BIO 102 LECTURE MATERIAL

Classification of Animals
The science of the classification of living organisms is generally known as taxonomy.
Taxonomy is defined as the science of identification, description, nomenclature, and classification
of living organisms according to noticeable structural characteristics based on some acceptable
rules and standard into systematic categories. Classification is the systematic arrangement of things
around us for easy identification and study. The idea of classification in biology started when living
organisms were lumped into two broad categories called a kingdom, namely; Plant and animal.
Animals then included every living thing that can move, feed on other things, grow to certain size
and retire to atrophy. Examples include cat, dog, tiger, amoeba, frogs, fish, man and soon. On the
other hand, all the organisms that do not move from one place to another, continue to grow
throughout life and can manufacture their own food are plants. The first idea of classification of
living organism was credited to Aristotle. Carolus Linnaeus who was the first to publish the two
kingdoms (Plant and animal) took the idea of Aristotle. He placed the unicellular (protozoans) and
multicellular (metazoans) under the Kingdom animalia because of their mode of feeding and
ability to move from one place to another. Carolus Linnaeus also recommended the two name
system (Binomial nomenclature) for an individual organism.
All phyla of the animal kingdom, including sponges, possess collagen, a triple helix of
protein that binds cells into tissues. The walled cells of plants and fungi are held together by other
molecules, such as pectin. Because collagen is not found among unicellular eukaryotes, even those
forming colonies, it is one of the indications that animals arose once from a common unicellular
ancestor.
So, despite the fact large variety of species with different structures and forms exist,
animals share some common features among themselves. These similarities are the basis of
classification. The basis of classification can vary according to purpose. A biological classification
generally pins out the morphological and evolutionary similarities as its basis.
The animal kingdom is the largest kingdom amongst the five kingdoms in which all
organisms are classified. Members of the Kingdom Animalia are multicellular, eukaryotic and
heterotrophic organisms. The cells lack cell wall and chlorophyll unlike plants. They depend
directly or indirectly on plants and other animals for their food. Food is ingested and digested in
their internal cavity and food reserves are stored as glycogen or fat. Nutrition is holozoic, i.e., by
ingestion of food. Animals follow a definite growth pattern; the adults have a definite shape and
size. Higher forms of animals exhibit well developed sensory and neuromotor mechanism. Most
animals are motile which means they can move independently and spontaneously. Reproduction
is by copulation of male and female which is followed by development in embryonic stages,
however, some are hermaphrodites. Besides these similarities, they are also related in their cell
arrangement, body symmetry, level of organisation, coelom, presence/absence of notochord.
Based on features, animals has been classified into 11 different phyla. The criteria for the
classification as as follows;
Level of organisation: Though animals are multicellular, the level of organisation of cells varies
from one animal to another. Certain animals have a loose mass of cells and show the cellular level
of organisation. Animals in this group are categorized into the phylum porifera. Due to complexity
of body design and division of labour that occur among tissues, some animals exhibit the tissue
level of organisation. Animals in this group belong to the phylum coelentrata or cnidarians. The
platyhelminthes and aschelminthes have an organ level of organisation. Non chordates such as
Annelids, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinoderms and Chordates have a specialised organ system for
their physiological activities and so belong to the organ─ system level of organisation.
Body Symmetry
Another basis for the classification of animals is body symmetry. Animals show two types
of symmetry. These are radial symmetry and bilateral symmetry. In radially symmetrical animals,
any plane that passes through the central axis divides the body into two equal halves. Radial
symmetry is common among coelentrata, Ctenophora and echinoderms. On the other hand,
bilaterally symmetrical animals can only be cut on a single plane to divide the body into two equal
halves. This is found in annelids, arthropoda, molluscs, and the chordates. However, some animals
do not show any body symmetry, that is, their body cannot be divided into two halves in any plane
passing through the centre. Such animals are said to be asymmetrical. Example is Poriferan.
Number of embryonic layers
Animal tissues, organs and organ system develop from the cells that form the embryonic
layers. So, based on the number of embryonic layers, animals are classified into two: diploblastic
and triploblastic animals. Diploblastic animals have two body layers that are formed from the cells.
The layers are the outer ectoderm and an inner endoderm. Example of diploblastic animal is the
coelentrata. Triploblastic animals are animals with three body layers which are the ectoderm, the
middle mesoderm and an inner endoderm. This is found in platyhelminthes and chordates.
Coelom
Coelom is a key feature for the classification of animals. Coelom is a cavity between the
body wall and the gut wall, lined by mesoderm. Animals are classified into three depending on the
presence or absence of coelom. Animals with coelom are known as coelomate. The annelida,
mollusc, arthropoda, echinodermata, hemichordate and chordate belong to this group. The second
group is the pseudocoelomates. In pseudocoelomates, the mesoderm appears as pouches between
the ectoderm and endoderm but the cavity formed is not lined by mesoderm. The
pseudocoelomates include the Aschelminthes or nematodes.
Notochord
Notochord is a longitudinal cartilaginous supporting rod that runs beneath the nerve cord
in animals. Animals are broadly classified into two based on the presence or absence of notochord.
These are the invertebrates and the vertebrates. The invertebrates lack notochord and include all
the animals from the phylum porifera to the echinodermata while the chordates has notochord and
include hemichordates, pisces, amphibians, reptiles, aves and mammals.
Animals could also be classified based on the absence or presence of tissues, exhibition of bilateral
symmetry, presence of body cavity, segmentation, presence of jointed appendages and possession
of backbone. These include;
Parazoa: a cellular level of organization
The two phyla in the subkingdom Parazoa, Porifera (sponges) and Placozoa, lack clearly
defined tissues and organs, nevertheless, their cells specialize and integrate their activities. Their
simplicity has been adaptive, and sponges have remained important in benthic marine habitats
since their origin. The sessile, filter-feeding way of life shown by sponges has favoured a body
plan of radial symmetry, although some members have become asymmetrical. The shape of the
creeping, flattened placozoans is irregular and changeable.
Radiata: a tissue level of organization
Cnidaria and Ctenophora which are the two phyla of the coelentrata advanced in
complexity beyond the parazoans by developing incipient tissues—groups of cells that are
integrally coordinated in the performance of a certain function. For example, coelenterates have
well-defined nerve nets, and their contractile fibres, although only specialized parts of more
generalized cells are organized into discrete muscle units. Because discrete cells of different types
do not carry out the internal functions of the animals, coelenterates are considered to be organized
at only a tissue level.
The integration of cells into tissues, particularly those of nerve and muscle, permits a
significantly larger individual body size than is possible with other modes of body movement.
Flagella and cilia become ineffective at rather small size, and amoeboid movement is limited to
the size a single cell can attain. Muscles contract by a cellular mechanism basically like that used
in amoeboid locomotion—interaction of actin and myosin filaments. Through coordinated
contraction of many cells, movement of large individuals becomes possible.
Coelenterates, like parazoans, have only two body layers, an inner endoderm primarily for
feeding and an outer ectoderm for protection. Between the endoderm and the ectoderm of
coelenterates is the mesoglea, a gelatinous mass that contains connective fibres of collagen and
usually some cells. Both layers contain muscle fibres and a two-dimensional web of nerve cells at
the base; the endoderm surrounds a central cavity, which ranges from simple to complex in shape
and serves as a gut, circulatory system, and sometimes even a skeleton. The cavity is also used for
gamete dispersal and waste elimination.
Cleavage of a fertilized egg produces a hollow sphere of flagellated cells (the blastula).
Invagination of cells at one or both poles creates a mouthless, solid gastrula; the gastrula is called
the planula larva in species in which this stage of development is free-living. The inner, endoderm
cells subsequently differentiate to form the lining of the central cavity. The mouth forms once the
planula larva has settled. Although the details of early development are different for parazoans and
coelenterates, most share a stage in which external flagellated cells invaginate to form the inner
layer, which lines the cavity, of these diploblastic (two-layered) animals. This is characteristic of
invagination during the development of all animals.
All coelenterates are more or less radially symmetrical. A radial form is equally
advantageous for filtering, predatory, or photosynthetic modes of feeding. Tentacles around the
circumference can intercept food in all directions.
Bilateria: an organ level of organization
All animals except porifera, placozoan, cnidarians, and ctenophore have bilaterally
symmetrical ancestors and contain three body layers (triploblastic) with coalition of tissues into
organs. The body plans that are generally recognized are acoelomate, pseudocoelomate, and
coelomate.
Acoelomates have no internal fluid-filled body cavity (coelom). Pseudocoelomates have a
cavity between the inner (endoderm) and the middle (mesoderm) body layers. Coelomates have a
cavity within the mesoderm, which can show one of two types of development: schizocoelous or
enterocoelic. Most protostomes show schizocoelous development, in which the mesoderm
proliferates from a single cell and divides to form a mass on each side of the body; the coelom
arises from a split within each mass. Deuterostomes show enterocoelic pouching, in which the
endoderm evaginates and pinches off discrete pouches, the cavities of which become the coelom
and the wall the mesoderm. The animals in these major divisions of the Bilateria differ in other
fundamental ways.
Unlike sessile sponges or floating jellyfish, the Bilateria typically move actively in pursuit
of food, although many members have further evolved into sessile or radial forms. Directed
movement is most efficient if sensory organs are located at the head or forward-moving end of the
animal. Organs of locomotion are most efficiently arranged along both sides, a fact that defines
the bilateral symmetry; many internal organs are not in fact paired, whereas muscle layers, limbs,
and sensory organs almost invariably are. The diffuse nerve net of coelenterates coalesces into
definite tracts or bundles, which run posteriorly from the anterior brain to innervate the structures
of locomotion.
Acoelomates
Flatworms (phyla Platyhelminthes, Nemertea, and Mesozoa) lack a coelom, although
nemerteans have a fluid-filled cavity at their anterior, or head, end, which is used to eject the
proboscis rapidly. The lack of a fluid-filled cavity adjacent to the muscles reduces the extent to
which the muscles can contract and the force they exert for movement and support. Because most
also lack a circulatory system, supplying muscle tissues with fuel and oxygen can be no faster than
the rate at which these substances diffuse through solid tissue. Flatworms are thus constrained to
be relatively flat and comparatively small; parasitic worms, which do not locomote, can achieve
immense lengths (e.g., tapeworms), but they remain very thin. The larger of the free-living
flatworms have extensively divided guts, which reach to within a few cells of the muscles, thus
compensating for the lack of a circulatory system. Most flatworms have but one opening to the
gut. Nemerteans, in addition to a coelom-like housing for their proboscis, have attained a one-way
gut and a closed circulatory system. Both increase their ability to move food and oxygen to all
parts of the body. Flatworms are considered to be the ancestors of all other Bilateria.
Pseudocoelomates or aschelminths
The pseudocoelomates include the nematodes, rotifers, gastrotrichs, and introverts. Some
members of some other phyla are also, strictly speaking, pseudocoelomate. These four phyla of
tiny body size (many species no larger than the bigger protozoans) are placed together in part
because they lack mesoderm on the inner side of the body cavity. Consequently, no tissue,
muscular or connective, supports the gut within the coelomic fluid. For tiny organisms, this is
advantageous for conservation of tissue: there is no reason to evolve or to maintain a tissue that is
not functionally important. The inconspicuousness of most of these phyla has led to a slow
advancement in understanding their phylogenetic position in the animal kingdom.
Coelomates
Coelomates are animals with true body cavity known as coelom. The advantage of a true
coelom is the ability of the inner mesenteric (mostly connective tissue) layer to suspend the central
gut in the middle of the animal. Otherwise, in those animals with a body cavity used in locomotion,
gravity would pull the gut down and severely curtail body size. Coelomates have attained vastly
larger body sizes than has any other group of animals. Within the coelomates, the coelom has been
of variable significance to the form and diversity of the various phyla. For example, it is essential
for the burrowing abilities of annelids and related phyla. It has largely lost this significance in the
arthropods, however, which have transferred locomotion to limbs supported by an exoskeleton
rather than a coelomichydroskeleton. Suspension is the main function of the coelom in vertebrates,
which achieve the largest body sizes among animals by virtue of an endoskeleton that does not
need to be shed during growth.
The protostome coelomates (acoelomates and pseudocoelomates are also protostomes)
include the mollusks, annelids, arthropods, pogonophorans, apometamerans, tardigrades,
onychophorans, phoronids, brachiopods, and bryozoans. Deuterostomes include the chaetognaths,
echinoderms, hemichordates, and chordates.
In early development protostome coelomates mostly differ from deuterostome coelomates in the
following ways: (1) The mouth of protostomes is the blastopore, the original opening into the
developing gut which is formed during the invagination of cells during gastrulation; that of
deuterostomes is a secondary opening, with the blastopore becoming the anus. (2, 3) Early
cleavage is typically spiral and determinate in protostomes, which means that the dividing cells
are oriented at an angle to one another and that the ultimate fate of the cells is mostly determined
from the beginning. Deuterostomes, in contrast, show indeterminate, radial cleavage, with the
dividing cells becoming layered and the fate of early cells a product of where they are positioned
later in development. (4) Coelom formation is schizocoelous in most protostomes, whereas
enterocoelous development is typical of deuterostomes. (5) For those with a larval stage, the
characteristic larval forms also differ.
Segmentation
Segmentation, also called metamerism, or metameric segmentation, in zoology, the
condition of being constructed of a linear series of repeating parts, each being a metamere (body
segment, or somite) and each being formed in sequence in the embryo, from anterior to posterior
OR the division of some animal body plans into a series of repetitive segments. All members of
three large animal phyla; Annelida, Arthropoda, and Chordata are metameric. The first two exhibit
conspicuous segmentation in the adult. Among the chordates, the repetitive metameric pattern is
evident in muscles, vertebrae, and ribs of the adult (e.g., fishes), but even when less obvious (e.g.,
mammals), the development of each individual is based firmly on formation of segments, the
embryological somites. Segments of the tapeworm (proglottids) are formed so differently from the
segments of the other three groups that most zoologists do not admit tapeworms to be
metamerically segmented animals. Since the metamerism of Annelida and Arthropoda and that of
Chordata probably arose independently, metamerism does not itself imply relationships between
the groups; however, the particular metamerism within each group clearly demonstrates the
derivative relationship of its members.
The Arthropoda, Chordata, and Annelida form segments by using a "growth zone" to direct
and define the segments. While all three have a generally segmented body plan and use a growth
zone, they use different mechanisms for generating this patterning. Even within these groups,
different organisms have different mechanisms for segmenting the body. Segmentation of the body
plan is important for allowing free movement and development of certain body parts. It also allows
for regeneration in specific individuals. Segmentation in animals typically falls into three types,
characteristic of different arthropods, vertebrates, and annelids. Arthropods such as the fruit fly
form segments from a field of equivalent cells based on transcription factor gradients. Vertebrates
like the zebrafish use oscillating gene expression to define segments known as somites. Annelids
such as the leech use smaller blast cells budded off from large teloblast cells to define segments
(budding segmentation).
Animals with jointed appendages
The name “Arthropoda” comes from the Greek word “arthon” which means joint and
“pous which means foot. They are animals which consist of jointed appendages. They have hard,
outer skeleton and a jointed body and limbs that make up a phylum of invertebrates that includes
insects such as ants, butterflies, beetles; crustaceans such as shrimps, lobsters and crabs; arachnids
which includes scorpions, spiders and ticks.
The arthropoda have clearly dominated both land and sea since nearly the beginning of
animal. A key to arthropod success has been the differentiation of many serially repeated parts, in
particular jointed appendages with a rigid exoskeleton, to perform the varied functions necessary
to maintain life. The exoskeleton, however, sets a moderate upper limit to body size. More than
does a coelom, the evolution of rigid, jointed skeletons has allowed the arthropoda to dominate
most animal communities.
Animals with backbone
Animals with backbone are generally known as vertebrates or craniates. Vertebrates
are the most predominant subphylum of the phylum Chordata. They have backbones, from which
they derive their name. The vertebrates are also characterized by a muscular system consisting
primarily of bilaterally paired masses and a central nervous system partly enclosed within the
backbone. The subphylum is one of the best known of all groups of animals. Its members include
the classes Agnatha, Chondrichthyes, and Osteichthyes (all fishes); Amphibia (amphibians);
Reptilia (reptiles); Aves (birds); and Mammalia (mammals). Although the vertebral column is
perhaps the most obvious vertebrate feature, it was not present in the first vertebrates, which
probably had only a notochord. The vertebrate has a distinct head, with a differentiated tubular
brain and three pairs of sense organs (nasal, optic, and otic). The body is divided into trunk and
tail regions. The presence of pharyngeal slits with gills indicates a relatively high metabolic rate.
A well-developed notochord enclosed in perichordal connective tissue, with a tubular spinal cord
in a connective tissue canal above it, is flanked by a number of segmented muscle masses. A
sensory ganglion develops on the dorsal root of the spinal nerve, and segmental autonomic ganglia
grow below the notochord. The trunk region is filled with a large, bilateral body cavity (coelom)
which contained viscera, and this coelom extends anteriorly into the visceral arches. A digestive
system consists of an esophagus extending from the pharynx to the stomach and a gut from the
stomach to the anus. A distinct heart, anteroventral to the liver, is enclosed in a pericardial sac. A
basic pattern of closed circulatory vessels is largely preserved in most living forms. Unique,
bilateral kidneys lie retroperitoneally (dorsal to the main body cavity) and serve blood maintenance
and excretory functions. Reproductive organs are formed from tissue adjacent to the kidneys; this
original close association is attested by the tubular connections seen in males of living forms. The
ducts of the excretory organs open through the body wall into a cloacal chamber, as does the anus
of the digestive tract. Reproductive cells are shed through nearby abdominal pores or through
special ducts. A muscular tail continues the axial musculature of the trunk.
The vertebrates is made of approximately 45,000 living species. They are widely
distributed around the world from the high Arctic or Antarctic to the tropics but are missing only
from interior Antarctica and Greenland and from the North Polar ice pack. Vertebrates vary in
sizes ranging from minute fishes to elephants and whales that weigh up to 100 tons. Vertebrates
are adapted to life underground, on the surface, and in the air. They feed upon plants, invertebrate
animals, and one another. Vertebrate faunas are important to humans for food and recreation. In
order to give a broad and comparative view of their life histories, the vertebrates are subdivided
here into major groups based on morphology: the cyclostomes (jawless fishes), the chondrichthyes
(cartilaginous fishes), the teleostomes (bony fishes), and the tetrapods.
Phylum Porifera
Porifera (sponges) is the lowest multicellular animals or metazoans. They lack true tissues,
hence they exist at “Cellular level” of body organization. Familiar as sponges, these animals are
well-known for their ability to absorb and withhold fluids. The word “Porifera” means pore bearers
(Gr., porus = pore; ferre = to bear). Their body wall has numerous minute pores, called ostia,
through which a continuous current of outside water is drawn into the body. About 5,000 species
are known.
Brief History
Robert Grant (1825) finally proved that sponges are animals, and coined the name
‘Porifera’ for these. Schulze (1878), Butschli (1884), Sollas (1884) and Delage (1898) separated
sponges from other metazoans on basis of embryological studies, and suggested a separate group,
“Parazoa” for these.
 Figure 6.1: Morphology of Porifera
Body wall of Poifera consists of:
(1) Outer Dermal layer or Pinacoderm.
(a) Pinacocytes (Flat cell)
(b) Porocytes (oval)
(2) Inner Choanocytic layer or Choanoderm, Collar cell or Choanocytes (Flagellated)
(a) It is a characteristic of Porifera
(b) Choanocytes was discovered by- H.J. Clark
(3) Between the pinacoderm and choanoderm lies a gelatinous material called Mesenchyme.
Consist of Amoebocytes.
(4) Body wall encloses a large cavity, the spongocoel or paragastric cavity with small cavity called
Choanocytes. The spongocoel and radial canal is lined with flagella.
(5) Ceaselless beating of the flagella caused current of water to enter through the ostia perforating
porocytes and various canals and enters in spongocoel and finally leave through large aperture
osculum.
Canal System
Canal system of porifera help in nutrition, respiration and excretion, and were developed
due to folding of inner wall. There are four types of canal systems:
(1) Asconoid (Simplest canal) e.g. Leucosolenia, Olynthus
(2) Syconoid e.g. Scypha
(3) Leuconoid (Complex and most efficient canal system). e.g. Euspongia&spongilla
(4) Rhagon e.g. Larva of Demospongia

Figure 6.2: Canal system of porifera

Skeleton
Skeleton is internal; consist of tiny calcarious calcoblast or siliceous spicules (silicoblast)
or fine spongin fibre (spongioblast), and are located in the mesenchyme.
There are four types of spicules in sponges
(i) Monoaxon (Usually at osculum)
(ii) Triaxon
(iii) Tetraaxon
(iv) Polyaxon
Characteristics of sponges
i. All the sponges are Aquatic, Sedentary, Asymmetrical or Radially, First multicellular
organisms and have cellular grade of organization.
ii. They are diploblastic. Ectoderm is formed by pinacocyte and endoderm is formed by
choanocyte. Both layers are called pinacoderm and choandoderm.
iii. The body is perforated by numerous minute pores called ostia.
iv. The ostia open into a large cavity called spongocoel.
v. The spongocoel opens to the outside by a large opening called osculum.
vi. The sponges possess an endoskeleton in the form of calcareous spicules.
vii. Excretion and respiration occur by diffusion. Excretory matter is Ammonia.
viii. They have greater power of regeneration.
ix. Reproduction takes place by asexual or sexual methods. Asexual reproduction is by Budding
- Special cell mass gemmules containing archaeocytes. Endogenous budding of asexual
reproduction in sponge is known as Gemmulation. Sexual reproduction- Sponges are
 hermaphrodite, fertilization is internal and cross fertilization can occur (Protogynous
condition).
x. Development is indirect or direct. The common larval are parenchymula, amphiblastula, etc.
xi. Scleroblast secretes spicules and spongioblast secrets spongin fibre.
xii. Digestive cavity and mouth is absent.
xiii. Nutrition is holozoic.
xiv. Digestion is intracellular and occurs in food vacuoles of choanocytcs.
xv. Food particle strained out by collar cell and pass them to amoebocytes.
xvi. Food is stored in the ocytes.
xvii. Distribution of food from ingestive cell to other is brought by the movable amoeboid cell.
xviii. Sponges do not have nervous system.
xix. They have pores all over the body.
xx. Cellular level of body organisation.
xxi. A canal system of intercommunicating cavities for the passage of water current.
xxii. They have choanocytes lining the main cavity (spongocoel) or certain canals (radial canals).
xxiii. Presence of spongin fibres.
Classification of sponges
There are three classes of porifera. These are;
Class 1: Calcarea
(i) Skeleton is formed of Calcareous spicules.
(ii) Radially symmetrical.
(iii) Choanocyte cells are large and conspicuous
Examples: Clathrina, Leucosolenia (smallest sponge), Sycon, etc.
Class 2: Hexactinellida
(i) Skeleton is formed of six rayed triaxon, silicious spicules
(ii) Canal system is branched or unbranched.
(iii) Radially symmetrical.
(iv) They are also known as glass sponges.
Examples: Pheronema, Hyalonema, etc.
Class 3: Demospongia
(i) Skeleton either absent or present. When present it is either formed of spongin fibres or
combination of spongin fibres and silicious spicules.
(ii) The silicious spicules when present are never six rayed.
(iii) The canal system is complicated Rhagon type.
(iv) These sponges are of great economic importance.
Examples: Cliona, Spongilla, Chalina, Euspongia, Hippospongia, Oscarella, etc.
Phylum Cnidarians/Coelenterata
Cnidarians are invertebrates such as jellyfish and corals. They belong to the phylum
Cnidaria. All cnidarians are aquatic. Most of them live in the ocean. Cnidarians are a little more
complex than sponges. They have radial symmetry and tissues. There are more than 10,000
cnidarian species.
Structure and Function of Cnidarians
All cnidarians have nematocyst. A nematocyst is a long, thin, coiled stinger. It has a barb
that may inject poison. These tiny poison “darts” are propelled out of special cells. They are used
to attack prey or defend against predators.

Figure 7.1: Nematocyst of Cnidarians

A cnidarian nematocyst is like a poison dart. It is ejected from a specialized cell. There are
two basic body plans in cnidarians. They are the polyp and medusa. The polyp has a tubular body
and is usually sessile. The medusa (plural, medusae) has a bell-shaped body and is typically motile.
Some cnidarian species alternate between polyp and medusa forms. Other species exist in just one
form or the other.
 Figure 7.2: Polyp and Medusa of cnidarian
The body of a cnidarian consists of two cell layers, ectoderm and endoderm. The cells
surround a digestive cavity called the coelenteron. Cnidarians have a simple digestive system. The
single opening is surrounded by tentacles, which are used to capture prey. The tentacles are
covered with nematocyst cells. Digestion takes place in the coelenteron. Nutrients are absorbed
and gases exchanged through the cells lining this cavity. Fluid in the coelenteron creates a
hydrostatic skeleton.
They have a simple nervous system consisting of a nerve net that can detect touch. They
may also have other sensory structures. For example, jellyfish have light-sensing structures and
gravity-sensing structures. These senses give them a sense of up versus down movement. It also
helps them maintain balance.
Reproduction in Cnidarian
Polyps usually reproduce asexually. One type of asexual reproduction in polyps leads to
the formation of new medusae. Medusae usually reproduce sexually. Sexual reproduction forms a
zygote. The zygote develops into a larva called a planula. The planula, in turn, develops into a
polyp. There are many variations on the general life cycle. Obviously, species that exist only as
polyps or medusae have a life cycle without the other form.
 Figure 7.3: General life cycle of Cnidarian.
General characteristics of Phylum Coelenterata
i. They are aquatic, mostly marine.
ii. They are either solitary or colonial. Each individual is known as zooid.
iii. Cnidarians are radially symmetrical.
iv. They belong to tissue grade of organization.
v. Germ layer: diploblastic, outer ectoderm and inner endoderm. Mesogloea separates these
two layer
vi. The body has a single opening called hypostome surrounded by sensory tentacles.
vii. Coelom: gastrovascular cavity or coelenteron.
viii. Possess nematocyst for capturing and paralyzing prey and is present in tentacles
ix. Nutrition is holozoic.
x. Digestion is both intracellular and extracellular.
xi. Respiration and excretion are accomplished by simple diffusion.
xii. Circulatory system is absent.
xiii. Nervous system is poorly develop
xiv. Many forms exhibit polymorphism ie. Polyp and medusa
xv. Polyps are sessile and is the asexual stage
 xvi. Medusa is free swimming and is the sexual stage.
xvii. Metagenesis: asexual polypoid generation alternate with sexual medusoid generation.
xviii. Reproduction is either asexual or sexual. Asexual reproduction is by budding while
Sexual reproduction by gamatic fusion
20. Fertilization is internal or external
21. Development is indirect with larval stage
Classification of Phylum Cnidaria/Coelenterata
The phylum coelenterate is divided into three classes on the basis of development of zooids:
 Class1: Hydrozoa
 Class2: Scyphozoan or Scyphomedusae
 Class3: Anthozoa or Actinozoa
Class1: Hydrozoa
(Hydra; water; zoon: animal)
 Mostly marine with few that live in fresh water
 Some are solitary and some are colonial
 Asexual Polyps is dominant form
 Medusa possess true velum
 Mesogloea is simple and acellular
 Examples: Hydra, Obelia,Physalia physalis (portuguese man of war), Tubularia
Class 2: Scyphozoa or Scyphomedusae
 Found exclusively in marine habitats.
 They are solitary and freely swimming.
 Medusa is dominant and it is large bell or umbrella shaped.
 Polyps is short lived or absent
 Mesogloea is usually cellular
 Examples: Aurelia aurita (Jelly fishe), Rhizostoma
Class 3: Anthozoa or Actinozoa
(Anthos: flower; zoios: animal “flower like animals”)
 They are exclusively marine.
 Anthozoa are either solitary or colonial
 Medusa stage is absent
  Mesogloea contains fibrous connective tissue and amoeboid cells.
 Examples: Metridium (sea anemone), Telesto, Tubipora, Xenia

Phylum Chordata
This phylum is probably the most notable phylum in the animal kingdom. The most
distinguishing character that all animals belonging to this phylum have is the presence of
notochord. The phylum also include two groups of invertebrate chordates.
Characteristics of Chordates
Chordates show four distinguishing features at different stages in their life. These features
include:
Possession of Notochord: Notochord is a flexible, rod-shaped structure that is found in the
embryonic stage of all chordates and in the adult stage of some chordate species. It is made of
cartilage and runs between the nerve cord and the digestive tract. Its main function is to support
the nerve cord. In vertebrate animals, the vertebral column replaces the notochord as the animal
advances from embryo to adult.
Dorsal Nerve Cord: This is a bundle of nerve fibres which connects the brain to the muscles and
other organs.The dorsal hollow nerve cord is derived from ectoderm that rolls into a hollow tube
during development. In chordates, it is located dorsal to the notochord. In contrast, the nervous
system in prostotome animal phyla are characterized by solid nerve cords that are located either
ventrally or laterally to the gut. The nerve cord found in most chordate embryos develops into the
brain and spinal cord, which compose the central nervous system.
Pharyngeal slits: these are openings in the pharynx that extend to the external environment. They
are the openings which connect the mouth and the throat. These openings allow the entry of water
through the mouth, without entering the digestive system. In organisms that live in aquatic
environments, pharyngeal slits allow for the exit of water that enters the mouth during feeding.
Some invertebrate chordates use the pharyngeal slits to filter food out of the water that enters the
mouth. In vertebrate fishes, the pharyngeal slits are modified into gill supports, and in jawed fishes,
into jaw supports. In tetrapods (amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals), the slits are modified
into components of the ear, tonsils and thymus glands.
The endostyle is astrip of ciliated mucus-producing tissue in the floor of the pharynx. Food
particles trapped in the mucus are moved along the endostyle towards the gut. The endostyle also
produces substances similar to thyroid hormones and is homologous with the thyroid gland in
vertebrates.
Post – anal Tail: The post-anal tail is a posterior elongation of the body, extending beyond the
anus. The tail contains skeletal elements and muscles, which provide a source of locomotion in
aquatic species, such as fishes. In some terrestrial vertebrates, the tail also helps with balance,
courting, movement, and signaling when danger is near. In humans and other great apes, the post-
anal tail is reduced to a vestigial coccyx, that aids in balance during sitting.

Figure 14.1: A representation of chordates

Source: https://opentextbc.ca/biology2eopenstax/chapter/chordates/
Phylum chordate is very diverse with about 43,000 species. Most of the species are found
in the subphylum Vertebrata. In the animal kingdom, it is considered as the third largest phylum.
Phylum Chordata is divided into three subphyla. They include the urochordata, cephalochordate
and vertebrate. The urochordata and cephalochordate are also known as protochordates or non
vertebrate chordate while the vertebrata are the craniates or vertebrate chordates.
Protochordates (Non-vertebrate chordates)
Protochordates are an informal category of animals (i.e. not a proper taxonomic group),
named mainly for convenience to describe invertebrate animals that are closely related to
vertebrates. Protochordates are commonly called lower chordates. They lack a head and a cranium,
so they are also known as Acraniata. Protochordates are the chordates which do not possess
vertebrae. Many are hermaphroditic, sessile or buried within the sand of aquatic environments,
and hatch from eggs within the parent’s body. Some undergo metamorphosis into their adult form.
Most are suspension-feeders, feeding on algae or small invertebrates.
This group is composed of the Phylum Hemichordata and the Subphyla Urochordata and
Cephalochordata. The Phylum Hemichordata consists of marine worms that share some, but not
all of the characteristics of chordates. These animals have pharyngeal gill slits and a dorsal nerve
cord, which is usually solid. The three body parts are proboscis, collar and trunk. Acorn worms
are examples of hemichordates.
The urochordata is made of 16,000 species and are also known as the tunicates. They live
in marine habitat. The name tunicate was deived from the cellulose-like carbohydrate material,
called the tunic, which covers the outer body of tunicates. Many adult tunicates can secrete a tunic.
Cellolose are found mainly in the cell walls of plants and algae but is rarely found in animals.
Although tunicates are classified as chordates, the adult do not have a notochord, dorsal hollow
nerve cord or a post anal tail. Meanwhile, they have pharyngeal slit and endostyle. The tadepole
larva form of tunicates possesses all the five features of chordates. Most tunicates are
hermaphrodites; their larvae hatch from eggs inside the adult tunicate’s body. After hatching, the
larva swims for few days until it finds a suitable to attach, usually in a dark or shaded location.
They attach with the head to the surface and undergo metamorphosis into the adult form. Tunicates
change so much as they mature and adjust developmentally to a sessile, filter feeding existence
that it would be difficult to discern their evolutionary relationships by examining their adult.
The cephalochordates possess notochord, dorsal hollow tubular nerve chord, pharyngeal
slits, endostyle/thyroid gland and a post-anal tail at adult stage. The notochord extends into the
head, which gives the subphylum its name. Although the neural tube also extends into the head
region, there is no well – defined brain, and the nervous system is centered around a hollow nerve
cord lying above the notochord. Examples of cephalochordates include Pikaia (extinct) and the
Lancelets. The lancelets are scaleless, fishlike marine chordates that are a few centimeters long
and are usually found buried in sand at the bottom of warm temperate and tropical seas. They are
named for their blade-like shape. There are about 23 species of the subphylum cephalochordata
most of which belong to the genus Branchiostoma, formerly called Amphioxus. The single layered
skin of lancelets lack pigment. The body is pointed at both ends and is not differentiated into head
or sensory structures other than pigmented light receptors. Sexes are separate in lancelets and
gametes are released into water through the atriopore for external fertilization.
General characteristics of protochordates (Hemichordates)
i. Protochordates are commonly called lower chordates.
ii. They lack a head and a cranium, so they are also known as Acraniata.
iii. All hermichordates are marine. Some are solitary and slow moving, others are sedentary
and colonial.
 iv. The body is stout and unsegmented, and worm–like.
v. The body is divided into three distinct regions namely proboscics, collar and trunk.
vi. They are bilaterally symmetrical and triploblastic.
vii. They have organ-system level of organization.
viii. Ther lack locomotory appendages. The collar may bear arms and tentacles.
ix. The body wall is consists of single layered epidermis and musculature of smooth
longitudinal fibres.
x. They have true body cavity with 3 parts corresponding to the 3 body divisions: an unpaired
proboscis coelom, a paired collar coelom and a paired trunk coelom.
xi. Digestive tract is complete. Proboscis contains a hollow out growth from the gut, called
the buccal diverticulum or stomochord and was regarded as notochord in the past.
xii. All feed on microorganisms and debris by filtering or ciliary mechanism.
xiii. Respiration occurs by a pair to numerous pairs of gill slits or through the general body
surface.
xiv. Circulatory system includes a dorsal heart, two main longitudinal vessels; a dorsal and a
ventral, interconnected by small lateral vessels and sinuses.
xv. Blood is colorless and without corpuscles.
xvi. Nervous system is diffuse consisting of an epidermal plexus of nerve cells and nerve fibers.

xvii. Excretory system comprises of a proboscis gland, or glomerulus, situated in the

proboscis and connected with the blood vessels.
xviii. Sexes are separate or united. The gonads may be in several pairs or only one in pair.
xix. Fertilization is external or internal. Asexual reproduction may occur.
xx. Development may include a free-swimming tornaria larva.
Examples: Balanoglossus (the acorn worm), Cephalodiscus, Rhabdopeura.
 Figure 14.2: Acorn worm
General Characteristics of Urochordata or Tunicates
 They are marine, mostly sessile, filter–feeders.
 The body is enclosed in a leathery test or tunic sheath, composed of tunicin (cellulose) so
called tunicates.
 The notochord occurs only in the tail of larva and disappears in the adults called
retrogressive metamorphosis.
 Nerve chord (neural tube) is present in the larva, but is replaced by a single dorsal ganglion
in the adult.
 The gill slits or stigma are numerous, persist in the adults and open into the atrium, instead
of opening to the exterior. There are no true gills but are called branchial basket.
  Circulatory system is of open type. Blood is consists of Venadocytes.
 Excretory system is lacking.
 Asexual reproduction occurs by budding.
Examples: Herdmania, Salpa, Doliolum etc.

Figure 14.3: Adult tunicate

General characteristics of Cephalochordates
 They are also marine and filter-feeders.
 The notochord extends up to the cephalic or head region and persists throughout the life.
 The nerve chord persists throughout the life, but no brain is formed.
 Excretion occurs by solenocytes.
 The gill slits are numerous and persist in the adults. They open in atrium and true gills are
absent.
 The body wall is consists of myotomes.
 Tail persists throughout the life.

Figure 14.4: Adult Lancelets

Vertebrate chordates - Craniates
Vertebrates are the principal chordate group and are characterised by the possession of a
vertebral column and a distinct head. The name craniates for the vertebrate chordates is due to the
possession of cranium, a bony, cartilaginous, or fibrous structure that surround the, jaw, and facial
bones. Vertebrates display the four characteristic features of the chordates; however, the
possession of cranium, vertebral column and distinct head are some of the derived characteristics
that distinguish them from invertebrate chordates. Vertebrata is named for the vertebral column,
composed of vertebrae, a series of separate bones joined together as a backbone. In adult
vertebrates, the vertebral column replaces the notochord, which is only seen in the embryonic
stage.
General Characteristics of Vertebrates
i. Notochord: The notochord is a flexible, rod-like structure, extending the length of thebody.
It is the first part of the endoskeleton to appear in the embryo.
ii. Dorsal nerve cord: The single cord is dorsal to the alimentary canal and is a tube (although
the hollow center may be nearly obliterated during growth). The anterior end becomes
enlarged to form the brain.
iii. Pharyngeal pouches: Pharyngeal slits are perforated slit like openings that lead from the
pharyngeal cavity to the outside. They are formed by the in pocketing of the out side
ectoderm (pharyngeal grooves) and the evagination, or out pocketing of the endodermal
lining of the pharynx (pharyngeal pouches).
iv. Postanal tail: The postanal tail, together with somatic musculature and the stiffening
notochord, provides the motility that larval tunicates and amphioxus need for their free-
swimming existence.
v. Integument basically of two divisions, an outer epidermis of stratified epithelium from
ectoderm and an inner dermis of connective tissue derived from mesoderm; many
modifications of skin among the various classes, such as glands, scales, feathers, claws,
horns, and hair
vi. Distinctive endoskeleton consisting of vertebral column (notochord persistentin jawless
fishes which lack vertebrae), limb girdles, and two pairs of jointed appendages derived
from somatic mesoderm, and a head skeleton (cranium and pharyngeal skeleton) derived
largely from neuralcrest cells.
 vii. Muscular, perforated pharynx; infishes pharyngeal slits possess gills and muscular aortic
arches; in tetrapodsthe much reduced pharynx isembryonic source of glandular tissue.
viii. Many muscles attached to theskeleton to provide for movement.
ix. Complete digestive system ventral tothe spinal column and provided with large digestive
glands, liver, and pancreas.
x. Circulatory system consisting of a ventral heart of two to four chambers; closed blood
vessel system of arteries, veins, and capillaries; blood fluid containing red blood corpuscles
with hemoglobin and white corpuscles;paired aortic arches connecting ventral and dorsal
aortas and giving off branches to the gills among gill breathing vertebrates; in terrestrial
types modification of the aortic arch plan into pulmonary and systemic systems.
xi. Well-developed coelom largely filled with the visceral systems.
xii. Excretory system consisting of paired kidneys (mesonephric or metanephric types in
adults) provided with ducts to drain the waste to cloaca or anal region
xiii. Highly differentiated brain; 10 or 12 pairs of cranial nerves with both motor and sensory
functions usually.
xiv. Endocrine system of ductless glands scattered through the body.
xv. Nearly always separate sexes; each sex containing paired gonads with ducts that discharge
their products either into the cloaca or into special openings near the anus.
xvi. The body plan is consist typically of head, trunk, and postanal tail; neck present in some,
especially terrestrial forms.
xvii. They have two pairs of appendages usually, although entirely absent in some.
xviii. Coelom divided into a pericardial space and a general body cavity; mammals with a
thoracic cavity.
xix. All vertebrates but the earliest fishes have a distinct and well-differentiated head, with a
skull and brain.
xx. Neural crest: A unique group of embryonic cells called the neural crest contributes to the
developmentof many vertebrate structures.
Distinct features of Vertebrates
i. Possession of vertebral column.
ii. All vertebrates EXCEPT the earliest fishes have distinct and well differentiated head with
skull and brain.
 iii. Possession of neural crest.
iv. They have internal organs such as liver, lungs, kidney etc.
v. Possession of endoskeleton
Diversity and Classification
Vertebrates are the largest group of chordates, with more than 62,000 living species
categorized based on anatomical and physiological traits. The traditional group of the craniates is
made of the Agnathan, chondrichthyes, osteichthyes, amphibian, reptilian, aves and mammalia.
Agnathostomes (jawless fishes)
Fishes were the earliest vertebrates, with jawless species being the earliest and jawed
species evolving later. They are active feeders, rather than sessile, suspension feeders. Jawless
fishes, such as lampreys, represent the first true vertebrate lineage. They are craniates that represent
an ancient vertebrate lineage that arose over one half-billion years ago. A defining feature is the
lack of paired lateral appendages (fins), such that they appear tubular. The agnathans are made of
two classes. These are the class myxini (Hagfishes) and the class petromysontida (Lamprey).

Figure 14.5: External features of Petromyzon marinus (Lamprey)

Gnathostomes (jawed fishes)
Gnathostomes or ‘jaw-mouths’ are vertebrates that possess jaws. One of the most
significant developments in early vertebrate evolution was the development of the jaw, which is a
hinged structure attached to the cranium that allows an animal to grasp and tear its food. Early
gnathostomes also possessed two sets of paired fins, allowing the fishes to manoeuvre accurately
and become mobile predators. These two traits allowed early gnathostomes to exploit food
resources that were unavailable to jawless fishes. Most modern fishes are gnathostomes and are
made of two classes which include the Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes.
Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fishes)
The clade Chondrichthyes is diverse, consisting of sharks, rays, and skates, together with
sawfishes and a few dozen species of fishes called chimaeras (ghost sharks). Chondrichthyes are
jawed fishes that possess paired fins and a skeleton made of cartilage. Recent fossil evidence
suggests that cartilaginous fishes evolved from placoderms, which had skeletons made of bone.
This evidence suggest that the ancestors of cartilaginous fish once had bone, and “lost” it over
evolutionary time, replacing their bony skeleton with a skeleton of cartilage.
Most cartilaginous fishes live in marine habitats, with a few species living in fresh water
for a part or all of their lives. Most sharks are carnivores that feed on live prey, either by swallowing
it whole or using their jaws and teeth to tear it into smaller pieces, but some are suspension feeders
that feed on plankton.
Characteristics of Chondrichthyes
 They are found mainly in marine environment.
 They have placoid scales.
 The endoskeleton is cartilaginous.
 The jaw suspension is amphistylic.
 They use gills for gaseous exchange.
 The caudal fin is heterocercal.
 Reproductive organs in males are known as claspers.
 They do not have air-bladders.
Gnathostomes are made of two sub-classes. These are the Selachi and Bradyodonti. Examples of
chondrichthyes include Heteroloatas, Scoliodon.

Figure 14.6: Cartilaginous fish (Shark)

Osteichthyes (bony fishes)
 The vast majority of present-day fishes belong to this group, which consists of
approximately 30,000 species, making it the largest class of vertebrates in existence today. The
‘bony fish’ group includes the Actinopterygii (ray-finned fishes), Actinistia (coelacanths), and
Dipnoi (lungfish). Nearly all bony fishes have an ossified skeleton. This characteristic has only
reversed in a few groups of Osteichthyes, such as sturgeons and paddlefish, which have primarily
cartilaginous skeletons. The skin of bony fishes is often covered by overlapping scales, and glands
in the skin secrete mucus that reduces drag when swimming and aids the fish in osmoregulation.

Figure 14.6: Bony fish

General characteristics of Osteichthyes
 They live in marine, fresh or brackish water.
 They have a bony endoskeleton.
 Osteichthyes have autostylic jaw suspension.
 They have no claspers.
 The gills are covered with an operculum.
 Air bladders are present in most of them.
Osteichthyes are made of two sub-classes which include the Crossopterygii and Actinopterygii.
Examples include Proptopterus, Lepidosiren.
General characteristics of Pisces
i. They are found in fresh, marine, and brackish water.
ii. The body is usually streamlined. Some have a spindle-shaped or elongated body as well.
iii. Their body is divided into a head, trunk and tail.
iv. They swim with the aid of their tail.
v. The paired and unpaired fins that represent the appendages help the fish to maintain balance
while swimming.
 vi. The lateral line system functions as a sensory organ to sense the disturbances in the nearby
environment.
vii. The body is covered with thick-seated scales, which helps by providing protection to the
internal organelles.
viii. The gills help in respiration.
ix. The have a closed circulatory system.
x. The internal skeleton is bony or cartilaginous.
xi. These are cold-blooded organisms.
xii. They may be herbivores or carnivores; oviparous or ovoviviparous.
xiii. The sexes are separate.
xiv. Fertilization may be external or internal.
xv. They lack extra-embryonic membranes.
xvi. The digestive system is well-developed.
xvii. The nervous system comprises of the brain and ten pairs of the cranial nerves
Amphibians
The class Amphibia belongs to the subphylum Vertebrata of phylum chordata. All the
representatives of Class Amphibia are ectothermic, tetrapod vertebrate animals which inhabit a
wide variety of habitats including terrestrial, arboreal, fossorial, or freshwater aquatic ecosystems.
The name amphibian is derived from Greek word "amphibious" which means “living a double
life” which is a reference to the metamorphosis that many frogs and salamanders undergo and their
mixture of aquatic and terrestrial environments in their life cycle. Most species must remain
forever associated with moist environment, at a minimum in early development as eggs.
This class includes about 3000 species. They are the first cold-blooded animals to have
appeared on land. Because some species are permanent land dwellers, while other species show
an entirely aquatic mode of life. There are about 8100 known living amphibians, of which nearly
90% are frogs. Amphibians first appeared about 340 million years ago during the Middle
Mississippian Epoch of the Paleozoic Era.
The representatives of modern amphibians are frogs, toads, newts, salamanders and
caecilians, and they show several unique characteristic features. They have a wet skin and depend
greatly on cutaneous as a secondary respiration but some small terrestrial salamanders and frogs
do not have lungs, and they entirely depend on their skin for respiration. They also contain green
rod in their retina to differentiate colors, two-part teeth and a dual-channeled hearing system.
As tetrapods, most amphibians are characterized by four well-developed limbs, although a
few clades have since lost some or all limbs. An important characteristic of extant amphibians is a
moist, permeable skin that is achieved via mucus glands that keep the skin moist; thus, exchange
of oxygen and carbon dioxide with the environment can take place through it (cutaneous
respiration). Importantly, almost all extant adult amphibians are carnivorous predators, have
sensitive inner ear structures and sticky tongues.
Evolution of tetrapods from fishes represented a significant change in body plan from one
suited to organisms that respired and swam in water, to organisms that breathed air and moved
onto land; these changes occurred over a span of 50 million years during the Devonian period. In
2006, researchers published news of their discovery of a fossil of a tetrapod-like fish, Tiktaalik
roseae, which seems to be an intermediate form between fishes having fins and tetrapods having
limbs. Tiktaalik likely lived in a shallow water environment about 375 million years ago. The
science which deals with the study of amphibians is called batrachology.
Characteristics of Class Amphibia
The characteristics of the organisms present in class amphibia are as follows:
1. They live both on land and in water.
2. They are ectothermic animals, found in a warm environment.
3. Their body is divided into head and trunk. Tail may or may not be present.
4. The skin is smooth and rough without any scales, but with glands that make it moist.
5. They have no paired fins. Unpaired fins might be present.
6. They have two pairs of limbs for locomotion.
7. Respiration is through the lungs and skin. Gills might be present externally in some adults.
8. They have three chambered heart.
9. The kidneys are mesonephric. The excretory material includes ammonia and urea.
10. They possess ten pairs of cranial nerves.
11. Lateral line is present during their development.
12. Sexes are separate and fertilization is usually external. However, in salamanders,
fertilization is internal.
13. Development is indirect with metamorphosis.
 14. Breeding occurs in water. The copulatory organs are absent in males.
Examples include frogs, salamanders, toad etc
Classification of Amphibia
Amphibians are divided into three orders which include;
Apoda (Gymnophiona or Caecilia)
The word “Apoda” means “without legs”. Hence, members of this group are made of the
amphibians that do not have limbs. Caecilians (Gymnophiona) are amphibians that look like
earthworms. They have blunt, bullet-shaped heads, cylindrical, limbless bodies, and short tails.
The bodies of all caecilians are distinctly segmented by encircling primary grooves called annuli,
and usually each segment (primary annulus) contains a single vertebra. In some taxa, the primary
annuli are further divided into secondary and even tertiary annuli by additional encircling grooves.
The blunt heads are digging tools for creating the burrows in which these animals live. A
combination of serpentine and internal concertina locomotion is used to move through burrows,
and serpentine or undulatory locomotion is used when on the surface. Heavier-bodied caecilians
typically use internal concertina locomotion. In these caecilians, the muscular body is loosely
attached to the skin. During movement, the body moves and bends within the inflexible skin and
shifts forward. The skin contracts and moves the entire animal forward. Slender caecilians use only
undulatory locomotion on the surface and in burrowing; hence, they are confined to more friable
soils. Aquatic species often have dorsal and ventral fins posteriorly and a somewhat laterally
compressed body; undulatory locomotion is used for forward movement.
All caecilians have internal fertilization. The male copulatory organ, the phallodeum, is an
eversible part of the posterior cloaca. During mating, the male lies on or entwines about the female
so that their cloacae are in apposition and the phallodeum can be everted into the female's cloaca.
Offspring develop internally or externally, depending upon species, and if externally, development
is indirect or direct; developmental mode is invariable within each species. Many shared derived
traits confirm monophyly of all living caecilians. The snout bears a retractable sensory tentacle on
each side of the head between the nostril and the eye; the tentacles aid in location and identification
of prey. Many structures that are part of the eye in other vertebrates have been preempted for the
tentacle in caecilians. The upper jaw protrudes beyond the lower jaw; this position allows prey
capture in narrow spaces yet does not interfere with the head's use in burrowing. The jaw-closing
mechanism of caecilians is unique in having a muscle that attaches to a process on the dentary and
when contracted causes the lower jaw to swing upward. Dermal (bony) scales often are present,
lying deep within the tissue of the annular grooves. The skull of adult caecilians is heavily ossified,
enabling it to withstand the jarring forces of digging or burrowing. Some elements, such as the
maxillary and palatine, are fused as single bones. The eyes are vestigial, represented only by small
darkly pigmented areas that lie beneath the skin and, in some cases, beneath skull bones. External
ear openings are absent. The limbs have been completely lost; not even a remnant of the pectoral
or pelvic girdles remains in the body wall.

Figure 14.7: Ichthyophis glutinosa (a Caecilian) A. male B. Female guarding her eggs C. Gilled
larva
General characteristics
 They are limbless organisms with scales on their body.
 They are also known as “blind-worms” because their eyes are covered by skin or bone.
 The tentacles on their head are the chemosensory organs that help them to detect
underground prey. Eg., Caecilians.
 They possess venom glands.
 They secrete mucus to reduce water loss.
Urodela (Caudata)
The order Caudata comprises 10 families of salamanders, the tailed amphibians (Table 2-
1).4 The earliest fossil record for this group dates back to the Jurassic period, over 150 million
years ago. Their present distribution is primarily Holarctic, limited to the northern hemisphere
regions of North and Central Americas, Europe, Asia, and northern Africa, with relatively few
species occurring below the equator in South America. The largest family within the order is, by
far, the Plethodontidae, a diverse group of lungless salamanders, containing nearly 70% of all
species of Caudata.
Most adult salamanders have a generalized tetrapod body plan with four limbs and a tail.
The placement of their legs makes it difficult to lift their bodies off the ground and they move by
bending their bodies from side to side, called lateral undulation, in a fish-like manner while
“walking” their arms and legs fore-and-aft. It is thought that their gait is similar to that used by
early tetrapods. The majority of salamanders are lungless, and respiration occurs through the skin
or through external gills in aquatic species. Some terrestrial salamanders have primitive lungs; a
few species have both gills and lungs. The giant Japanese salamander, the largest living amphibian,
has additional folds in its skin that enlarge its respiratory surface.
Most salamanders reproduce using an unusual process of internal fertilization of the eggs.
Mating between salamanders typically involves an elaborate and often prolonged courtship. Such
a courtship ends in the deposition of sperm by the males in a packet called a spermatophore, which
is subsequently picked up by the female, thus ultimately fertilization is internal. All salamanders
except one, the fire salamander, are oviparous. Aquatic salamanders lay their eggs in water, where
they develop into legless larvae called efts. Terrestrial salamanders lay their eggs in damp nests,
where the eggs are guarded by their mothers. These embryos go through the larval stage and
complete metamorphosis before hatching into tiny adult forms. One aquatic salamander, the
Mexican axolotl, never leaves the larval stage, becoming sexually mature without metamorphosis.

Figure 14.8: Adult salamander

General characteristics
 They are amphibians with tail.
 The body is elongated with four equally sized limbs.
 The skin is smooth with poison glands.
 Fertilization is internal.
  They feed on insects and worms. eg., Salamanders
 They are found under leaf litter, in the soil, or in water.
 They reproduce primarily in winters in the temperate region..
 Male differ slightly from the female.
 Spermatophores are utilized for internal fertilization.
 They possess hidden gills.
Anura or Salientia (Jumpers)
Anurans are among the most diverse groups of vertebrates, that occur on all of the
continents except Antarctica. Anurans, ranging from the minute New Guinea frog at 7 mm to the
huge goliath frog at 32 cm from tropical Africa, have a body plan that is more specialized for
movement. Adult frogs of toads use their hind limbs and their arrow-like endoskeleton to jump
accurately to capture prey on land. Tree frogs have hands adapted for grasping branches as they
climb. In tropical areas, “flying frogs” can glide from perch to perch on the extended webs of their
feet. Frogs have a number of modifications that allow them to avoid predators, including skin that
acts as camouflage. Many species of frogs and salamanders also release defensive chemicals that
are poisonous to predators from glands in the skin. Frogs with more toxic skins have bright warning
(aposematic) coloration.
Frog eggs are fertilized externally, and like other amphibians, frogs generally lay their eggs
in moist environments. Although amphibian eggs are protected by a thick jelly layer, they would
still dehydrate quickly in a dry environment. Frogs demonstrate a great diversity of parental
behaviors, with some species laying many eggs and exhibiting little parental care, to species that
carry eggs and tadpoles on their hind legs or embedded in their backs. The males of Darwin’s frog
carry tadpoles in their vocal sac. Many tree frogs lay their eggs off the ground in a folded leaf
located over water so that the tadpoles can drop into the water as they hatch.
The life cycle of most frogs, as other amphibians, consists of two distinct stages: the larval
stage followed by metamorphosis to an adult stage. However, the eggs of frogs in the
genus Eleutherodactylus develop directly into little froglets, guarded by a parent. The larval stage
of a frog, the tadpole, is often a filter-feeding herbivore. Tadpoles usually have gills, a lateral line
system, longfinned tails, and lack limbs. At the end of the tadpole stage, frogs undergo
metamorphosis into the adult form. During this stage, the gills, tail, and lateral line system
disappear, and four limbs develop. The jaws become larger and are suited for carnivorous feeding,
and the digestive system transforms into the typical short gut of a predator. An eardrum and air-
breathing lungs also develop. These changes during metamorphosis allow the larvae to move onto
land in the adult stage.

Figure 14.9: Adult toad

General characteristics
 There are around 3400 species of Anura in the world.
 They have four limbs. The front limbs are elongated and modified to jump.
 The head and trunk are fused together.
 Tail is present only in the larval stage and is lost as they advance to adults.
 Fertilization is external and the eggs are laid in water.
 Examples are frogs and toads.
Reptiles
The reptiles were the first class of vertebrates to adapt to life on land. They are believed to
have evolved from the amphibians millions of years ago. There are about 10000 different species
of reptiles on earth. They are cold-blooded animals belonging to the phylum Chordata of Animal
kingdom.
The skull of reptiles is modified to give the animal an efficient and powerful jaw action.
The modification also makes the skull light. Reptiles are tetrapods, although some lineages have
only vestigial structures since descending from four-limbed ancestors. They lay calcareous or
leathery eggs enclosed in shells on land. Even aquatic reptiles return to the land to lay eggs.
Reproduction is sexual andfertilization is internal. Some species display ovoviviparity, with the
eggs remaining in the mother’s body until they are ready to hatch. In ovoviviparous reptiles, most
nutrients are supplied by the egg yolk, while the chorioallantois assists with respiration. Other
species are viviparous, with the offspring born alive, with their development supported by a yolk
sac-placenta, a chorioallantoic-placenta, or both.
One of the key adaptations of reptiles to live on life on land was the development of their
scaly skin, containing the protein keratin and waxy lipids, which reduce water loss from the skin.
This occlusive skin means that reptiles cannot use their skin for respiration, like amphibians, and
thus all breathe with lungs. All reptiles grow throughout their lives and regularly shed their skin,
both to accommodate their growth and to rid themselves of ectoparasites. Snakes tend to shed the
entire skin at a time, but other reptiles shed their skins in patches.
Most reptiles are ectotherms, that is, animals whose main source of body heat comes from
the environment; however, some crocodilians maintain elevated thoracic temperatures and thus
appear to be at least regional endotherms. This is in contrast to true endotherms, which use heat
produced by metabolism and muscle contraction to regulate the body temperature over a very
narrow temperature range, and thus are properly referred to as homeotherms. In addition to being
ectothermic, reptiles are categorized as poikilotherms, or animals whose body temperatures vary
rather than remain stable. Reptiles have behavioral adaptations to help regulate body temperature,
such as basking in sunny places to warm up through the absorption of solar radiation, or finding
shady spots or going underground to minimize the absorption of solar radiation, which allows them
to cool down and prevent overheating. The advantage of ectothermy is that metabolic energy from
food is not required to heat the body; therefore, reptiles can survive on about 10 percent of the
calories required by a similarly sized endotherm. In cold weather, some reptiles such as the garter
snake brumate. Brumation is similar to hibernation in that the animal becomes less active and can
go for long periods without eating, but differs from hibernation in that brumating reptiles are not
asleep or living off fat reserves. Rather, their metabolism is slowed in response to cold
temperatures, and the animal is very sluggish.
General characteristics of Reptilia
1. These are creeping and burrowing terrestrial animals with scales on their body.
2. They are cold-blooded animals found in most of the warmer regions of the world.
3. Their skin is dry, and rough, without any glands.
4. The body is divided into head, neck, trunk, and tail.
5. Few shed the scales on their skin as skin cast.
 6. Respiration takes place through the lungs.
7. The skull is monocondylic.
8. They have two pairs of pentadactyl limbs, each bearing claws EXCEPT in Snakes.
9. They have three chambered heart EXCEPT crocodiles that have a 4-chambered heart.
10. The nervous system comprises of 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
11. The lateral line system is absent in reptiles.
12. All the reptiles have well-developed ears EXCEPT snakes.
13. They possess a typical cloaca.
14. Reptiles are ureotelic, uricotelic, and ammonotelic.
15. Fertilization is internal.
16. They exhibit a meroblastic segmentation.
17. They are oviparous and the eggs are very yolky.
18. Examples include Snakes, Turtles, Lizards, Crocodiles etc.
Classification of Reptilia
The sub-classes of the class reptilia include;
 Anapsida
 Parapsida
 Diapsida
Anapsida
 The dermal bones form a complete roof over the skull with no temporal fossae.
 These are sub-divided into Cotylosauria and Chelonia.
 Modern chelonians are classified according to the method of retracting the head in the shell.
 Turtles, tortoises, and terrapins belong to this group.
Parapsida
 These reptiles possess one temporal fossa present high up on the skull.
 Protosaurs, Nothosaurs, Placodonts showed this type of skull.
 The two largest groups among these were- Ichthyosaurs and Plesiosaurus. These became
extinct at the end of the Cretaceous period when several other reptiles including dinosaurs
died.
Diapsida
 There are two temporal vacuities in the skull.
  They are diverse of all reptiles.
 The dinosaurs and pterosaurs are included in this group.
 These are divided into two major groups- Archosauria and Lepidosauria.
 Eg., Crocodilus, Chameleon
Classification of Reptiles into order
The class Reptilia is further divided into different groups known as orders. The orders
include;
Order Examples
Order Squamata Lizards, Snakes
Order Testudines Turtles, Tortoises, Terrapins
Order Crocodilia Crocodiles, Alligators
Order Sphenodontia: Tuataras
Crocodilia
The crocodilia (“small lizard”) arose as a distinct lineage by the middle Triassic and extant
species include alligators, crocodiles, gharials, and caimans. Crocodilians are widely distributed
and are found throughout the tropics and subtropics of Africa, South America, Southern Florida,
Asia, and Australia. They live in freshwater, saltwater, and brackish habitats where tthey spend
most of their time in water. Crocodiles are descended from terrestrial reptiles and can still walk
and run well on land. They often move on their bellies in a swimming motion, propelled by
alternate movements of their legs. However, some species can lift their bodies off the ground,
pulling their legs in under the body with their feet rotated to face forward. This mode of locomotion
takes a lot of energy, and seems to be used primarily to clear ground obstacles. Some crocodiles
can also gallop, pushing off with their hind legs and moving their hind and forelegs alternately in
pairs. Galloping crocodiles have been known to move at a speed of over 17 kph and, over short
distances. In an ambush situation, they can easily chase down most humans if they are taken by
surprise. However, they are short distance runners. Crocodilians, such as Siamese crocodile
(Crocodylus siamensis), provide parental care for their offspring.
 Figure 14.10: Adult crocodile
Sphenodontia
Sphenodontia (“wedge tooth”) arose in the early Mesozoic era, when they had a moderate
radiation, but now are represented by only two living species: Sphenodon
punctatus and Sphenodon guntheri, both found on offshore islands in New Zealand. The common
name “tuatara” comes from a Maori word describing the crest along its back. Tuataras have a
primitive diapsid skull with biconcave vertebrae. They measure up to 80 centimeters and weigh
about 1 kilogram. Although superficially similar to an iguanid lizard, several unique features of
the skull and jaws clearly define them and distinguish this group from the Squamata. They have
no external ears. Tuataras briefly have a third (parietal) eye—with a lens, retina, and cornea-in the
middle of the forehead. The eye is visible only in very young animals and is covered with skin at
adult. Parietal eyes can sense light, but have limited color discrimination. Similar light-sensing
structures are also seen in some other lizards. In their jaws, tuataras have two rows of teeth in the
upper jaw that bracket a single row of teeth in the lower jaw. These teeth are actually projections
from the jawbones, and are not replaced as they wear down.
 Figure 14.11: Adult sphenodontia
Squamata
The Squamata (“scaly or having scales”) arose in the late Permian, and extant species
include lizards and snakes. Both are found on all continents except Antarctica. Lizards and snakes
are most closely related to tuataras, both having evolved from a lepidosaurian ancestor. Squamata
is the largest extant clade of reptiles.
Most lizards differ from snakes by having four limbs, although these have often been lost
or significantly reduced in at least 60 lineages. Snakes lack eyelids and external ears, which are
both present in lizards. There are about 6,000 species of lizards, ranging in size from tiny
chameleons and geckos, some of which are only a few centimeters in length, to the Komodo
dragon, which is about 3 meters in length.
Some lizards are extravagantly decorated with spines, crests, and frills, and many are
brightly colored. Some lizards, like chameleons, can change their skin color by redistributing
pigment within chromatophores in their skins. Chameleons change color both for camouflage and
for social signaling. Lizards have multiple-colored oil droplets in their retinal cells that give them
a good range of color vision. Lizards, unlike snakes, can focus their eyes by changing the shape of
the lens. The eyes of chameleons can move independently. Several species of lizards have a
“hidden” parietal eye, similar to that in the tuatara. Both lizards and snakes use their tongues to
sample the environment and a pit in the roof of the mouth, known as Jacobson’s organ, is used to
evaluate the collected sample.
Most lizards are carnivorous, but some large species, such as iguanas, are herbivores. Some
predatory lizards are ambush predators, waiting quietly until their prey is close enough for a quick
grab. Others are patient foragers, moving slowly through their environment to detect possible prey.
Lizard tongues are long and sticky and can be extended at high speed for capturing insects or other
small prey. Traditionally, the only venomous lizards are the Gila monster and the beaded lizard.
However, venom glands have also been identified in several species of monitors and iguanids, but
the venom is not injected directly and should probably be regarded as a toxin delivered with the
bite.
A non-venomous snake, the garter snake belongs to the genus Thamnophis, and is the most
widely distributed reptile genus in North America. Specialized features of the jaw are related to
adaptations for feeding that have evolved to feed on relatively large prey (even though some
current species have reversed this trend). Snakes are thought to have descended from either
burrowing or aquatic lizards over 100 million years ago. They include about 3,600 species, ranging
in size from 10 centimeter-long thread snakes to 10 meter-long pythons and anacondas. All snakes
are legless, except for boids (e.g., boa constrictors), which have vestigial hindlimbs in the form
of pelvic spurs. Like caecilian amphibians, the narrow bodies of most snakes have only a single
functional lung. All snakes are carnivorous and eat small animals, birds, eggs, fish, and insects.
Most snakes have a skull that is very flexible, involving eight rotational joints. They also
differ from other squamates by having mandibles (lower jaws) without either bony or ligamentous
attachment anteriorly. Having this connection via skin and muscle allows for great dynamic
expansion of the gape and independent motion of the two sides—both advantages in swallowing
big prey. Most snakes are non-venomous and simply swallow their prey alive, or subdue it by
constriction before swallowing it. Venomous snakes use their venom both to kill or immobilize
their prey, and to help digest it.
Although snakes have no eyelids, their eyes are protected with a transparent scale. Their
retinas have both rods and cones, and like many animals, they do not have receptor pigments for
red light. Some species, however, can see in the ultraviolet, which allows them to track ultraviolet
signals in rodent trails. Snakes adjust focus by moving their heads. They have lost both external
and middle ears, although their inner ears are sensitive to ground vibrations. Snakes have a number
of sensory structures that assist in tracking prey. In pit vipers, like rattlesnakes, a sensory pit
between the eye and nostrils is sensitive to infrared (“heat”) emissions from warm-blooded prey.
A row of similar pits is located on the upper lip of boids. As mentioned earlier, snakes also
use Jacobson’s organ for detecting olfactory signals.
 Figure 14.12: Adult Lizard
Testudines
Testudine is the third largest tortoise in the world. The turtles, terrapins, and tortoises are
members of the clade Testudines (“having a shell”), and are characterized by a bony or
cartilaginous shell. The shell in turtles is not just an epidermal covering, but is
incorporated into the skeletal system. The dorsal shell is called the carapace and includes the
backbone and ribs; while the ventral shell is called the plastron. Both shells are covered with
keratinous plates or scutes, and the two shells are held together by a bridge. In some turtles, the
plastron is hinged to allow the head and legs to be withdrawn under the shell.
The two living groups of turtles, Pleurodira and Cryptodira, have significant anatomical
differences and are most easily recognized by how they retract their necks. The more common
Cryptodira retract their neck in a vertical S-curve; they appear to simply pull their head backward
when retracting. Less common Pleurodira (“side-neck”) retract their neck with a horizontal curve,
basically folding their neck to the side.
The Testudines arose approximately 200 million years ago, predating crocodiles, lizards,
and snakes. There are about 325 living species of turtles and tortoises. Like other reptiles, turtles
are ectotherms. All turtles are oviparous, laying their eggs on land, although many species live in
or near water. None exhibit parental care. Turtles range in size from the speckled padloper tortoise
at 8 centimeters (3.1 inches) to the leatherback sea turtle at 200 centimeters (over 6 feet). The term
“turtle” is sometimes used to describe only those species of Testudines that live in the sea, with
the terms “tortoise” and “terrapin” used to refer to species that live on land and in fresh water,
respectively.
 Figure 14.13: Adult turtle
Aves (Birds)
The Aves belong to the phylum Chordata of the animal kingdom. It has about 9,000 species.
Aves are adapted to fly. All the birds come in the class Aves. They show courtship, parental care,
nest building, and territorial behaviour.
The most obvious characteristic that sets birds apart from other modern vertebrates is the
presence of feathers, which are modified scales. Birds are endothermic, and because they fly, they
require large amounts of energy, necessitating a high metabolic rate. Like mammals, which are
also endothermic, birds have an insulating covering, the feathers, that keeps heat in their body.
Specialized feathers called down feathers are especially insulating, trapping air in spaces between
each feather to decrease the rate of heat loss. Certain parts of a bird’s body are covered in down
feathers, and the base of other feathers has a downy portion, whereas newly hatched birds are
covered in down feathers.
Feathers not only act as insulation but also allow for flight, enabling the lift and thrust
necessary to become airborne. The feathers on a wing are flexible, so the collective feathers move
and separate as air moves through them, reducing the drag on the wing. Feathers provide insulation,
but this is only beneficial if body heat is being produced internally. Similarly, internal heat
production is only viable if insulation is present to retain that heat. Hence, it has been suggested
that one or the other– feathers or endothermy– evolved in response to some other selective
pressure.
Birds as modern dinosaurs
The evolutionary history of birds is still somewhat unclear. Due to the fragility of bird
bones, they do not fossilize as well as other vertebrates. Birds belong to a group called the
archosaurs, which also includes crocodiles and dinosaurs. Dinosaurs (including birds) are
subdivided into two groups, the Saurischia (‘lizard like‘) and the Ornithischia (‘bird like‘). Despite
the names of these groups, most evidence suggests it was not the bird-like dinosaurs that gave rise
to modern birds (but there is dissent and an alternative hypothesis has been proposed). Rather, the
lizard-like dinosaurs gave rise to bipedal predators called theropods, which includes birds.
One important fossil of an animal intermediate to dinosaurs and birds is Archaeopteryx,
which is from the Jurassic period. Archaeopteryx is important in establishing the relationship
between birds and dinosaurs, because it is an intermediate fossil, meaning it has characteristics of
both dinosaurs and birds. Some scientists propose classifying it as a bird, but others prefer to
classify it as a dinosaur. The fossilized skeleton of Archaeopteryx looks like that of a dinosaur,
and it had teeth whereas birds do not, but it also had feathers modified for flight, a trait associated
only with birds among modern animals. Fossils of older feathered dinosaurs exist, but the feathers
do not have the characteristics of flight feathers.

Figure 14.14: Representative of Aves

General characteristics of Aves
1. Birds are warm-blooded animals.
2. They have forelimbs modified into wings.
3. They have well-developed flight muscles that help during the flight.
4. Their hind limbs are adapted for walking, hopping, perching, grasping, wading and
swimming. They show 4 toes (Neognathae).
5. They have epidermal scales on their legs.
6. The endoskeleton is bony with long hollow bones filled with air cavities known as
pneumatic bones.
7. Their spindle-shaped body minimizes resistance of the wind.
8. The feathers help in preventing heat loss and reduce air friction by providing passage to
the air.
9. There is no skin gland except the oil gland. It secretes the oily substance which keeps the
feather waterproof.
10. The lower and upper and jaws are modified into a beak.
11. They have no teeth.
12. They have sharp eyesight. Monocular vision. There is a comb plate or pecten on the eye
which protects the retina from sunlight. It also increases the vision.
13. The alimentary canal has a crop and a gizzard. The crops help in softening food while the
gizzard helps in crushing the food.
14. Pigeons and other seed-eating birds lack a gall bladder.
15. They have spongy and elastic lungs for respiration.
16. In birds Respiratory system is well developed. The lungs are spongy.
They are non distensible sacs around the lungs. Nine air sacs are present. They are usefull
for make body light and they include;
a) Interr cavicular air sac (1)
b) 1 pair of cervical (2)
c) 1 pair of anterior thoracic air sacs (2)
d) pair of posterior thoracic air sect (2)
e) 1 pair of abdominal air sacs. (2)
They are useful for double respiration.
17. The special vocal organ called syrinx is present at the base of trachea.
18. Their heart is four-chambered.
19. RBCs are oval, nucleated and biconvex.
20. Birds kidneys are meta nephrlc. Each kidney is three lobed. Ureters open into cloaca.
Urinary bladder is absent.
21. They have 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
22. They have a single ovary and oviduct on the left side
 23. All the birds are oviparous and exhibit sexual dimorphism. The eggs have four embryonic
membranes- amnion, chorion, allantois, and yolk sac.
Classification of Aves
The class Aves is divided into two subclasses: These are the archaeornithes and neornithes.
Archaeornithes
This class of birds is extinct. They had a toothed beak with a long lizard-like tail.
Example is Archaeopteryx.
Neornithes
These include all extant and some extinct birds. They have no teeth and a short tail. All the
modern birds belong to the subclass Neornithes. The neornithes contains about 10,000 known
living birds' species throughout the world. The representatives of this subclass first appeared in the
Cretaceous period of the Mesozoic Era. This subclass also includes a few extinct birds. The key
features are;
1. They have a well-developed sternum, which is usually keeled or carinate.
2. They do not bear long tail with no teeth on both jaws. In this case, teeth are replaced by
horny rhamphotheca over the bill, but extinct forms had teeth.
3. The forelimbs are modified to wings.
Examples include Struthio, Aptenodytes (Penguin), Ardea (Grey heron), AIcedo (Kingfisher),
Anas (duck), Columba, Psittacula, Gallus, Tyto, Bubo (Great homed owl), Phonicopterus
(Flamingo), Aquila (Eagle), Neophron (Vulture, Gidh), Milvus (Kite, Cheel), Pavo, Corvus
(Crow), Passer domesticus (House sparrow Gauriyya), Crane (‘Saras’), Cuckoo (Papiha), Eagle
(Baz), wild goose (Hans), hawk (Basha), hornbill (Dhanesh), Partridge (Teetar), quail (‘Bater’),
myna, swift (Babila), tailor-bird (Durzee), weaver-bird (Baya), wood pecker (Kathphorwa). Dar-
win Finches; Dodo was pigeon-like bird which became extinct during 17th century in Mauritius.
Flight Adaptations in Class Aves:
Aves evolved adaptive features for flight. The adaptation for flight in aves are;

i. Spindle-Shaped Body: The body is designed to offer minimum resistance to the wind.
ii. Feathers: They provide the passage for air and reduce friction to minimum. They also
prevent loss of heat and help to maintain a constant temperature.
iii. Wings: Fore-limbs are modified into wings, which help during flight.
iv. Beak: Besides procurement of food, the beak is also used for nest-building.
v. Neck and Head: Mobile neck and head are very useful for feeding, nest building, offence
and defense.
vi. Flight Muscles: The flight muscles on the breast are greatly developed which help in flight.
vii. Hind Limbs (Legs): They are well suited for perching.
viii. Endoskeleton: Most of bones are pneumatic and filled with air instead of bone marrow. It
makes the body light. Most of bones are firmly fused together, which help in flight.
ix. Air Sacs: These are attached to lungs which serve as reservoirs of air. They may also aid as
cooling devices in regulation of the temperature of the body.
x. Warm-Bloodedness: Birds are warm-blooded animals which is necessary for flight.
xi. Circulatory System: A large oxygen supply is required for rapid metabolism and warm-
bloodedness. It is done by an efficient circulatory system.
xii. Absence of Urinary Bladder: Except Rhea, urinary bladder is absent in birds. Excreta are
passed out at once. This helps in reducing the weight of the body.
xiii. Brain and Eyes: Brain and eyes are well developed. Equilibrium is maintained by well
developed cerebellum of the brain.
xiv. Single Ovary: Presence of a single functional ovary on the left side in the female bird also
leads to reduction of weight which is so essential for flight.
Mammals
Animals belonging to class Mammalia are referred to as mammals. Mammals are one of
the most evolved species in the animal kingdom categorized under vertebrata. They exhibit
advanced characteristics which set them apart from all other animals. They are characterized by
the presence of mammary glands through which they feed their younger ones. They are distributed
worldwide and have adapted well to their surroundings; from oceans, deserts and polar regions to
rainforests and rivers etc.
Mammals are vertebrates that possess several defining characteristics, including certain
features of the hair, the jaw and skeletal system, integument (skin), and internal anatomy. The
presence of hair is one of the most obvious signs of a mammal. Although it is not very extensive
on certain species, such as whales, hair has many important functions for mammals. Mammals are
endothermic, and hair provides insulation to retain heat generated by metabolic work. Hair traps a
layer of air close to the body, retaining heat. Along with insulation, hair can serve as a sensory
mechanism via specialized hairs called vibrissae, better known as whiskers. These attach to nerves
that transmit information about sensation, which is particularly useful to nocturnal or burrowing
mammals. Hair can also provide protective coloration or be part of social signaling.
The skeletal system of mammals possesses many unique features. Unlike other vertebrates,
the lower jaw of mammals consists of just one bone, the dentary. The additional jaw bones found
in other vertebrates have been modified to function in hearing and form bones in the middle ear
(the malleus, incus, and stapes), and is one way of distinguishing fossil mammals from fossils of
other synapsids.
The adductor muscle that closes the jaw is composed of two muscles in mammals, the
temporalis and the masseter. These allow side-to-side movement of the jaw, making chewing
possible, which is unique to mammals. Most mammals have heterodont teeth, meaning that they
have different types and shapes of teeth rather than just one type and shape of tooth.
In addition to mammary glands that produce milk used to feed newborns, other specific glands that
are unique to mammals are:
 Sebaceous glands that produce a lipid mixture called sebum that is secreted onto the hair
and skin for water resistance and lubrication.
 Eccrine glands which produce sweat, may be limited to certain parts of the body or absent
in some species, but when present, aid with thermoregulation.
 Apocrine glands, or scent glands, secrete substances that are used for chemical
communication, such as in skunks.
Two characteristics are used to define mammal. These are the mammary glands and body
hair (or fur).
1. Female mammals have mammary glands. The glands produce milk after the birth of
offspring. Milk is a nutritious fluid that contains disease-fighting molecules as well as all
the nutrients a baby mammal needs. Producing milk for offspring is called lactation.
2. Mammals have hair or fur that insulates the body to help conserve body heat. It can also
be used for sensing and communicating. For example, cats use their whiskers to sense their
surroundings. They also raise their fur to look larger and more threatening.
General Characteristics of Mammals
The distinct characteristics of mammals that separate them from other classes of vertebrates are:
i. Mammals are warm-blooded animals that give birth to their younger ones.
ii. They are the most dominant form of animals found in almost all types of habitats.
iii. They have mammary glands that help them produce milk to feed their younger ones
iv. They have a region their brain known as Neocortex
v. Their skin possesses oil glands (sebaceous glands) and sweat glands (sudoriferous glands).
vi. They fur or hair throughout the body which helps them adapt to their environment.
vii. They heterodont dentition, i.e., possess different types of teeth.
viii. Mammals also possess cervical vertebrae.
ix. Their skull is dicondylic.
x. The trunk is divided into thorax and abdomen.
xi. They respire through lungs.
xii. They have good sense of hearing aided by the 3 middle ear bones
xiii. Mammals have a four-chambered heart. The sinus venous and renal portal systems are
absent.
xiv. They have single-boned lower jaws.
xv. The brain is well developed and is made of the cerebrum, cerebellum and medulla.
xvi. They possess 12 pairs of cranial nerves.
xvii. They have one of the most advanced forms of Diaphragms.
xviii. Mammals are viviparous and some are oviparous.
Classification Of Mammals
Mammalia has the largest class in the animal kingdom. Based on their reproduction, they
are classified into three subclasses and these include the Eutheria (placental mammals), Metatheria
or marsupials and Prototheria or monotremes.
Eutheria or Placental mammals
These are mammals that give birth to their young ones. The young ones are developed
inside the mother and derive nutrition through the placenta from the mother. The eutheria is
consists of 19 orders, few of which are:
Order Examples
Proboscidea Elephants
Rodentia Rats
Artiodactyla Cows
Metatheria or Pouch mammals
 These are mammals that give birth to immature young ones, hence they stay in their
mother’s pouch until they mature. They are divided into seven different orders:
Order Examples
Notoryctemorphia Marsupial modes
Diprotodontia Kangaroo
Microbiotheria Colocolo
Didelphimorphia New world opossum
Dasyuromorphia Dasyurids
Peramelemorphia Bandicoots
Paucituberculata South American rat opossum

Prototheria
The prototheria are also known as Monotremes. The sub-class Prototheria consists of the
egg laying mammals. It has one order and 6 species
Order: Monotremata
Example: Duckbilled platypus, Echidna. Spiny anteater
Amniotes
The amniotes (reptiles, birds, and mammals) are distinguished from amphibians by their
terrestrially adapted egg, which is protected by amniotic membranes (fluid-filled membranes
which function in embryonic development). The evolution of amniotic membranes meant that the
embryos of amniotes were provided with their own aquatic environment, which led to less
dependence on water for development and thus allowed the amniotes to branch out into drier
environments. This was a significant development that distinguished them from amphibians, which
were restricted to moist environments due their shell-less eggs. Although the shells of various
amniotic species vary significantly (from hard, to leathery, to using internal fertilization and
development instead), they all allow retention of water.
The amniotic egg
The amniotic egg is the key characteristic of amniotes. In amniotes that lay eggs, the shell
of the egg provides protection for the developing embryo while being permeable enough to allow
for the exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen. The albumin, or egg white, provides the embryo
with water and protein, whereas the fattier egg yolk is the energy supply for the embryo, as is the
case with the eggs of many other animals, such as amphibians.
However, the eggs of amniotes contain three additional extra-embryonic membranes which
include the chorion, amnion, and allantois. Extra-embryonic membranes are membranes present
in amniotic eggs that are not part of the body of the developing embryo. While the inner amniotic
membrane surrounds the embryo itself, the chorion surrounds the embryo and yolk sac. The
chorion facilitates exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the embryo and the egg’s
external environment. The amnion protects the embryo from mechanical shock and supports
hydration. The allantois stores nitrogenous wastes produced by the embryo and also facilitates
respiration. In mammals, membranes that are homologous to the extra-embryonic membranes in
eggs are present in the placenta.