. 88
4.1.3 Film and Sheet Casting .............................................. 93
4.1.4 Extrusion Blow Molding ............................................ 95
4.1.5 Wire Coating ..............................................................97
4.1.6 Pipe and Profile .......................................................... 98
4.1.7 Fiber Spinning ............................................................ 98
4.1.8 Co-Extrusion ............................................................ 101
4.2 Injection Molding .................................................................. 102
4.3 Rotational Molding ................................................................ 103
4.4 Calendering ........................................................................... 103
4.5 General Observation .............................................................. 104
References ........................................................................................ 105

Chapter 5 Melt Fracture Experiments............................................................... 109

5.1 Constant-Pressure and Constant-Rate Experiments .............. 110
5.1.1 Discontinuous Flow Curves ..................................... 114
5.1.2 Continuous Flow Curves .......................................... 120
5.2 Flow Visualization................................................................. 122
5.2.1 Particle Tracking ...................................................... 124
5.2.2 Flow Birefringence ................................................... 126
5.2.3 Stacked Colors .......................................................... 130
5.3 Critical Numbers ................................................................... 131
5.3.1 Reynolds Number ..................................................... 132
5.3.2 Weissenberg and Deborah Number .......................... 132
Contents xi

5.3.3 Recoverable Strain ................................................... 134

5.3.4 Critical Stress ........................................................... 135
5.4 Melt Fracture Observation ..................................................... 139
5.4.1 Microscopy ............................................................... 139
5.4.2 Profilometry.............................................................. 140
5.4.3 Indirect Methods ...................................................... 141
5.4.4 Melt Fracture Quantification .................................... 144
5.5 Change of Slope..................................................................... 147
5.6 Wall Slip ................................................................................ 148
5.6.1 The Mooney Method ................................................ 148
5.6.2 The Laun Method ..................................................... 151
5.6.3 Other Methods.......................................................... 153
5.7 Compressibility...................................................................... 154
5.8 General Observation .............................................................. 155
References ........................................................................................ 156

Chapter 6 Melt Fracture Variables .................................................................... 167

6.1 Polymer Architecture ............................................................ 167
6.2 Polymer-Processing Variables ............................................... 174
6.2.1 Length–Radius Ratio ............................................... 174
6.2.2 Die Entry and Exit Angle ......................................... 179
6.2.3 Die Construction Material........................................ 182
6.2.4 Die Surface Roughness ............................................ 184
6.2.5 Die Surface Modifier ................................................ 186
6.2.6 Temperature.............................................................. 187
6.3 General Observation .............................................................. 192
References ........................................................................................ 193

Chapter 7 Understanding Melt Fracture ........................................................... 201

7.1 Melt Fracture Mechanisms ....................................................202
7.1.1 Reynolds Turbulence ................................................202
7.1.2 Thermal Catastrophe ................................................202
7.1.3 Stress-Induced Fractionation ....................................202
7.1.4 Fracture ....................................................................202
7.1.5 Cavitation .................................................................205
7.1.6 Interfacial Slip ..........................................................205
7.1.6.1 Microscopic Mechanisms—Cohesive
Failure .......................................................207
7.1.6.2 Microscopic Mechanisms—Adhesive
Failure .......................................................209
7.2 The Constitutive Approach .................................................... 211
7.2.1 Phenomenology ........................................................ 211
7.2.2 Relaxation Oscillations ............................................ 212
7.2.3 Numerical Simulations ............................................. 214
7.2.4 Molecular Considerations......................................... 215
xii Contents

7.3 General Understanding .......................................................... 218

7.4 General Observation .............................................................. 225
References ........................................................................................ 226

Chapter 8 Advanced Polymer Rheology ........................................................... 233

8.1 Molar Mass, Zero-Shear Viscosity, and Recoverable
Compliance ............................................................................ 234
8.2 Continuous Models and Frame Invariance............................ 237
8.2.1 Upper-Convected Maxwell Model ........................... 239
8.2.2 Johnson–Segalman–(Oldroyd) Models .................... 241
8.2.2.1 Johnson–Segalman Model ........................ 241
8.2.2.2 Johnson–Segalman–Oldroyd Model ........244
8.2.3 Kaye–Bernstein–Kearsley–Zapas Model ................. 245
8.3 Microscopic Models ..............................................................248
8.3.1 Rouse Model............................................................. 250
8.3.2 Reptation Model ....................................................... 253
8.3.3 Branching ................................................................. 258
8.3.4 Pom-Pom Model ....................................................... 259
8.4 Molar Mass Distribution and Linear Viscoelasticity ............ 261
8.5 General Observation .............................................................. 263
References ........................................................................................ 263

Chapter 9 Modeling Melt Fracture ................................................................... 267

9.1 The Relaxation-Oscillation Model ........................................ 268
9.2 Coupling RO and Constitutive Equations.............................. 271
9.3 Slip-Boundary Conditions ..................................................... 275
9.4 A Rheological Model Including Wall Slip ............................280
9.5 Bulk and Interfacial Viscosity Balance for Different
Polymers ................................................................................284
9.6 Flow Curve and Melt Fracture Relation ................................ 287
9.6.1 “Spurt” Distortions................................................... 288
9.6.2 Surface Distortions ................................................... 288
9.6.3 Volume Distortions................................................... 290
9.7 General Observation ..............................................................290
References ........................................................................................ 291

Chapter 10 Preventing Melt Fracture .................................................................. 295

10.1 Additives ................................................................................ 295
10.1.1 Slip Agents ............................................................... 297
10.1.2 Polymer Blends......................................................... 298
10.1.3 Wax........................................................................... 299
10.1.4 Fillers........................................................................ 299
Contents xiii

10.2 Extruder and Processing Conditions .....................................300

10.3 Dealing with Melt Fracture ................................................... 303
10.3.1 Melt Fracture Checklist ............................................ 305
10.4 General Observation .............................................................. 305
References ........................................................................................306
Index ...................................................................................................................... 313
Foreword
Extrusion defects present true limits to the processing of synthetic polymers.
Productivity maximization of the processing equipment is restricted when extrusion
defects occur in such polymer processing operations as extrusion blown film, blow
molding, cable coating, and injection molding, and tube, sheet, and profile extrusions.
Different extrusion defects may be encountered depending on the polymer con-
sidered and the processing conditions. “Polymer melt fracture” thus refers to a wide
variety of extrusion defects often identified with a descriptive terminology such as
“sharkskin,” “orange peel,” “bamboo,” “spurt,” “helical,” and “gross melt fracture.”
Typically, these extrusion defects are each associable to different polymer melt flow
features. The existing nomenclature often induces confusion as the terms do not
relate to the perceived origin of the extrusion defect. It makes understanding and
pinpointing possible solutions for suppressing the extrusion defect more difficult.
In the second half of the twentieth century, at the beginning of the “plastics age,”
polymer producers emphasized the development of new polymers and compounds.
The main focus was to target differentiated physicochemical properties while the
polymer processing issues were believed to be of minor importance and would be
solved eventually. Indeed polymer converters invested hugely, often through “trial-
and-error” approaches, to optimize polymer processing and suppress, or at least
postpone, the extrusion defects. Progress toward higher yield extrusion was being
made by mechanical engineering feats, modifying extrusion die geometries, or by
introducing “magic” additives. The issue now, however, was that for each polymer
type or class, a similar optimization exercise was required.
Eventually, in the early 1990s, it was possible to claim that extrusion defects in
polymer processing had been mastered. What apparently remained was an academic
research topic aimed at defining an elegant theory explaining the underlying physics
of the phenomena.
However, new developments in polymer chemistry allowed for innovative and
industrially relevant polymer architectures to be presented to the market (e.g., metal-
locene catalyzed polyethylene). Polymer producers and converters alike discovered
that the existing empirical approach to solving extrusion defect issues failed. The
topic of polymer melt fracture was back on the agenda of many researchers. It clearly
indicated the need to really understand the underlying physical mechanisms of these
phenomena.
Between 2000 and 2004, a Fifth European Framework Research project entitled
3PI (Postpone Polymer Processing Instabilities—G5RD-CT2000-00238) aimed at
resolving precisely this issue. A consortium of polymer and polymer additives sup-
pliers, polymer converters, and some of the most prominent universities and research
centers joined forces to take a very close look at the polymer architecture, the associ-
ated rheology, the processing behavior, and the occurrence of extrudate defects. This
book by Rudy Koopmans, Jaap den Doelder, and Jaap Molenaar presents a number

xv
xvi Foreword

of the more important findings of this major collaborative work. However, the book
aims to be much more than just a research report.
The first merit of this book is that it describes precisely and in detail the defects
that may be encountered for various polymers during processing. This is depicted
by a series of amazing illustrations, which, for many polymer converters, may be
considered as a “museum of horror”; however, for scientists, these are things of
beauty, reflecting shapes of polymer organizations that are still to be understood and
predicted.
The second merit of this book is the identification of the thermomechanical con-
ditions, i.e., pressure, stress, shear and elongational rate, and temperature for which
extrusion defects appear. The processing operational maps that may be deduced
from the reported experimental findings will be of direct use for polymer converters.
The third merit of this book is that it proposes a uniform nomenclature for poly-
mer melt fracture and plausible mechanisms for the occurrence and the development
of extrusion defects. Surface distortions, often referred to as “sharkskin” and vis-
ible as a slight periodic deformed or sometimes fractured extrudate skin at the die
exit, are related to the elongational properties of the polymer melt stream. Volume
distortions often appearing as “helical” extrudate deformations are equally defined
by the elongational character of the polymer melt and the flow instability it gener-
ates upstream before the die entrance. The combination of polymer compressibility
before the die entrance and a periodic transition between weak and strong slip at the
die wall results in a “spurt” defect. The latter again is inspired by the elongational
characteristics of the polymer melt. It can be mathematically described by relaxation
oscillation functions that capture the pressure–flow rate behavior in a sawtooth pat-
tern and relate the extrudate defect to a repetitive sequence of smooth, surface-, and
volume-distorted features.
These insights represent a real step forward for polymer converters and polymer
producers alike in order to find remedies to suppress the “sharkskin” defect, for
example. It will be futile to modify the upstream die geometry but a reduction of
the elongational stress at the die exit will instead postpone the occurrence of surface
distortions. On the contrary, when faced with volume distortions, it is of no use to
introduce polymer additives or to modify the die geometry outlet because the origin
of the phenomenon is to be found before the die entry.
The book also indicates that the polymer melt fracture story has not come to
an end. Further experiments and theoretical developments are needed. For all
these reasons, this book is a major contribution to the world of polymers and poly-
mer processing. It provides a baseline for the state of the art and is a source for
marvelous challenges for theoreticians and mathematicians interested in devel-
oping advanced stability theories for nonlinear viscoelastic fluids in strong flow
conditions.

Professor Dr. Ir. Jean-François Agassant

Department of Material Science and Engineering
Mines-Paristech
Sophia-Antipolis, France
Preface
The extrusion of polymer melts through dies at high rates often yields distorted
extrudates. A 1945 paper by H.K. Nason published in the Journal of Applied Physics,
volume 6, pp. 338–343 and entitled “A high temperature, high pressure rheometer
for plastics” was the first to (briefly) mention the phenomenon of extrudate distortion
for polymer melts. More than 65 years later, polymer extrudate distortion remains
an important topic for research and development activities in industry and academia.
The considerable interest in this topic, commonly referred to as polymer melt frac-
ture, is mainly driven by economic (a polymer processing limit) and scientific inter-
ests (why does it occur?).
In the second half of the twentieth century, synthetic polymers (plastics) evolved
from a research curiosity to a market of more than 250 million tons. Compared to
steel and aluminum, the global volume of plastics continues to grow on a global basis
at a steady, averaged rate of about 5% per year. The steady growth has, and is stim-
ulating continued improvements in the area of polymer architecture and polymer
extrusion techniques. Significant progress has been made in each area but polymer
melt fracture always remained a challenge.
The linguist Noam Chomsky once suggested that our ignorance can be divided
into problems and mysteries. When we face a problem, we may not know its solution,
but we have insight, increasing knowledge, and an inkling of what we are looking
for. When we face a mystery, however, we can only stare in wonder and bewilder-
ment, not knowing what an explanation would even look like. Polymer melt fracture
is not a mystery anymore but still remains a problem. Key to the problem solu-
tion are answers to the questions: “What triggers polymer melt fracture?,” “How
does polymer melt fracture relate to the polymer architecture?,” and “Is polymer
melt fracture predictable in terms of macroscopically defined material properties
and processing conditions?” The efforts to find these answers resulted in a signifi-
cant body of literature. The publications range from simple experimental observa-
tions to advanced theoretical considerations and conjectures. Several review papers
are available discussing different aspects of the topic. The book edited by S.G.
Hatzikiriakos and K.B. Migler—Polymer Processing Instabilities, Marcel Dekker,
New York, 2005—focuses on specific issues of polymer melt fracture (as will be
defined in this book) and general fluid flow instabilities such as draw resonance in
fiber spinning and film blowing. However, bringing together industrial polymer melt
fracture features with academic understanding has not been done in an extensive
way. This would require a systematic in-depth overview of the available knowledge,
covering a comprehensive body of literature and bringing together various aspects
from experiment to modeling on polymer melt fracture. In addition, that knowledge
should lead to insights on “how to” either prevent the phenomenon from occurring
or remediate when it presents itself in practice. Therefore, in this book the aim is to
provide both up-to-date understanding and practical guidance for identification and
remediation. For all those faced with observations of “strange” extrudate behavior,

xvii
xviii Preface

this book should provide a basis for what options one has to address polymer melt
fracture phenomena.
The route followed to bring all these aspects together has been challenging and
at times frustrating. On the one hand, the subject matter is complex as it involves
many different aspects of science and technology. It requires the collaboration of
open-minded people who are specialists in different disciplines. On the other hand,
confusing descriptions of polymer melt fracture, contradictory experimental results,
and opposing theoretical explanations have tested our patience to present a final
answer to the key questions. Moreover, scientific enquiry and economic striving are
not always compatible. It has led many times to restricting the advancement of sci-
ence and technology and limiting the progress of knowledge. Consequently, the writ-
ing and publishing process took longer than anticipated. Irrespective, we believe this
book provides insight and guidance. We do, however, realize that no final, “one-size-
fits-theory” has been formulated as yet. It implies that there are different remediative
steps to be taken for different polymer melt fracture phenomena. Therefore, the book
is divided into 10 chapters, and sufficient reference material and insight are provided
for readers to develop either a pragmatic understanding of polymer melt fracture or a
basis for a more mathematical and theoretically inclined approach.
Each chapter covers a different aspect of science and technology in relation to
polymer melt fracture. A book on this topic is not complete without pictures. In
Chapter 1, we collected a set of optical and scanning electron microscopy pictures
of distorted capillary die extrudates for a number of commercially available poly-
mers. These pictures illustrate the variety and “beauty” of polymer melt fracture
irrespective of the specific nature of the polymers used. Throughout the book, more
application-oriented polymer melt fracture pictures are shown. Chapters 2 and 3
present a brief introduction to the basic science and technology of polymers. They
cover subjects that should be considered essential knowledge to study polymer melt
fracture. Chapter 2 reviews what polymers are, how they are made, and how they
can be characterized. Chapter 3 discusses some aspects of polymer rheology. The
principles of continuum mechanics are reviewed and linear viscoelastic material
functions are defined.
Next, it is appropriate to present how polymer melt fracture is experienced in the
polymer processing industry. Therefore, Chapter 4 focuses on the various ways poly-
mer melt fracture may appear during polymer melt processing in different extrusion
processes. A clear distinction is made between polymer melt fracture and polymer
melt flow instability phenomena and only the first subject is examined in detail.
Chapters 5 and 6 present a comprehensive review of the literature on polymer
melt fracture. In Chapter 5, we focus exclusively on the experimental findings and
the techniques used to observe and measure polymer melt fracture. Chapter 6 looks
into the influence of polymer architecture and polymer processing conditions on
the onset and types of polymer melt fracture. This leads to Chapter 7, where we
present the current understanding of polymer melt fracture and venture into a poly-
mer melt fracture hypothesis. To capture that insight for practical use, it is impor-
tant to develop models (mathematical equations). Models allow for simulations that
may indicate potential solutions to manage polymer melt fracture. As an introduc-
tion, Chapter 8 is devoted to aspects of nonlinear constitutive equations and some
Preface xix

microscopic theory. The advanced rheology presentation is required to understand

some reported approaches and to develop a macroscopic model that may quantita-
tively describe polymer melt fracture phenomena. In Chapter 9, we explain the capa-
bilities and limitations of such an approach. In Chapter 10, we consider it important
to present an overview of pragmatic tools and approaches that have been used to
prevent the appearance of polymer melt fracture.
Throughout the 10 chapters, only one class of viscoelastic fluids is considered,
namely, thermoplastic polymer melts. Dilute or concentrated polymer solutions con-
taining flexible or stiff polymers, liquid crystalline materials, or colloids are subjects
that have not been dealt with in this book except through some relevant references.
The preface would not be complete without acknowledging the many people who
supported (morally as well as actively) the completion of this book. First of all, we
would like to acknowledge the patience of our families and friends. Throughout
the many weekends, late evenings, and vacation days they always were very patient
and lenient to the absent-minded writers. In addition, we would like to acknowledge
many colleagues and friends for their unwavering support. As a first, thanks to Bob
Sammler for reviewing and correcting the manuscript in detail. We appreciated very
much his suggestions for textual improvements as well as his continued encourage-
ment during difficult times. A particular word of appreciation is reserved for Dennis
Liebman and Steve Martin. Their relentless support helped in putting the work
together and meant a lot in the final analysis. The people who actually inspired RJK
to embark on this endeavor were those participating in a daylong session discussing
the issues of polymer melt fracture at the Dow Sarnia R&D labs in Canada. Among
them Susan Hagan and her “sister” Deb Walker, and Tony Samurkas asked questions
that were most difficult to answer, indicating that it was time to sort out what was
really understood in this field of science and technology and, more importantly, how
that understanding could be applied.
There have been many more people that contributed to this book as colleagues at
The Dow Chemical Company or as university research partners. Their contributions
came in many ways: in small ways through discussions, by providing test results, or
sometimes by just being helpful, which allowed us to complete this book. As past
and present Dow colleagues we would like to thank Marc Mangnus, Lizzy Vinjé,
Larry Kale, Brian Dickie, Freddy van Damme, Monika Plass, Roger Michielsen,
Bob Vastenhout, Flip Bosscher, Hans de Jonge, Sjoerd de Vries, Giel de Pooter,
David Porter, Gunther Muggli, Paul Fisch, Gerard van de Langkruis, Cristina Serrat,
Mehmet Demirors, Mark Vreys, Marc Dees, Bernadette Schelstraete, Marjan Sturm,
Huguette Baete, Marlies Totté, Stéphane Costeux, Jérome Claracq, Jef van Dun,
Joe Dooley, Kun Hyun, Joe Bicerano, Sandra Hofmann, Sarada Namhata, Sarah
Patterson, Clive Bosnyak, Chris Christenson, Johan Thoen, Pat Andreozzi, Randy
Collard, Hank Kohlbrand, Willem de Groot, Dana Gier, Thomas Allgeuer, Mark
Murphy, and Nicolien Groosman.
Over the last 25 years, several research projects on the topic required us to collab-
orate with creative people, pragmatic industrialists, professors, and PhD and master
students. Many of their names can be found in the referenced literature in this book.
Thanks to Tony Daponte, Fons van de Ven, Stef van Eindhoven, Annemarie Aerts,
Marcel Grob, Han Slot, Jean-FranÇois Agassant, Bruno Vergnes, Cécile Venet,
xx Preface

Virginie Durand, Jean-Pierre Villemaire, Jean-Michel Piau, Nadia El-Kissi, John

Dealy, Savvas Hatzikiriakos, Stuart Kurtz, Malcolm Mackley, Meera Ranganathan,
Karen Lee, Tom McLeish, Martin Laun, Manfred Wagner, Helmut Münstedt,
Hans Hürlimann, Hans-Christian Öttinger, Joachim Meissner, Johan Dubbeldam,
Roman Stepanyan, Michael Tchesnokov, Gérard Marin, Frédéric Leonardi, Ahmed
Allal, Alexandrine Lavernhe, Armin Merten, Martin Jakob, Laurent Robert,
Christelle Combeaud, Rudy Vallette, Yves Demay, Dawn Arda, Kalman Migler,
Georgios Georgiou, Lourdes de Vargas, José Perez-Gonzalez, Oleg Kulikov, Suneel
Kunamaneni, Steffen Berger, and Tobias Königer. For those collaborators who do
not find their names, we apologize as they may have escaped our memories over
the years. However, their contributions are equally valued, for they too have been
fascinated by the subject of polymer melt fracture. We would like to thank them for
their contributions.
Two of us, RJK and CFJdD, would like to express our gratitude to The Dow
Chemical Company for providing us the opportunity to work on various occasions
and in different capacities on the fascinating subject of polymer melt fracture, and
for allowing us to use some pictures as well as supporting us through the entire pub-
lishing process.
Authors
Rudy Koopmans received his PhD in physical and mac-
romolecular chemistry from the University of Antwerp,
Antwerp, Belgium. He is a fellow in the Basic Plastics
R&D organization of The Dow Chemical Company
located in Horgen, Switzerland. Since he joined Dow
in 1983, he has held various R&D positions in Europe
and the United States. His main R&D focus is on mate-
rials development, polymer processing, and developing
innovative technology solutions to market needs and
identified market trends. In addition, he holds a visit-
ing professorship at Leeds University (Leeds, United
Kingdom) in the Department of Chemical Engineering. He has published more than
50 peer-reviewed papers in international journals and books, and is a holder of mul-
tiple patents.

Jaap den Doelder received his MSc in applied phys-

ics and applied mathematics at Eindhoven University of
Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands. He received
his PhD in applied mathematics at the same university
in 1999 on the topic of polymer melt fracture. In the
same year, he joined The Dow Chemical Company in
Terneuzen, the Netherlands. He has since worked on a
variety of topics related to materials science and model-
ing of polymers, connecting application requirements to
molecular design. He is currently a research scientist in
Dow’s polyethylene business.

Jaap Molenaar studied mathematics and theoretical

physics at Leiden University, Leiden, the Netherlands,
and wrote a PhD thesis on the field of solid state phys-
ics. For more than a decade, he was involved in math-
ematics consulting. He received the Neways Award for
his work on academic knowledge transfer to industry.
Jaap specializes in the modeling of dynamical systems
with a focus on differential equations and has published
several books on these topics. His research focuses
on fluid mechanics, in particular polymer melt flow.
Recently, he has taken keen interest in systems biol-
ogy. He is a full professor in applied mathematics and the head of the Department
for Mathematical and Statistical Methods for the Life Sciences of Wageningen
University and Research Centre, Wageningen, the Netherlands.

xxi
 1 Polymer Melt
Fracture Pictures
Polymer melt fracture is a visual experience on extrudate distortions. A book on
polymer melt fracture is not complete without illustrating some of the many pos-
sible shapes and forms of distorted extrudates directly observable during polymer
processing. Polymer melt extrusion of single extrudate strands or fibers, tubular
blown films, thin cast films or thicker sheets, profiles, parisons, pipes, or tubes are
prone to show visible defects under particular processing conditions. The defects
are any deviation from a smooth, glossy, regular extrudate. In mold-filling extru-
sion operations, the defects may only become observable on the final solid part.
For instance, injection-molded parts may show defects that reflect a polymer melt
extrudate filling a mold inhomogeneously. Other forms of polymer processing
such as calendering, compression, and rotational molding may induce, respec-
tively, film, sheet, and part defects. Similarly, secondary processing techniques
like thermoforming and lamination may give rise to part defects often resembling
and associated with polymer melt fracture. The origin of these latter types of part
defects, however, is often a confounded consequence of physical and mechani-
cal processes. For some, polymer melt fracture could be one of the contributing
factors.
What polymer melt fracture is precisely, how it comes about, and how it may
be avoided is explored and explained in Chapters 5 to 10. But, before getting into
the science and technology, let us have a look at intentionally created polymer melt
fracture. The illustrations below show an amazing variety of distorted polymer melt
extrudates. Even so, it is not intended to be exhaustive but merely illustrative of how
polymer melts can “self-organize” to form new topologies under the influence of
work in an “open system.”
First, a series of optical microscopy pictures illustrates the various forms of sur-
face and volume distortions in order of increasing severity. A picture of the extru-
date distortion is shown together with its schematic representation as used also in
Chapter 6 (Courtesy of C. Venet). The picture series is composed out of extrudates
from different types of commercially available polyethylene (PE) grades. PE grades
are selected as they manifest the widest range of different extrudate distortions.
Typically, one polymer grade does not show all possible extrudate distortions. The
illustrations have varying magnifications indicated for each picture. The extrudates
are obtained with a constant-rate capillary Rhéoplast® rheometer (Courbon SA, St
Etienne, France).
Second, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) pictures illustrate extrudates, mag-
nified 40 times, for a selection of commercially available PE, polypropylene (PP),

1
2 Polymer Melt Fracture

polystyrene (PS), and polycarbonate (PC) grades. For each grade, the extrudates
.
are obtained at several apparent wall shear rates γa by using a constant-rate Göttfert
2001® capillary rheometer (Göttfert Werkstoff-Prüfmaschine GmbH, Buchen,
Germany). The selected piston speed is kept approximately similar for the various
tests. For all tests, the same capillary is used having a die aspect ratio defined as
length L over diameter, that is, two times the capillary radius R—(L/2R = 20/1 mm,
180° entry angle) except for one PE where L/2R = 10/1 mm in view of its signifi-
cantly different rheological behavior. In all experiments, the polymer melt tem-
perature is 180°C, except for PC (280°C). In some pictures, small dust particles
(not related to polymer melt fracture) are attached to the surface of the extrudates
as a result of the SEM sample pretreatment. The procedure includes mounting the
solid extrudates on an aluminum sample holder, drying at room temperature, and
sputtering it with gold to make the surface conductive. The SEM instrument is a
Philips SEM505 operating at 30 kV. The picture legends provide further detail on
the capillary experiment. The flow direction is from right to left or from top to
bottom.

1.1 OPTICAL MICRoSCoPY

Various forms of polymer melt fracture are illustrated in Figures 1.1 to 1.15. At
increasing shear rates smooth extrudate surfaces become gradually more distorted.
At even higher shear rates the extrudate shows a combination of surface distortions
and smooth (Figure 1.9). Eventually exotic extrudate shapes are produced of which
only a few are shown (Figures 1.10 to 1.15).

FIGURE 1.1 Transparent extrudate with smooth surface. Metallocene-catalyzed very-low-

density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 870 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—
.
magnification ×120; L/2R = 16/1.39 mm; entry angle 180°; 190°C; γa = 7 s−1. (From Venet, C.,
Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface de résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole des
Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis, France, 1996.)
Polymer Melt Fracture Pictures 3

FIGURE 1.2 Transparent extrudate with “orange peel” surface. Ziegler–Natta-

catalyzed linear low-density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 920 kg/m3; MFR
(190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnification ×120; L/2R = 0 (~very small)/1.39 mm; entry
.
angle 180°; 190°C; γa = 99 s−1. (From Venet, C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de sur-
face de résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia
Antipolis, France, 1996.)

FIGURE 1.3 Matte extrudate with high-frequency low-amplitude “wavelets” surface.

Ziegler–Natta-catalyzed linear low-density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 920 kg/m3; MFR
(190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnification ×120; L/2R = 0 (~very small)/1.39 mm; entry
.
angle 180°; 150°C; γa = 244 s−1. (From Venet, C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface
de résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis,
France, 1996.)
4 Polymer Melt Fracture

FIGURE 1.4 Matte extrudate with “pitted, cracked” surface. Metallocene-catalyzed

high-density ethylene polymer containing long chain branching (ρ = 957 kg/m3; MFR
(190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnification ×120; L/2R = 0 (~very small)/1.39 mm; entry
.
angle 180°; 150°C; γa = 57 s−1. (From Venet, C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface
de résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis,
France, 1996.)

FIGURE 1.5 Transparent extrudate with “pitted, sharkskin-feel” surface. Metallocene-

catalyzed very-low-density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 870 kg/m3; MFR
(190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnification ×120; L/2R = 16/1.39 mm; entry angle 180°;
.
150°C; γa = 14 s−1. (From Venet, C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface de résins
polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis, France,
1996.)
Polymer Melt Fracture Pictures 5

FIGURE 1.6 Translucent extrudate with “high-frequency low-amplitude ridged” surface.

Metallocene-catalyzed very-low-density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 870 kg/m3; MFR
(190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnification ×120; L/2R = 0 (~very small)/1.39 mm; entry
.
angle 180°; 150°C; γa = 43 s−1. (From Venet, C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface
de résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis,
France, 1996.)

FIGURE 1.7 Translucent extrudate with “screw-treaded” surface. Metallocene-catalyzed

very-low-density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 870 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/
.
min)—magnification ×11; L/2R = 16/1.39 mm; entry angle 180°; 150°C; γa = 76 s−1. (From Venet,
C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface de résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole
des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis, France, 1996.)
6 Polymer Melt Fracture

FIGURE 1.8 Translucent extrudate with “distorted, irregular screw-treaded” surface.

Metallocene-catalyzed very-low-density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 870 kg/m 3; MFR
(190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnification ×11; L/2R = 16/1.39 mm; entry angle 180°;
.
150°C; γa = 183 s−1. (From Venet, C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface de
résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis,
France, 1996.)

FIGURE 1.9 Transition zone “spurt” extrudate. Ziegler–Natta-catalyzed linear low-density

ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 920 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnifica-
.
tion ×11; L/2R = 16/1.39 mm; entry angle 180°; 190°C; γa = 763 s−1. (From Venet, C., Propriétés
d’écoulement et défauts de surface de résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole des Mines de
Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis, France, 1996.)
Polymer Melt Fracture Pictures 7

FIGURE 1.10 Surface distorted extrudate without volume distortions beyond the transition
zone (see Chapter 5). Ziegler–Natta-catalyzed linear low-density ethylene-octene copolymer
(ρ = 920 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnification ×11; L/2R = 16/1.39 mm;
.
entry angle 180°; 150°C; γa = 1370 s−1. (From Venet, C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts
de surface de résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia
Antipolis, France, 1996.)

FIGURE 1.11 Surface- and volume-distorted extrudate. Ziegler–Natta-catalyzed linear

low-density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 920 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—
.
magnification ×11; L/2R = 16/1.39 mm; entry angle 180°; 190°C; γa = 3200 s−1. (From Venet,
C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface de résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole
des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis, France, 1996.)
8 Polymer Melt Fracture

FIGURE 1.12 Helical volume-distorted extrudate. Metallocene-catalyzed very-low-density

ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 870 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnifica-
.
tion ×11; L/2R = 16/1.39 mm; entry angle 180°; 150°C; γa = 320 s−1. (From Venet, C., Propriétés
d’écoulement et défauts de surface de résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole des Mines de
Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis, France, 1996.)

FIGURE 1.13 “Sausage-like” volume-distorted extrudate. Metallocene-catalyzed very-

low-density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 870 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—
.
magnification ×11; L/2R = 0 (~very small)/1.39 mm; entry angle 180°; 150°C; γa = 763 s−1.
(From Venet, C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface de résins polyéthylènes, PhD
thesis, Ecole des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis, France, 1996.)
Polymer Melt Fracture Pictures 9

FIGURE 1.14 Surface- and volume-distorted extrudate. Ziegler–Natta-catalyzed linear

low-density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 920 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—
.
magnification ×11; L/2R = 16/1.39 mm; entry angle 180°; 190°C; γa = 4270 s−1. (From Venet, C.,
Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface de résins polyéthylènes, PhD thesis, Ecole des
Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis, France, 1996.)

FIGURE 1.15 Irregular, “chaotic” volume-distorted extrudate. Metallocene-catalyzed

very-low-density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 870 kg/m3; MFR (190°C) = 1.0 dg/min)—
.
magnification ×11; L/2R = 0 (~very small)/1.39 mm; entry angle 180°; 150°C; γa = 5720 s−1.
(From Venet, C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface de résins polyéthylènes, PhD
thesis, Ecole des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis, France, 1996.)
10 Polymer Melt Fracture

1.2 SCANNING ELECTRoN MICRoSCoPY

Scanning Electron Microscopy of distorted extrudates as generated using a capillary
rheometer for different commercially available plastics reveal an amazing variety of
shapes. The subsequent Figures 1.16 to 1.29 show polymer melt fracture at increasing
shear rates going from (a) to (f).

1 mm 3.0 kV 2.04E1 0043/33 #3 0.08 1 mm 3.0 kV 2.04E1 0048/33 #3 0.25

(a) (b)

1 mm 3.0 kV 2.04E1 0050/33 #3 0.34 1 mm 3.0 kV 2.04E1 0052/33 #3 0.40

(c) (d)

1 mm 3.0 kV 2.04E1 0054/33 #3 0.50 1 mm 3.0 kV 2.04E1 0056/33 #3 1.00

(e) (f)

FIGURE 1.16 SEM of the capillary extrudates of a Ziegler–Natta-catalyzed linear

high-density PE (ρ = 965 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 0.2 dg/min)—magnification ×40;
.
L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C; γa = 144 (a), 450 (b), 612 (c), 720 (d), 900 (e), and
1800 s (f). (Courtesy of M. Mangnus from The Dow Chemical Company.)
−1
Polymer Melt Fracture Pictures 11

1 mm 30.0 kV 2.04E1 2007/91 1 mm 30.1 kV 2.04E1 2004/91

(a) (b)

1 mm 30.1 kV 2.04E1 2001/91

(c)

FIGURE 1.17 SEM of the capillary extrudates of a low-density PE (ρ = 920 kg/m3; MFR
(190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnification ×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C;
.
γa = 144, 450, 620, 900, 1800, and 4500 s−1. (Courtesy of M. Mangnus from The Dow Chemical
Company.)

1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0003/33 #1 0.08 1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0005/33 #1 0.25

(a) (b)

1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0007/33 #1 0.34 1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0025/33 #1 1.00

(c) (d)

FIGURE 1.18 SEM of the capillary extrudates of a Ziegler–Natta-catalyzed linear low-

density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 920 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—
.
magnification ×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C; γa = 144 (a), 450 (b), 612 (c), and
1800 s (d). (Courtesy of M. Mangnus from The Dow Chemical Company.)
−1
12 Polymer Melt Fracture

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0016/33 #3 0.08 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0022/33 #3 0.40

(a) (b)

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0024/33 #3 0.50 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0026/33 #3 1.00

(c) (d)

FIGURE 1.19 SEM of the capillary extrudates of a Ziegler–Natta-catalyzed linear low-

density ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 903 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—
.
magnification ×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C; γa = 144 (a), 720 (b), 900 (c), and
1800 s−1 (d). (Courtesy of M. Mangnus from The Dow Chemical Company.)

1 mm 3.0 kV 2.04E1 0021/33 #67 1 mm 3.0 kV 2.04E1 0022/33 #69

(a) (b)

1 mm 3.0 kV 2.04E1 0023/33 #70 1 mm 3.0 kV 2.04E1 0024/33 #71

(c) (d)

1 mm 2.9 kV 2.04E1 0025/33 #72 1 mm 3.0 kV 2.04E1 0026/33 #73

(e) (f )

FIGURE 1.20 SEM of the capillary extrudates of a Ziegler–Natta-catalyzed linear low-density

ethylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 923 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 0.7 dg/min)—magnification
.
×40; L/2R = 10/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C; γa = 270 (a), 450 (b), 612 (c), 720 (d), 2700 (e), and
4500 s (f). (Courtesy of M. Mangnus from The Dow Chemical Company.)
−1
Polymer Melt Fracture Pictures 13

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0001/33 #2 0.08 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0005/33 #2 0.34

(a) (b)

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0007/33 #2 0.40 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0009/33 #2 0.50

(c) (d)

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0012/33 #2 1.00 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0014/33 #2 2.50

(e) (f)

FIGURE 1.21 SEM of the capillary extrudates of a metallocene-catalyzed low-density eth-

ylene-octene copolymer (ρ = 905 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnification
.
×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C; γa = 144 (a), 612 (b), 720 (c), 900 (d), 1800 (e),
and 4500 s (f). (Courtesy of M. Mangnus from The Dow Chemical Company.)
−1
14 Polymer Melt Fracture

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0001/33 #5 0.08 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0003/33 #5 0.25

(a) (b)

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0006/33 #5 0.34 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0016/33 #5 1.00

(c) (d)

FIGURE 1.22 SEM of the capillary extrudates of a metallocene-catalyzed low-density eth-

ylene-butene copolymer (ρ = 905 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnification
.
×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C; γa = 144 (a), 450 (b), 612 (c), and 1800 s−1 (d).
(Courtesy of M. Mangnus from The Dow Chemical Company.)
Polymer Melt Fracture Pictures 15

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0028/33 #4 0.08 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0044/33 #4 0.20

(a) (b)

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0030/33 #4 0.25 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0032/33 #4 0.34

(c) (d)

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0036/33 #4 0.50 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0038/33 #4 1.00

(e) (f)

FIGURE 1.23 SEM of the capillary extrudates of a metallocene-catalyzed low-density

ethylene-butene polymer (ρ = 885 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 2.0 dg/min)—magnification
.
×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C; γa = 144 (a), 360 (b), 450 (c), 612 (d), 900 (e),
and 1800 s (f). (Courtesy of M. Mangnus from The Dow Chemical Company.)
−1
16 Polymer Melt Fracture

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0001/33 #1 0.08 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0009/33 #1 0.25

(a) (b)

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0011/33 #1 0.34 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0015/33 #1 0.50

(c) (d)

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0017/33 #1 1.00 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0019/33 #1 2.50

(e) (f)

FIGURE 1.24 SEM of the capillary extrudates of a metallocene-catalyzed very-low-density

ethylene-octene polymer (ρ = 870 kg/m3; MFR (190°C/2.16 kg) = 1.0 dg/min)—magnification
.
×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C; γa = 144 (a), 450 (b), 612 (c), 900 (d), 1800 (e),
and 4500 s−1 (f). (Courtesy of M. Mangnus from The Dow Chemical Company.)
Polymer Melt Fracture Pictures 17

1 mm 6.1 kV 2.04E1 0005/33 #2 0.08 1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0007/33 #2 0.40

(a) (b)

1 mm 6.1 kV 2.04E1 0008/33 #2 0.08 1 mm 6.1 kV 2.04E1 0009/33 #2 1.50

(c) (d)

FIGURE 1.25 SEM of the capillary extrudates of an isotactic PP homopolymer (ρ = 905 kg/
m3; MFR (230°C/2.16 kg) = 3.0 dg/min)—magnification ×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle
.
180°; 180°C; γa = 144 (a), 720 (b), 1440 (c), and 2700 s−1 (d). (Courtesy of M. Mangnus from
The Dow Chemical Company.)

1 mm 6.1 kV 2.04E1 0001/33 #1 0.08 1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0002/33 #1 0.25

(a) (b)

1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0003/33 #1 0.40 1 mm 6.1 kV 2.04E1 0004/33 #1 0.80

(c) (d)

FIGURE 1.26 SEM of the capillary extrudates of an electron-beam irradiated isotac-

tic PP homopolymer (ρ = 905 kg/m3; MFR (230°C/2.16 kg) = 3.0 dg/min)—magnification
.
×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C; γa = 144 (a), 450 (b), 720 (c), and 1440 s−1 (d).
(Courtesy of M. Mangnus from The Dow Chemical Company.)
18 Polymer Melt Fracture

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0011/33 29B 0.08 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0013/33 29B 0.2
(a) (b)

1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0017/33 29B 0.4 1 mm 15.1 kV 2.04E1 0019/33 29B 1.0
(c) (d)

FIGURE 1.27 SEM of the capillary extrudates of a random ethylene-propylene copolymer

(ρ = 905 kg/m3; MFR (230°C/2.16 kg) = 2.0 dg/min)—magnification ×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm;
.
entry angle 180°; 180°C; γa = 144 (a), 360 (b), 720 (c), and 1800 s−1 (d). (Courtesy of M. Mangnus
from The Dow Chemical Company.)
Polymer Melt Fracture Pictures 19

1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0012/33 #7 0.01 1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0013/33 #7 0.05

(a) (b)

1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0014/33 #7 0.10 1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0015/33 #7 0.25

(c) (d)

1 mm 6.1 kV 2.04E1 0016/33 #7 0.50 1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0017/33 #7 2.50

(e) (f)

FIGURE 1.28 SEM of the capillary extrudates of an atactic PS (ρ = 1050 kg/m3; MFR
(200°C/5 kg) = 8.0 dg/min)—magnification ×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C;
.
γa = 18 (a), 90 (b), 180 (c), 450 (d), 900 (e), and 4500 s−1 (f). (Courtesy of S. Namhata from The
Dow Chemical Company.)
20 Polymer Melt Fracture

1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0006/33 #6 0.05 1 mm 6.1 kV 2.04E1 0007/33 #6 0.10

(a) (b)

1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0008/33 #6 0.25 1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0009/33 #6 0.50

(c) (d)

1 mm 6.0 kV 2.04E1 0010/33 #6 2.50 1 mm 6.1 kV 2.04E1 0011/33 #6 6.25

(e) (f)

FIGURE 1.29 SEM of the capillary extrudates of a PC (ρ = 1200 kg/m3; MFR

(300°C/1.2 kg) = 10 dg/min)—magnification ×40; L/2R = 20/1 mm; entry angle 180°; 180°C;
.
γa = 90 (a), 180 (b), 450 (c), 900 (d), 4500 (e), and 10530 s−1 (f). (Courtesy of S. Namhata from
The Dow Chemical Company.)

REfERENCE
1. Venet, C., Propriétés d’écoulement et défauts de surface de résins polyéthylènes. PhD
thesis, Ecole des Mines de Paris (CEMEF), Sophia Antipolis, France, 1996.
 2 Polymer Characteristics
In 1920, Herman Staudinger [1], a German chemist residing as a professor of organic
chemistry at the Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zürich, Switzerland, for-
mulated a theory about the chemical nature of a group of materials of synthetic and
natural origin. He hypothesized that these materials consisted of hochmolekulare
Verbindungen, that is, macromolecules. Only many years later, the concept was suf-
ficiently validated, accepted, and finally rewarded with a Nobel Prize in 1953. Today,
the science of macromolecules is a part of everyday life.
Macromolecules are very large molecules. One class of macromolecules is com-
monly known as polymers. The term “poly-mer” is derived from the Greek language,
meaning many-parts (i.e., many-“mer” units). The mer-unit is the smallest possible
combination of atoms forming a reactive chemical entity, that is, a molecule. Many
such identical molecules have sufficient chemical reactivity to covalently connect
with each other (typically >1000) to form a macromolecule. Molecules with only a
few mer-units are called oligomers. In contrast to polymers, the physical properties
of an oligomer change with the addition or removal of one or more mer-units from
the molecule. The mer-unit is also called the repeat unit (Figure 2.1).
Many biological materials such as proteins, carbohydrates, deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA), and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are macromolecules, often referred to as bio-
polymers. Their chemical configuration typically consists, however, of many differ-
ent mer-units and is vastly more complex than man-made synthetic polymers. The
latter are commonly referred to as plastics or more to the point, as expressed in the
Germanic languages, Kunststoffen (meaning artificial or synthetic materials). From
a scientific perspective, there is a subtle but important difference between polymers
and plastics, as will be pointed out below.
Synthetic polymers are frequently pictured as flexible strands or strings. The pic-
ture is a gross oversimplification of the nature of polymers. However, it suggests two
key molecular features, namely, “very long” and “flexible.” Typically, two types of
synthetic polymers are defined: thermoplastics and thermosets (Figure 2.2).
The distinguishing feature between these two types of synthetic polymers is
based on a physical property. Upon heating, thermoplastics preserve the identity of
the macromolecule, and the solid–liquid transition is thermo-reversible. The primary
covalent bonds remain stable, while a great many intermolecular secondary bonds
are broken and reorganized. Common thermoplastics are polyethylene (PE), polypro-
pylene (PP), polyvinylchloride (PVC), polystyrene (PS), polyethyleneterephthalate
(PET), polycarbonate (PC), and polyamide (PA, better know as nylon) (Table 2.1). In
thermosets, the giant network of covalently interconnected molecules decomposes
upon heating. The primary bonds rupture and the polymer degrades. A well-known
thermoset is Bakelite®, a phenol-formaldehyde synthetic polymer. The more com-
monly available thermosets are polyurethane (PUR) and epoxy resins. Thermosets

21
22 Polymer Melt Fracture

H H
Monomer C C
H CH3

H H H H H H
Polymer H C C C C C C H
CH3 H H CH3 H CH3
n= 1,000–1,000,000

FIGURE 2.1 The chemical structure representation of a polymer (PP) with the repeat unit
shown in brackets. The chemical structure representation of the monomer (here propylene) is
closely reflected in that of the repeat unit. For PP, the mer-unit can be added to a polymerizing
macromolecules in so-called head–tail or head–head position, as illustrated by the position of
the methyl group in the left and right side of the PP formula.

Thermoplastic Thermoset
temporal fixed
network network

FIGURE 2.2 Synthetic polymers are often represented as flexible strands. Two types of poly-
mers are defined: thermoplastics (e.g., PE) and thermosets (e.g., phenol-formaldehyde). The first
is characterized by a temporal network of physically interacting macromolecules, the latter by a
chemically fixed network, that is, one giant macromolecule.

are typically produced by mixing very low viscosity liquids. The components react
in situ to form a giant molecule of (mostly) covalently interconnected molecules.
Although defects in or distortions of the final part may appear in thermoset products,
polymer melt fracture is typically not an issue. Accordingly, this book focuses on
thermoplastics.

2.1 PoLYmERS
Polymer melt fracture is a very critical issue when processing thermoplastics. This
peculiar behavior of the polymer in the fluid state during flow is related to the poly-
mers being “very long” and “flexible.” Any chemical or physical change that affects
these two features will impact polymer melt fracture. Therefore, some basic aspects
and

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amongst

309 Russia
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providing

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India

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279

through
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learn

langurs armour aid

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lion often species

ONKEYS 26

It asserted

and

pups stable between

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dominions of

calf Bechuanaland

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hind

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natural

as

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sculptured The

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to monkeys or
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208 mole farther

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AND an

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Photo Fawn

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SHAPED

scramble lie

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specimen which chickens

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MANGABEY refuse

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month

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to while

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ALAYAN as and

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Central

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373 LACK of

But

and

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so Fratelli

bedstead is perform

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the knows

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In any

grizzled whilst

lives and
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shot York s

species and extremely

HE

described

show showing
by severely

cage begins

where on

Moles we tan

the very

end 69
IVETS

to

on track practical

Were the

permission up the

Library

this mischief

were and
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being the and

One the

but in

69 hues S
in of when

account bolted the

bones seen a

the

short the the

inclines a

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up vigorous
seldom resembling

tigers

its living of

English

ruined that fields

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WILD variety

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oxen outside inches

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at night to

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stand itself

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will

into

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loose or

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MONKEY

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the habits to

and themselves HIGHLAND

figure proved

almost in World
or

grass absolutely

gymnastics

or

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by UNCH

with that

is EMURS

71 requiring

Coyote as texture
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house time a

story

probably

spite

soon