Tortillas

LW Rooney, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

SO Serna-Saldivar, ITESM-Campus, Monterrey, Mexico
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Topic Highlights rest of the world. Processing plants for tortillas and alkaline-
cooked corn snacks are located in almost every continent.
• Historical background Around the world, a large number of different types of
• Processes used in production of wheat and corn tortillas flatbreads are made from blends of many cereals. Consump-
• Chemical reactions involved in wheat and corn tortillas tion is increasing because they use local grains and they are
formation used as wraps for a wide variety of foods. The convenience and
• Nixtamalized corn made into masa widespread production of wraps and related products will
• Masa formed into tortilla and variety of snacks continue because they are finger foods as well as sophisticated
• Table tortillas, wheat or corn: soft or fried foods. They are widely consumed because they are convenient
• Nutritional value and importance and can be rapidly reheated and consumed. It is common to
take tortillas for lunch, breakfast, and dinner with other items.
They vary from upscale products to simply wrapping of meat or
Learning Objectives vegetables in tacos or many other items.

• To realize the nutritional importance of grain in the diet

• To understand chemical reaction in converting grains into Wheat Flour Tortillas
flatbreads
• To discuss the difference in wheat and maize flours in All wheat tortillas contain flour, water, fat, and salt. Tortillas
production of products prepared using these ingredients are leavened by steam gener-
• To understand chemical functionality of maize and wheat ated during baking, have dark toast points, and have areas that
in food products are translucent (i.e., not opaque). These tortillas are common in
northern Mexico and are 1 mm thick, up to 60 cm in diame-
ter, and contain up to 20% fat (on a weight of flour basis). Most
Introduction flour tortillas outside of Mexico and Central America contain
baking powder for leavening to ‘improve’ flavor, opacity,
A tortilla is a flat, round, unfermented bread produced from texture (softness and rollability), and shelf life (1 week to 6
wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour or lime (CaO)-cooked maize months). Tortillas with good appearance, uniform whiteness or
(corn – Zea mays L.). Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.) is used opacity, large diameter, and long shelf stability are prepared
alone or in mixtures with maize for tortillas in parts of Central using chemical leavening agents, emulsifiers, reducing agents,
America. Processing and characteristics of wheat flour and antifungal agents, acidulants, gums or hydrocolloids, sugar,
maize tortillas differ considerably. Both types of tortillas origi- maltodextrins, proteins, and nonactive yeast.
nated in Mexico, where they are considered the national bread Flour tortillas in Mexico and Central America are usually
and are consumed with other food such as beans, meat, and consumed fresh on the day of production, just as ‘chapatis,’ an
vegetables. Tortillas, traditionally, are homemade, prepared on unleavened, flatbread in India and southern Asia, is prepared
a daily basis, and consumed fresh. The technology for maize from wheat flour, water, salt, and fat (optional). The formula
tortilla production was developed by early Mesoamerican and processing of flour tortillas in the United States have
civilizations. Tortillas and ‘masa’ products constitute the staple changed to yield a longer shelf life tortilla, due to the cultural
food for most people in Mexico and Central America. The practices of infrequent shopping, refrigerated storage of foods,
annual per capita intake in 2001 was 85 kg in Mexico (up to and preparation and consumption over several weeks.
120 kg in some areas), 6 kg in the United States, and 0.3 kg in Hot-press, die-cut, and hand-stretch methods are used to
Europe. The technology for wheat flour tortillas was developed form wheat dough into thin disks in the preparation of flour
during the sixteenth century in northern Mexico. tortillas by the food industry. These methods have replaced the
Tortillas are increasing in popularity throughout the world. traditional processes of preparing tortilla disks by hand. Each
Global sales in 2012 were estimated at $12 billion for tortillas requires different flour specifications, dough preparation, and
and 10 billion for maize ‘tacos,’ ‘tostadas,’ tortilla chips, and baking conditions, resulting in distinct tortilla characteristics.
other corn snacks. Mexico accounts for 42% of the world’s Hot-press tortillas (Figure 1) are consumed as gourmet
production of tortillas, the United States 36%, Central America table tortillas, ‘fajitas,’ and soft tacos and are prepared in res-
9%, and other countries 13%. Maize comprises 98% of the taurants for immediate consumption. Hot-press tortillas have a
tortillas consumed in Mexico and Central America. In Mexico, smooth surface, a tender bite, and some elasticity; resist mois-
40% of the maize is used for tortillas. The tortilla industry is the ture absorption from fillings; and have longer shelf stability
fourth largest industry (0.90% of GDP) in Mexico. Wheat flour than other flour tortillas. Hot-press tortillas are the most pop-
tortillas are more prevalent than maize tortillas throughout the ular and account for >90% of the retail market.

Reference Module in Food Sciences http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.00124-4 1

2 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Tortillas

Figure 1 Processing of flour tortillas using the hot-press method. Note: (a), tortilla dough (D) in bowl with dough hook (H); (b), dough balls;
(c), resting chamber for dough and dough balls; (d), dough ball moving on Teflon belt into the hot-press (P) behind inset area (I; arrow indicates press);
(e), pressed disk moving on Teflon belt immediately after hot-pressing (arrows indicate direction of movement); (f), tortilla at the end of the
first tier of a three-tier oven; (g), tortillas on wire conveyer; and (h), stack of flour tortillas.

Die-cut tortillas are mainly used in ‘burritos,’ frozen Mexi- (Figure 1(a)). The optimum dough temperature should be
can foods, and fried products, for example, taco salad bowls, 32–34  C after mixing and gluten development. Dough proper-
taco shells, ‘chimichangas,’ and ‘buñuelos.’ Die-cut tortillas ties are primarily modified by flour quality; levels of reducing
often have dusting flour on the surface, lower moisture con- agent, emulsifier, fat, and water; and dough temperature. The
tent, and a pasty mouthfeel and are less resistant to cracking dough is rested 0–20 min (Figure 1(c)) before being divided and
during storage. The die-cut method greatly reduces the cost of rounded into dough balls (Figure 1(b)) for the hot-press and
production of tortillas. hand-stretch procedures. The dough balls are rested in a warm,
Hand-stretch tortillas are consumed as table tortillas and moist environment for 2–20 min (Figure 1(c)) to relax the
burritos and used to prepare certain fried products. Hand- gluten network. Rested dough balls form larger diameter tortillas
stretch tortillas have dusting flour on the surface, irregular with more opacity and longer shelf stability. Tortilla dimensions
shapes, moderate elasticity, and a firmer bite than hot-press (thickness and diameter), opacity, and shelf stability are affected
tortillas. They are more costly to produce and are decreasing in by the hot-press dough ball pressure, temperature, and duration
popularity. of hot-pressing (Figure 1(d) and 1(e)). In the hand-stretch
Tortilla dough is mixed to incorporate micro-ingredients, fat, procedure, the dough balls pass through two pairs of rollers,
and water into the flour and form a pliable, extensible dough set perpendicular to each other, prior to stretching by hand on
 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Tortillas 3

a hot griddle and baking. The dough for hand-stretch and die-cut also contribute to softer and more flexible tortillas by limiting
tortillas is dusted with flour to prevent adhesion to equipment. amylose retrogradation during storage. Dough-strengthening
The dough, in die-cut operations, is pumped and shaped into a emulsifiers, such as sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate, improve
sheet that is further thinned by a series of rollers and cross rollers dough cohesiveness and integrity of the outside perimeter of
on a moving belt. The thin sheet of dough (0.5–2.5 mm) is cut hot-press tortillas. Emulsifiers, such as glycerol monostearate,
by a circular die, which forms the tortilla shape. The scrap dough limit amylose retrogradation and improve tortilla softness.
is returned to the dough pump and reprocessed. Low-fat (<3 g fat per serving) and fat-free (<0.5 g fat per
The formed tortilla disks, regardless of the process, are baked serving) flour tortillas have been developed; these have proved
(190–260  C for 18–50 s) in gas-fired ovens (Figure 1(f)) that to be extremely popular with sales exceeding $40 million in the
usually have three tiers. Oven conditions vary depending upon United States in 2002.
tortilla thickness, type of conveyor (slat or wire), and method of Antimicrobial agents (propionates, sorbates, or mixtures
preparation. Puffing of the tortilla occurs near the end of baking thereof) limit fungal growth and extend shelf life and are
and is common in hot-press and hand-stretch tortillas. Tortillas used at 0.2–0.6% of flour weight. Optimum antifungal activity
are typically ‘cooled’ to <32  C on conveyors (Figure 1(g)) for occurs at less than pH 5.5. Tortilla pH is lowered by acidulants
2–5 min prior to packaging in plastic bags. Moisture and heat (citric, fumaric, and phosphoric acids). Soluble acids, however,
are lost during this operation. Improper cooling increases not cause the early release of CO2; hence, granular fumaric acid or
only the microbiological problems but also the ‘stickiness’ of fat-encapsulated acids are commonly used to delay their leav-
the tortillas. Fresh tortillas (Figure 1(h)) have a soft and pliable ening reactions.
texture, which changes to a firmer and less extensible texture
during storage. Improvements that make it possible to retain
the freshness of hot-press tortillas throughout the storage Lime-Cooked Maize Products
period are naturally preferred.
About 80% of flour tortillas are prepared using the hot- Three basic types of products are industrially produced from
press method even though the die-cut method is more effi- lime-cooked maize: table or soft tortillas, corn chips, and
cient. Hot-press flour tortillas are the preferred ‘bread’ in the tortilla chips. Corn and tortilla chips are primarily produced
space program because of their versatility, functionality, long and consumed in developed countries, where they have an
shelf stability, and lack of crumbs. Consumers prefer hot-press important share of the salted snack-food market. Sales of
tortillas because they retain their freshness during storage. corn and tortilla chips in the United States in 2002 totaled
Nontraditional fillings for breakfast, lunch, dinner, and des- $12 billion. Modern production of tortilla chips and corn
serts increase their versatility and convenience. chips has evolved into specialized processes. They are quite
Wheat flour requirements are determined by the desired different from the original tostadas made by frying stale,
tortilla characteristics, the formula, processing conditions, and maize table tortillas.
equipment. Wheat flour is usually hard wheat flour with a
protein content ranging from 9.5% to 12.5%. Flours for hot-
Table Tortillas from Maize
press and hand-stretch tortillas generally contain less protein
and gluten strength than flours for die-cut tortillas. Tortillas that Tortillas are produced using traditional and industrial pro-
are made with flours with poor gluten strength remain pliant cesses. Maize (Figure 2(a)), lime, and water are three basic
for only a couple of days. Hot-press tortillas, which are made ingredients needed for the production of masa. In the tradi-
with good-quality flours, are generally the ones with smaller tional process, maize is lime-cooked in clay pots over a fire,
diameter and less opacity and tend to remain more pliant followed by steeping for 8–16 h. The cooking liquor, called
during storage. Flour ideal for hot-press tortillas has intermedi- ‘nejayote,’ is discarded; then, the ‘nixtamal’ is hand-washed
ate gluten strength and levels of protein quality with small and ground into a fine masa with a stone grinder. The masa is
amounts of damaged starch. Hater (45–55% of flour weight) hand-molded or pressed into disks, which are baked on a hot
is a reaction medium for gluten formation and chemical reac- griddle or ‘comal.’ The tortilla disks are baked on each side to
tions (leavening) during mixing. Low levels (10–80 ppm) of seal the surfaces and form steam that causes the tortilla to puff.
reducing agents, such as sodium metabisulfite or cysteine, Traditionally, tortillas are produced on a daily basis. Tortillas
reduce dough mixing time and increase the extensibility of vary in thickness from different localities in Central America
dough during hot-pressing, which yields larger diameter torti- and Mexico. Fresh maize tortillas have an outstanding flavor
llas. Salt (1–2%) is added for taste and to strengthen the gluten and texture, which firms rapidly into an unacceptable product.
complex. Baking powder (0.05–2.5%) causes tortillas to have a In Mexico, the bulk of tortillas is consumed fresh daily and
less dense, spongy structure, that is, increased whiteness or leftover tortillas are fried into tostadas and ‘totopos.’ Tacos are
opacity and greater specific volume. The high dough tempera- soft tortillas wrapped around meat, sauces, beans, and other
tures (25–40  C) cause premature leavening reactions during fruits and vegetables in Mexico. The tacos in the United States,
mixing and less leavening is available during baking. Leavening however, are deep-fried tortillas in a U shape, filled with meat,
acids and bicarbonates that dissolve more slowly and react to sauces, etc. Other masa-based products include ‘tamales,’
form CO2 during latter stages of baking improve tortillas opac- ‘atoles,’ and ‘pozol,’ which is a fermented masa. A popular
ity and thickness. Various natural and modified cellulose gums Mexican soup, ‘posole,’ is made from large, soft, nixtamalized
are added at 0.1–0.5% levels to improve dough machinability maize kernels.
and decrease the stickiness of baked tortillas. The industrial tortilla process begins when the maize is
Solid or liquid fats (3–20% of flour weight) are added to lime-cooked in agitated open baths, vertical cookers, or steam
improve dough properties by weakening gluten strength. Fats kettles (Figure 2(b)). The grain is generally mixed with three
4 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Tortillas

Figure 2 Processing of maize into tortillas and tortilla chips. Note: (a), kernels of maize illuminated from behind, the light areas indicate the hard,
vitreous endosperm (H), while the darker areas indicate the soft, floury endosperm (S), and germ (G); (b), maize entering cooking water
containing calcium oxide; (c), cooked maize or nixtamal with adhering partially hydrolyzed pericarp (HP) before the washing step; (d), separated grinding
stones with nixtamal (center, N) and masa (outside edge, M) in the grooves (arrow); (e), stone-ground masa; (f), sheeting rollers forming disks
of masa and a wire mesh belt transferring the disk to the oven (arrow indicates direction of movement); (g), tortilla oven with a tortilla (T) on the third tier
leaving the oven; (h), tortillas cooling on a wire conveyer; (i), stack of maize tortillas.

parts water and 1% lime, based on grain weight, and cooked particles from starch granules (10 mm) to endosperm pieces
for 15–45 min at temperatures ranging from 85 to 100  C. The (2 mm). Some starch granules are gelatinized and dispersed by
nixtamal is then steeped for 8–16 h in the hot lime solution. the friction of the stones to produce the glue-like material that
After steeping, the cooked maize or nixtamal (Figure 2(c)) is causes cohesiveness in the masa. Only a small amount of
pumped with the steep liquor or dropped by gravity to gelatinization of the starch occurs during cooking and steep-
washers. The cooking liquor is drained and the nixtamal ing. Grinding produces most of the gelatinized starch that
washed with pressurized water. Most of the pericarp and lime holds the particles of masa together during subsequent pump-
is removed during this step. The washed, cooled nixtamal is ing and sheeting into unbaked tortillas.
ground using two radially carved, volcanic or synthetic (alumi- The ground particles (Figure 2(e)) are dropped into a masa
num oxide) stones (Figure 2(d)) or stainless-steel plates. One feeder with augers (masa hog), which move the masa to above
stone is stationary and the other rotates at 500–700 rpm. Masa the sheeter head. The two rollers of the sheeter compress the
particle size is directly related to the gap and pressure between masa into a thin layer, which is die-cut into standard size disks,
the stones and the size, depth, and pattern of the grooves. strips, triangles, etc., depending upon the products desired.
During grinding, the nixtamal is disrupted into an array of These formed pieces of masa (Figure 2(f)) are transferred by
 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Tortillas 5

mesh belts into a three-tier, gas-fired oven (Figure 2(g)) to bake Fried/Snack Products
on lime-coated, metal slats or mesh belts at 280–302  C for
Frying has expanded the market for masa-based foods because
30–45 s. The tortillas are allowed to cool on open conveyors,
the final products have excellent organoleptic properties and
counted, stacked, and packaged (Figure 2(g) and 2(h)).
long shelf lives. Two popular snacks from masa are corn chips
Tortillas are formulated with antifungal compounds or by
and corn tortilla chips. Corn chips are produced by directly
raising the pH to improve their shelf life when merchandized
frying extruded or sheeted masa pieces, while masa for tortilla
for 3–90 days. Antifungal compounds, sorbates and propio-
chips is formed into triangles, strips, or circles, baked, equili-
nates, along with acidulants are incorporated during grinding
brated, and fried. Tortilla chips have less oil, a firmer texture,
or masa kneading. The pH must be reduced to enable the
and a stronger maize flavor than corn chips. Nixtamal for these
preservatives to function properly. Alternatively, tortillas are
snack foods is cooked and not steeped as much as the nixtamal
preserved by the lime that is not removed during washing.
for table tortillas. The nixtamal for fried snack foods is ground
High pH is an effective preservative, if the tortilla pH is > 9.8.
into coarse masa because the larger particles in the sheeted
Tortilla pieces that are fried immediately do not need preserva-
pieces allow steam to escape through many small pores that
tives; however, those fried after ambient or refrigerated storage
develop during baking and frying. This prevents the formation
are acidified and preserved.
of serious quality defects, such as oily appearance, pillowing,
About 40% of the maize tortillas consumed in Mexico are
or blistering.
prepared using dry masa flour. More than 2 million tonnes
Corn chips are prepared by extruding masa through a die,
(Mt) of dry masa flour for table tortillas is produced annually
which is cut by rotating knives before frying or by sheeting and
in Mexico. These flours are transformed into  3.4 Mt of table
cutting into strips. Corn chips have a more friable texture than
tortillas. Dry masa flour is produced by cooking corn with
corn tortilla chips and contain more oil than tortilla chips
alkali, coarsely grinding the nixtamal with a modified ham-
(Table 1). Products from white maize are fried at higher tem-
mermill, drying, and then sifting. The masa is dried in large
peratures and shorter times than those from yellow maize.
tunnels, or drying towers, in which warm air flows countercur-
Beta-carotenes in yellow maize degrade into beta-ionones,
rently over the ground particles. The particles too large for
which are bitter and off-colored. Frying temperatures and
masa flour are ground by hammer milling and sifted, and the
times range from 165 to 195  C for 20–90 s, depending upon
various particle sizes are blended in the correct proportions to
maize properties. A blend of yellow and white maize is nor-
produce various dry masa flours for specific products with
mally used for corn chips.
different particle size, color, pH, and water uptake. The quality
The moisture content of the masa or tortilla is related to the
and consistency of these products have improved over the
oil absorption during frying; specifically, the higher the mois-
years. The particle size of masa for table tortillas is finer because
ture, the higher the oil absorption. As moisture leaves the
the tortillas hopefully will puff during baking. In the case of
cooked product during frying, oil is absorbed into and onto
fried snacks, the coarser particles in dry masa flour allow water
the structure of the fried food. The appearance and texture of
vapor to escape during frying, which improves chip texture.
chips are also affected by masa particle size distribution, tortilla
High-quality tortillas and chips are prepared from dry masa
baking equilibration. structure, and maize color in the piece to
flours. A blend of dry masa and fresh masa is sometimes used
be fried.
in many tortillerias. Dry masa flours for table tortillas are
Corn and tortilla chips are salted and flavored immediately
usually enriched with thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folic acid,
after frying. The hot chips are conveyed into an inclined rotat-
iron, and zinc.
ing cylinder where the flavorings are applied. The most popular
The use of dry masa flour depends upon the processor.
flavorings include nacho cheese, hot and spicy, barbecue,
However, many new processors use dry masa flour because
French onion, lemon and salt, and jalapeño. Corn and tortilla
of its convenience, even though it costs two to three times as
chips are packaged in moisture-proof aluminized bags, flushed
much as raw maize. Dry masa flour does not require experi-
with nitrogen to protect the product physically and to limit
enced personnel, space, or equipment to cook, steep, wash,
oxidative rancidity.
and grind maize, or the expense of effluent disposal. The dry
Specialty products include blue chips and reduced-fat
masa flour is shelf-stable if it contains < 10% moisture and
snacks. Blue maize tortilla chips, served in specialty restau-
only requires water and mixing to form masa. Dry masa flours
rants, are available as organic and regular products. Blue
are mixed with 1.0–1.2 parts water for  3–5 min to produce
maize has a pigmented aleurone that imparts an intense blue
suitable dough. Dry masa flours usually produce masa with
color. It has high levels of flavanoids and other phenolics that
less adhesiveness and higher viscosity, requiring more force on
may have nutraceutical properties.
the rollers to form a thin sheet. Properties of rehydrated masa
Reduced-fat snacks can be achieved by processing or by
can be changed by modifying cooking and frying procedures or
using a fat replacer. Baked, low-fat tortilla chips are prepared
by adding 0.1–0.7% carboxymethyl cellulose. Cellulose makes
using air impingement, infrared, and/or microwave ovens.
table tortillas more chewy and improves tortilla flexibility dur-
Olestra, a nonabsorbed fat, is utilized to fry tortilla chips and
ing storage. Vital wheat gluten when added at 0.5–2%
reduce fat content and calories. Sales of low-fat and olestra-
improves retention of tortilla flexibility during storage. Other
fried chips have decreased apparently because consumers pre-
hydrocolloids also increase masa softness but usually not tor-
fer the taste and texture of full-fat products and/or dislike the
tilla flexibility. Emulsifiers used at < 0.5% do not usually
perceived gastric side effects. The trends toward organic and
improve table tortilla quality. Specific amylases soften masa
natural health products are continuing with a wide variety of
and tortillas and improve processing and product qualities.
organic chips available.
Combinations of these additives are common in tortillas.
6 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Tortillas

Table 1 Nutrient profilea (per 100 g of edible portion) of flour tortillas, lime-cooked maize products, and table bread

Nutrient Unit Wheat flour tortilla Table maize tortilla Corn tortilla chips Corn chips White bread

Water g 26.80  0.90 44.10  0.66 1.80  0.11 1.00  0.05 36.70  0.10
Protein g 8.70  0.58 5.70  0.13 7.00  0.13 6.60  0.09 8.20  0.05
Lipid (fat) g 7.10  0.58 2.50  0.24 26.20  0.49 33.40  0.28 3.60  0.08
Ash g 1.80  0.15 1.20  0.06 2.20  0.14 2.20  0.05 1.90  0.02
Carbohydrate, calc g 55.60 46.60 62.90 56.90 49.50
Fiber, dietary g 3.3 5.2 6.5 4.9 2.3
Calcium, Ca mg 125  7.5 175  7.1 154  6.0 127  2.8 108  2.6
Iron, Fe mg 3.30  0.12 1.40  0.07 1.52  0.09 1.32  0.03 3.03  0.03
Magnesium, Mg mg 26  1.3 65  1.5 88  1.4 76  1.2 24  0.4
Phosphorus, P mg 124  7.9 314  26.2 205  5.4 185  3.6 94  1.7
Potassium, K mg 131  7.3 154  7.2 197  6.5 142  2.8 119  2.0
Sodium, Na mg 478  24.0 161  15.0 528  21.2 630  12.9 538  8.6
Zinc, Zn mg 0.71  0.08 0.94  0.08 1.53  0.09 1.26  0.05 0.62  0.02
Copper, Cu mg 0.267  0.14 0.154  0.015 0.120  0.009 0.161  0.017 0.126  0.003
Manganese, Mn mg 0.462  0.011 0.402  0.011 0.382  0.010 0.381  0.014 0.383  0.008
Selenium, Se mcg 23.4  2.4 5.5  1.1 6.7  0.8 6.7  0.8 28.2  1.1
Folate, food mcg 12  1.1 15  1.3 10 20 34
Niacin mg 3.572  0.135 1.498  0.096 1.279  0.051 1.183  0.057 3.969  0.034
Pantothenic acid mg 0.582  0.061 0.194  0.014 0.788  0.026 0.394 0.390  0.015
Riboflavin mg 0.293  0.069 0.073  0.008 0.184  0.024 0.144  0.010 0.341  0.006
Thiamin mg 0.531  0.025 0.112  0.015 0.075  0.008 0.027  0.005 0.472  0.005
Vitamin A IU 0 0 196  23 94  11 0
Vitamin B6 mg 0.050  0.01 0.219  0.03 0.286  0.01 0.24  0.03 0.06  0.01
a
US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, 2002. USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 15. Nutrient Data Laboratory Webpage, http://
www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/foodcomp.

Chemistry of Nixtamalization (Alkaline Cooking) extra washing increases dry matter losses and sewage charges
since the dry matter losses range from 5% to 10% or higher of
Cooking and steeping maize in lime solution (pH > 11)
the original maize depending on the maize quality and the
softens the pericarp, hydrates the endosperm, partially solubi-
processing parameters.
lizes proteins and cell walls, facilitates starch swelling, and
Table tortillas are excellent when fresh but become rigid
gelatinizes only a small amount of starch. Significant dry mat-
after 4–8 h. The firming or staling of tortillas is affected by pH,
ter is lost in the steep solution especially soluble proteins,
extent of cooking, moisture content, and storage conditions.
sugars, and other components. The breakdown of the cell
Alkaline tortillas retain softness and flexibility longer than
walls of the pericarp forms gums, which are useful in table
regular tortillas because starch retrogradation is inhibited by
tortillas. However, for snacks, the partially solubilized pericarp
the negative charges on the starch chains at pH > 9. Many
is removed by washing, as these pieces cause processing prob-
tortillas are acidified (pH 5.0–5.5) to activate the preservatives,
lems. The cooking and steeping times vary depending upon the
but starch retrogradation and staling are not inhibited at
desired products, equipment used, and the maize quality.
this pH. Individually or in combination, the addition of
The quality of maize for alkaline cooking is critically impor-
carboxymethyl cellulose, vital wheat gluten, amylases, and
tant to produce high-quality products. Whole, sound, mature
waxy maize (100% amylopectin) produces tortillas that retain
kernels of maize with a high proportion of hard to soft endo-
flexibility longer than normal tortillas. Softness and flexibility
sperm (Figure 2(a)) yield more masa and tortillas after nixta-
of tortillas containing soy flour, barley flour, or beta-glucans
malization. Uniform flat kernels without cracks and broken
from barley flour were retained longer than normal tortillas.
kernels and intermediate to hard endosperm are preferred.
The use of emulsifiers, neutral gums, shortening, and modified
Pericarp removal is affected by genetics and by the environ-
starches was less effective in limiting firming of tortillas.
mental conditions during maturation of the maize.
Quality of end products depends on the nature of
The maize must be cooked uniformly to provide adequate
manufacturing practices and of raw materials. Specific types
hydration and partial solubilization so that grinding produces
of maize hybrids are approved for use in alkaline cooking by
a nonsticky, cohesive masa that can be formed into a thin disk
processors. Yellow maize and white maize, or mixtures thereof,
and baked into a desirable tortilla or fried into chips or tortilla
are commercially manufactured into alkaline products. Food
chips. During cooking and steeping, the pericarp is converted
maize suppliers arrange for producers to grow, harvest, store,
into gums and insoluble materials. These materials are washed
and deliver clean maize to processors. Premiums are paid to
from nixtamal before grinding, especially for fried products;
producers to secure maize that is acceptable in terms of kernel
however, nixtamal for maize table tortillas is not washed as
hardness, size, cracks and brokens, pericarp removal, and levels
much, since the gum binds water and improves the texture of
of aflatoxins and fumonisins. The ideal grain should be clean,
tortillas. In tortilla chips, the partially hydrolyzed pericarp
sound, large, uniform, bright-colored, and free of cracks and
causes discoloration and darkening of tortillas. However,
 WHEAT-BASED FOODS | Tortillas 7

broken kernels and have high test weight with intermediate-to- Exercises for Readers to Explore the Topic Further
hard endosperm. In addition, the kernels should have a
rounded crown and a shallow, unwrinkled dent, and the peri- • What are the effects of incorporation other grains into the
carp should be easily removed during lime-cooking. Broken commercial processes?
and cracked kernels cause increased dry matter losses and • What effect does the variety of maize and wheat have on
poor-quality (sticky) masa. The environment affects corn qual- final food product?
ity significantly. Anything that affects the kernel during matu- • How important is water content and preservatives in the
ration affects the processing properties of the grain. shelf life of wheat and corn tortillas?

Nutritional Value
See also: The Cereal Grains: Maize Overview (00022); Wheat – An
The nutrient composition of some lime-cooked maize foods is
Overview of the Grain that Provides “Our Daily Bread” (00020);
compared with white pan bread and wheat tortillas in Table 1.
Wheat-Based Foods: Flat breads (00125); Wheat Processing:
Tortillas, especially wheat flour tortillas, are commonly used as
Wheat, Dry Milling (00162); Barley, Rice and Maize Processing:
a substitute for pan bread by many people. Flour tortillas are
Maize, Dry Milling (00238); Maize, Wet Milling (00239); Grains around
higher in gross and digestible energy because their formula
the world: North America and South America; Snack foods.
contains more shortening (5–15% based on flour weight).
Whole meal flour tortillas have higher amounts of fiber, pro-
tein, and ash than white flour tortillas. Maize tortillas are the
main source of energy, protein, calcium, and other important Further Reading
nutrients in Mexico and Central American diets. Lime-cooking
Almeida Dominguez HD, Cepeda M, and Rooney LW (1996) Properties of commercial
considerably increases calcium and the bioavailability of
nixtamalized corn flours. Cereal Foods World 41: 624–630.
niacin and significantly decreases the amount of aflatoxins Betran J, Bockholt AJ, and Rooney LW (2001) Blue corn. In: Hallauer A (ed.) Specialty
and fumonisins in contaminated maize. Corns, 2nd edn., pp. 293–301. New York: CRC Press.
The caloric densities of corn chips and tortilla chips are signif- Bressani R (1990) Chemistry, technology, and nutritive value of maize tortillas. Food
icantly higher than table tortillas because of the oil absorbed Reviews International 62(2): 225–264.
Dally V and Navarro L (1999) Flour tortillas: A growing sector in the US food industry.
during frying and their low postprocessing moisture contents. Cereal Foods World 44: 457–459.
Tortillas and snacks produced from enriched dry masa flour McDonough CM, Gomez MH, Rooney LW, and Serna-Saldivar SO (2001) Alkaline-
contain higher levels of B vitamins, Fe, and Zn than counterparts cooked corn products. In: Lusas E and Rooney LW (eds.) Snack Foods Processing,
produced from fresh masa. In Mexico, dry masa flours are pp. 73–113. New York: CRC Press.
McDonough CM, Seetharaman K, Waniska RD, and Rooney LW (1996) Microstructural
enriched by government regulation; some of these flours
changes documented by traditional and environmental scanning electron
are optionally fortified with 5% soy flour. Human nutritional microscopy in wheat flour tortillas during baking. Journal of Food Science 61(5):
studies have demonstrated that fortified and enriched flours sig- 995–999.
nificantly upgrade the nutritional status of low-income people, Rooney LW and Serna-Saldivar SO (2003) Food use of whole corn and dry milled
especially children. Quality protein maize (QPM), which con- fractions. In: White P and Johnson L (eds.) Corn (Zea mays L.): Chemistry and
Technology St. Paul, MN: American Association of Cereal Chemists.
tains 50% more lysine and tryptophan, is processed into tortillas Rooney LW and Suhendro EL (1999) Perspectives on nixtamalization (alkaline cooking)
in some areas of Mexico. The tortillas have improved protein of maize for tortillas and snacks. Cereal Foods World 44: 466–470.
quality but limited production of QPM restricts its application. Rooney LW and Suhendro EL (2001) Food quality of corn. In: Lusas E and Rooney LW
(eds.) Snack Foods Processing, pp. 39–71. New York: CRC Press.
Serna-Saldivar SO, Gomez MH, and Rooney LW (2001) Food uses of regular and
specialty corns and their dry-milled fractions. In: Hallauer A (ed.) Specialty Corns,
Conclusion 2nd edn., pp. 303–337. Boca Ratone, FL: CRC Press.
Serna-Saldivar SO and Rooney LW (1994) Quality protein maize processing and
Tortilla use around the world has increased rapidly and is perspectives for industrial utilization. In: Larkins B and Mertz ET (eds.) Proceedings
expected to continue driven by their wide variety of fillings of the International Symposium on Quality Protein Maize, pp. 89–120. Sete Lagoas,
MG, Brazil: EMBRAPA/CNPMS.
and use of blends of many different flours to produce excellent Serna-Saldivar SO, Rooney LW, and Waniska RD (1988) Wheat flour tortilla production.
products. Fried tortilla snacks and other foods are increasing Cereal Foods World 23: 855–864.
rapidly around the world. White flour tortillas account for Snack Food Association (2003) Snack Food Association state of the industry report.
43%, corn tortilla 42%, and tortilla chips, taco shells, and Snack World, June, pp. 20–45.
Waniska RD (1999) Perspectives on flour tortillas. Cereal Foods World
tostadas 15% of the US market.
44: 471–473.
Pressed white flour tortillas are the most popular process Waniska RD (2001) Evaluation methods and quality control for snacks. In: Lusas E and
(85%) and white corn is preferred to yellow corn. Rooney LW (eds.) Snack Foods Processing, pp. 607–629. Lancaster, PA:
Technomic Publishing Co.

Exercise for Revision

Relevant Websites
• Research more historical information
http://www.nal.usda.gov – US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural
• Corn tortillas for celiac diet Research Service (2002) website. The Nutrient Data Laboratory Webpage
• Incorporation of various grains for health food market provides information on the USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard
• Whole grain tortillas for school lunch programs Reference, Release 15.