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De Gruyter Graduate
Celine Carstensen
Benjamin Fine
Gerhard Rosenberger

Abstract Algebra
Applications to Galois Theory,
Algebraic Geometry and Cryptography

De Gruyter
Mathematics Subject Classification 2010: Primary: 12-01, 13-01, 16-01, 20-01; Secondary: 01-01,
08-01, 11-01, 14-01, 94-01.

This book is Volume 11 of the Sigma Series in Pure Mathematics, Heldermann Verlag.

ISBN 978-3-11-025008-4
e-ISBN 978-3-11-025009-1

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Carstensen, Celine.
Abstract algebra : applications to Galois theory, algebraic geo-
metry, and cryptography / by Celine Carstensen, Benjamin Fine,
and Gerhard Rosenberger.
p. cm. ⫺ (Sigma series in pure mathematics ; 11)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-3-11-025008-4 (alk. paper)
1. Algebra, Abstract. 2. Galois theory. 3. Geometry, Algebraic.
4. Crytography. I. Fine, Benjamin, 1948⫺ II. Rosenberger, Ger-
hard. III. Title.
QA162.C375 2011
5151.02⫺dc22
2010038153

Bibliographic information published by the Deutsche Nationalbibliothek

The Deutsche Nationalbibliothek lists this publication in the Deutsche Nationalbibliografie;
detailed bibliographic data are available in the Internet at http://dnb.d-nb.de.

” 2011 Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin/New York

Typesetting: Da-TeX Gerd Blumenstein, Leipzig, www.da-tex.de
Printing and binding: AZ Druck und Datentechnik GmbH, Kempten
⬁ Printed on acid-free paper
Printed in Germany
www.degruyter.com
Preface

Traditionally, mathematics has been separated into three main areas; algebra, analysis
and geometry. Of course there is a great deal of overlap between these areas. For
example, topology, which is geometric in nature, owes its origins and problems as
much to analysis as to geometry. Further the basic techniques in studying topology
are predominantly algebraic. In general, algebraic methods and symbolism pervade
all of mathematics and it is essential for anyone learning any advanced mathematics
to be familiar with the concepts and methods in abstract algebra.
This is an introductory text on abstract algebra. It grew out of courses given to
advanced undergraduates and beginning graduate students in the United States and
to mathematics students and teachers in Germany. We assume that the students are
familiar with Calculus and with some linear algebra, primarily matrix algebra and the
basic concepts of vector spaces, bases and dimensions. All other necessary material
is introduced and explained in the book. We assume however that the students have
some, but not a great deal, of mathematical sophistication. Our experience is that the
material in this can be completed in a full years course. We presented the material
sequentially so that polynomials and field extensions preceded an in depth look at
group theory. We feel that a student who goes through the material in these notes will
attain a solid background in abstract algebra and be able to move on to more advanced
topics.
The centerpiece of these notes is the development of Galois theory and its important
applications, especially the insolvability of the quintic. After introducing the basic al-
gebraic structures, groups, rings and fields, we begin the theory of polynomials and
polynomial equations over fields. We then develop the main ideas of field extensions
and adjoining elements to fields. After this we present the necessary material from
group theory needed to complete both the insolvability of the quintic and solvability
by radicals in general. Hence the middle part of the book, Chapters 9 through 14 are
concerned with group theory including permutation groups, solvable groups, abelian
groups and group actions. Chapter 14 is somewhat off to the side of the main theme
of the book. Here we give a brief introduction to free groups, group presentations
and combinatorial group theory. With the group theory material in hand we return
to Galois theory and study general normal and separable extensions and the funda-
mental theorem of Galois theory. Using this we present several major applications
of the theory including solvability by radicals and the insolvability of the quintic, the
fundamental theorem of algebra, the construction of regular n-gons and the famous
impossibilities; squaring the circling, doubling the cube and trisecting an angle. We
vi Preface

finish in a slightly different direction giving an introduction to algebraic and group

based cryptography.

October 2010 Celine Carstensen

Benjamin Fine
Gerhard Rosenberger
Contents

Preface v

1 Groups, Rings and Fields 1

1.1 Abstract Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Integral Domains and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4 Subrings and Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 Factor Rings and Ring Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.6 Fields of Fractions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.7 Characteristic and Prime Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

2 Maximal and Prime Ideals 21

2.1 Maximal and Prime Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2 Prime Ideals and Integral Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3 Maximal Ideals and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.4 The Existence of Maximal Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5 Principal Ideals and Principal Ideal Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3 Prime Elements and Unique Factorization Domains 29

3.1 The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.2 Prime Elements, Units and Irreducibles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.3 Unique Factorization Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.4 Principal Ideal Domains and Unique Factorization . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.5 Euclidean Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.6 Overview of Integral Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4 Polynomials and Polynomial Rings 53

4.1 Polynomials and Polynomial Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2 Polynomial Rings over Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.3 Polynomial Rings over Integral Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.4 Polynomial Rings over Unique Factorization Domains . . . . . . . . 58
4.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
viii Contents

5 Field Extensions 66
5.1 Extension Fields and Finite Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.2 Finite and Algebraic Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3 Minimal Polynomials and Simple Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.4 Algebraic Closures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.5 Algebraic and Transcendental Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

6 Field Extensions and Compass and Straightedge Constructions 80

6.1 Geometric Constructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.2 Constructible Numbers and Field Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.3 Four Classical Construction Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.3.1 Squaring the Circle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.3.2 The Doubling of the Cube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.3.3 The Trisection of an Angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.3.4 Construction of a Regular n-Gon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
6.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

7 Kronecker’s Theorem and Algebraic Closures 91

7.1 Kronecker’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.2 Algebraic Closures and Algebraically Closed Fields . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.3 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.3.1 Splitting Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
7.3.2 Permutations and Symmetric Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Symmetric Polynomials . . . . . . . . 109
7.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

8 Splitting Fields and Normal Extensions 113

8.1 Splitting Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.2 Normal Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

9 Groups, Subgroups and Examples 119

9.1 Groups, Subgroups and Isomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
9.2 Examples of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
9.3 Permutation Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
9.4 Cosets and Lagrange’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
9.5 Generators and Cyclic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
9.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Contents ix

10 Normal Subgroups, Factor Groups and Direct Products 141

10.1 Normal Subgroups and Factor Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
10.2 The Group Isomorphism Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
10.3 Direct Products of Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
10.4 Finite Abelian Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
10.5 Some Properties of Finite Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
10.6 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

11 Symmetric and Alternating Groups 161

11.1 Symmetric Groups and Cycle Decomposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
11.2 Parity and the Alternating Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
11.3 Conjugation in Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
11.4 The Simplicity of An . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
11.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170

12 Solvable Groups 171

12.1 Solvability and Solvable Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
12.2 Solvable Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
12.3 The Derived Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
12.4 Composition Series and the Jordan–Hölder Theorem . . . . . . . . . 177
12.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

13 Groups Actions and the Sylow Theorems 180

13.1 Group Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
13.2 Conjugacy Classes and the Class Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
13.3 The Sylow Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
13.4 Some Applications of the Sylow Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
13.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191

14 Free Groups and Group Presentations 192

14.1 Group Presentations and Combinatorial Group Theory . . . . . . . . 192
14.2 Free Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
14.3 Group Presentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
14.3.1 The Modular Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
14.4 Presentations of Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
14.5 Geometric Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
14.6 Presentations of Factor Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
14.7 Group Presentations and Decision Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
14.8 Group Amalgams: Free Products and Direct Products . . . . . . . . . 214
14.9 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
x Contents

15 Finite Galois Extensions 217

15.1 Galois Theory and the Solvability of Polynomial Equations . . . . . . 217
15.2 Automorphism Groups of Field Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
15.3 Finite Galois Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
15.4 The Fundamental Theorem of Galois Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
15.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

16 Separable Field Extensions 233

16.1 Separability of Fields and Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
16.2 Perfect Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
16.3 Finite Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
16.4 Separable Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
16.5 Separability and Galois Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
16.6 The Primitive Element Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
16.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

17 Applications of Galois Theory 248

17.1 Applications of Galois Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
17.2 Field Extensions by Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
17.3 Cyclotomic Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
17.4 Solvability and Galois Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
17.5 The Insolvability of the Quintic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
17.6 Constructibility of Regular n-Gons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
17.7 The Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
17.8 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

18 The Theory of Modules 265

18.1 Modules Over Rings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
18.2 Annihilators and Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
18.3 Direct Products and Direct Sums of Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
18.4 Free Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
18.5 Modules over Principal Ideal Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
18.6 The Fundamental Theorem for Finitely Generated Modules . . . . . . 279
18.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

19 Finitely Generated Abelian Groups 285

19.1 Finite Abelian Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
19.2 The Fundamental Theorem: p-Primary Components . . . . . . . . . 286
19.3 The Fundamental Theorem: Elementary Divisors . . . . . . . . . . . 288
19.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Contents xi

20 Integral and Transcendental Extensions 295

20.1 The Ring of Algebraic Integers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
20.2 Integral ring extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
20.3 Transcendental field extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
20.4 The transcendence of e and  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
20.5 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310

21 The Hilbert Basis Theorem and the Nullstellensatz 312

21.1 Algebraic Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
21.2 Algebraic Varieties and Radicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
21.3 The Hilbert Basis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
21.4 The Hilbert Nullstellensatz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
21.5 Applications and Consequences of Hilbert’s Theorems . . . . . . . . 317
21.6 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
21.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

22 Algebraic Cryptography 326

22.1 Basic Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
22.2 Encryption and Number Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
22.3 Public Key Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
22.3.1 The Diffie–Hellman Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
22.3.2 The RSA Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
22.3.3 The El-Gamal Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
22.3.4 Elliptic Curves and Elliptic Curve Methods . . . . . . . . . . 341
22.4 Noncommutative Group based Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
22.4.1 Free Group Cryptosystems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
22.5 Ko–Lee and Anshel–Anshel–Goldfeld Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
22.5.1 The Ko–Lee Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
22.5.2 The Anshel–Anshel–Goldfeld Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
22.6 Platform Groups and Braid Group Cryptography . . . . . . . . . . . 351
22.7 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356

Bibliography 359

Index 363
Chapter 1
Groups, Rings and Fields

1.1 Abstract Algebra

Abstract algebra or modern algebra can be best described as the theory of algebraic
structures. Briefly, an algebraic structure is a set S together with one or more binary
operations on it satisfying axioms governing the operations. There are many alge-
braic structures but the most commonly studied structures are groups, rings, fields
and vector spaces. Also widely used are modules and algebras. In this first chapter
we will look at some basic preliminaries concerning groups, rings and fields. We will
only briefly touch on groups here, a more extensive treatment will be done later in the
book.
Mathematics traditionally has been subdivided into three main areas – analysis,
algebra and geometry. These areas overlap in many places so that it is often difficult
to determine whether a topic is one in geometry say or in analysis. Algebra and
algebraic methods permeate all these disciplines and most of mathematics has been
algebraicized – that is uses the methods and language of algebra. Groups, rings and
fields play a major role in the modern study of analysis, topology, geometry and even
applied mathematics. We will see these connections in examples throughout the book.
Abstract algebra has its origins in two main areas and questions that arose in these
areas – the theory of numbers and the theory of equations. The theory of numbers
deals with the properties of the basic number systems – integers, rationals and reals
while the theory of equations, as the name indicates, deals with solving equations, in
particular polynomial equations. Both are subjects that date back to classical times.
A whole section of Euclid’s elements is dedicated to number theory. The foundations
for the modern study of number theory were laid by Fermat in the 1600s and then by
Gauss in the 1800s. In an attempt to prove Fermat’s big theorem Gauss introduced
the complex integers a C bi where a and b are integers and showed that this set has
unique factorization. These ideas were extended by Dedekind and Kronecker who
developed a wide ranging theory of algebraic number fields and algebraic integers.
A large portion of the terminology used in abstract algebra, rings, ideals, factorization
comes from the study of algebraic number fields. This has evolved into the modern
discipline of algebraic number theory.
The second origin of modern abstract algebra was the problem of trying to deter-
mine a formula for finding the solutions in terms of radicals of a fifth degree poly-
nomial. It was proved first by Ruffini in 1800 and then by Abel that it is impossible
to find a formula in terms of radicals for such a solution. Galois in 1820 extended
2 Chapter 1 Groups, Rings and Fields

this and showed that such a formula is impossible for any degree five or greater. In
proving this he laid the groundwork for much of the development of modern abstract
algebra especially field theory and finite group theory. Earlier, in 1800, Gauss proved
the fundamental theorem of algebra which says that any nonconstant complex poly-
nomial equation must have a solution. One of the goals of this book is to present a
comprehensive treatment of Galois theory and a proof of the results mentioned above.
The locus of real points .x; y/ which satisfy a polynomial equation f .x; y/ D 0 is
called an algebraic plane curve. Algebraic geometry deals with the study of algebraic
plane curves and extensions to loci in a higher number of variables. Algebraic geom-
etry is intricately tied to abstract algebra and especially commutative algebra. We will
touch on this in the book also.
Finally linear algebra, although a part of abstract algebra, arose in a somewhat
different context. Historically it grew out of the study of solution sets of systems of
linear equations and the study of the geometry of real n-dimensional spaces. It began
to be developed formally in the early 1800s with work of Jordan and Gauss and then
later in the century by Cayley, Hamilton and Sylvester.

1.2 Rings
The primary motivating examples for algebraic structures are the basic number sys-
tems; the integers Z, the rational numbers Q, the real numbers R and the complex
numbers C. Each of these has two basic operations, addition and multiplication and
form what is called a ring. We formally define this.

Definition 1.2.1. A ring is a set R with two binary operations defined on it, addition,
denoted by C, and multiplication, denoted by  , or just by juxtaposition, satisfying
the following six axioms:
(1) Addition is commutative: a C b D b C a for each pair a; b in R.

(2) Addition is associative: a C .b C c/ D .a C b/ C c for a; b; c 2 R.

(3) There exists an additive identity, denoted by 0, such that a C 0 D a for each
a 2 R.

(4) For each a 2 R there exists an additive inverse, denoted by a, such that a C
.a/ D 0.

(5) Multiplication is associative: a.bc/ D .ab/c for a; b; c 2 R.

(6) Multiplication is left and right distributive over addition: a.b C c/ D ab C ac

and .b C c/a D ba C ca for a; b; c 2 R.
Section 1.2 Rings 3

If in addition
(7) Multiplication is commutative: ab D ba for each pair a; b in R.
then R is a commutative ring.
Further if
(8) There exists a multiplicative identity denoted by 1 such that a  1 D a and 1  a D
a for each a in R.
then R is a ring with identity.
If R satisfies (1) through (8) then R is a commutative ring with an identity.
A set G with one operation, C, on it satisfying axioms (1) through (4) is called an
abelian group. We will discuss these further later in the chapter.
The numbers systems Z; Q; R; C are all commutative rings with identity.
A ring R with only one element is called trivial. A ring R with identity is trivial if
and only if 0 D 1.
A finite ring is a ring R with only finitely many elements in it. Otherwise R is
an infinite ring. Z; Q; R; C are all infinite rings. Examples of finite rings are given
by the integers modulo n, Zn , with n > 1. The ring Zn consists of the elements
0; 1; 2; : : : ; n1 with addition and multiplication done modulo n. That is, for example
4  3 D 12 D 2 modulo 5. Hence in Z5 we have 4  3 D 2. The rings Zn are all finite
commutative rings with identity.
To give examples of rings without an identity consider the set nZ D ¹nz W z 2
Zº consisting of all multiples of the fixed integer n. It is an easy verification (see
exercises) that this forms a ring under the same addition and multiplication as in Z
but that there is no identity for multiplication. Hence for each n 2 Z with n > 1 we
get an infinite commutative ring without an identity.
To obtain examples of noncommutative rings we consider matrices. Let M2 .Z/ be
the set of 2  2 matrices with integral entries. Addition of matrices is done compo-
nentwise, that is
     
a1 b1 a2 b2 a1 C a2 b1 C b2
C D
c1 d1 c2 d2 c1 C c2 d1 C d2

while multiplication is matrix multiplication

     
a 1 b1 a2 b2 a a C b1 c2 a1 b2 C b1 d2
 D 1 2 :
c1 d1 c2 d 2 c1 a2 C d1 c2 c1 b2 C d1 d2

Then again it is an easy verification (see exercises) that M2 .Z/ forms a ring. Fur-
ther since matrix multiplication is noncommutative this forms a noncommutative ring.
However the identity matrix does form a multiplicative identity for it. M2 .nZ/ with
n > 1 provides an example of an infinite noncommutative ring without an identity.
Finally M2 .Zn / for n > 1 will give an example of a finite noncommutative ring.
4 Chapter 1 Groups, Rings and Fields

1.3 Integral Domains and Fields

Our basic number systems have the property that if ab D 0 then either a D 0 or b D 0.
However this is not necessarily true in the modular rings. For example 2  3 D 0 in Z6 .

Definition 1.3.1. A zero divisor in a ring R is an element a 2 R with a ¤ 0 such

that there exists an element b ¤ 0 with ab D 0. A commutative ring with an identity
1 ¤ 0 and with no zero divisors is called an integral domain. Notice that having no
zero divisors is equivalent to the fact that if ab D 0 in R then either a D 0 or b D 0.

Hence Z; Q; R; C are all integral domains but from the example above Z6 is not.
In general we have the following.

Theorem 1.3.2. Zn is an integral domain if and only if n is a prime.

Proof. First of all notice that under multiplication modulo n an element m is 0 if and
only if n divides m. We will make this precise shortly. Recall further Euclid’s lemma
which says that if a prime p divides a product ab then p divides a or p divides b.
Now suppose that n is a prime and ab D 0 in Zn . Then n divides ab. From Euclid’s
lemma it follows that n divides a or n divides b. In the first case a D 0 in Zn while
in the second b D 0 in Zn . It follows that there are no zero divisors in Zn and since
Zn is a commutative ring with an identity it is an integral domain.
Conversely suppose Zn is an integral domain. Suppose that n is not prime. Then
n D ab with 1 < a < n, 1 < b < n. It follows that ab D 0 in Zn with neither a nor
b being zero. Therefore they are zero divisors which is a contradiction. Hence n must
be prime.

In Q every nonzero element has a multiplicative inverse. This is not true in Z where
only the elements 1; 1 have multiplicative inverses within Z.

Definition 1.3.3. A unit in a ring R with identity is an element a which has a multi-
plicative inverse, that is an element b such that ab D ba D 1. If a is a unit in R we
denote its inverse by a1 .

Hence every nonzero element of Q and of R and of C is a unit but in Z the only
units are ˙1. In M2 .R/ the units are precisely those matrices that have nonzero deter-
minant while in M2 .Z/ the units are those integral matrices that have determinant ˙1.

Definition 1.3.4. A field F is a commutative ring with an identity 1 ¤ 0 where every

nonzero element is a unit.

The rationals Q, the reals R and the complexes C are all fields. If we relax the com-
mutativity requirement and just require that in the ring R with identity each nonzero
element is a unit then we get a skew field or division ring.
Section 1.3 Integral Domains and Fields 5

Lemma 1.3.5. If F is a field then F is an integral domain.

Proof. Since a field F is already a commutative ring with an identity we must only
show that there are no zero divisors in F .
Suppose that ab D 0 with a ¤ 0. Since F is a field and a is nonzero it has an
inverse a1 . Hence

a1 .ab/ D a1 0 D 0 H) .a1 a/b D 0 H) b D 0:

Therefore F has no zero divisors and must be an integral domain.

Recall that Zn was an integral domain only when n was a prime. This turns out to
also be necessary and sufficient for Zn to be a field.

Theorem 1.3.6. Zn is a field if and only if n is a prime.

Proof. First suppose that Zn is a field. Then from Lemma 1.3.5 it is an integral
domain, so from Theorem 1.3.2 n must be a prime.
Conversely suppose that n is a prime. We must show that Zn is a field. Since we
already know that Zn is an integral domain we must only show that each nonzero
element of Zn is a unit. Here we need some elementary facts from number theory. If
a; b are integers we use the notation ajb to indicate that a divides b.
Recall that given nonzero integers a; b their greatest common divisor or GCD d > 0
is a positive integer which is a common divisor, that is d ja and d jb, and if d1 is any
other common divisor then d1 jd . We denote the greatest common divisor of a; b by
either gcd.a; b/ or .a; b/. It can be proved that given nonzero integers a; b their GCD
exists, is unique and can be characterized as the least positive linear combination of
a and b. If the GCD of a and b is 1 then we say that a and b are relatively prime or
coprime. This is equivalent to being able to express 1 as a linear combination of a
and b.
Now let a 2 Zn with n prime and a ¤ 0. Since a ¤ 0 we have that n does not
divide a. Since n is prime it follows that a and n must be relatively prime, .a; n/ D 1.
From the number theoretic remarks above we then have that there exist x; y with

ax C ny D 1:

However in Zn the element ny D 0 and so in Zn we have

ax D 1:
6 Chapter 1 Groups, Rings and Fields

Therefore a has a multiplicative inverse in Zn and is hence a unit. Since a was an

arbitrary nonzero element we conclude that Zn is a field.

The theorem above is actually a special case of a more general result from which
Theorem 1.3.6 could also be obtained.

Theorem 1.3.7. Each finite integral domain is a field.

Proof. Let F be a finite integral domain. We must show that F is a field. It is clearly
sufficient to show that each nonzero element of F is a unit. Let

¹0; 1; r1 ; : : : ; rn º

be the elements of F . Let ri be a fixed nonzero element and multiply each element of
F by ri on the left. Now

if ri rj D ri rk then ri .rj  rk / D 0:

Since ri ¤ 0 it follows that rj  rk D 0 or rj D rk . Therefore all the products ri rj

are distinct. Hence

R D ¹0; 1; r1 ; : : : ; rn º D ri R D ¹0; ri ; ri r1 ; : : : ; ri rn º:

Hence the identity element 1 must be in the right-hand list, that is there is an rj such
that ri rj D 1. Therefore ri has a multiplicative inverse and is hence a unit. Therefore
F is a field.

1.4 Subrings and Ideals

A very important concept in algebra is that of a substructure that is a subset having
the same structure as the superset.

Definition 1.4.1. A subring of a ring R is a nonempty subset S that is also a ring

under the same operations as R. If R is a field and S also a field then its a subfield.

If S  R then S satisfies the same basic axioms, associativity and commutativity

of addition for example. Therefore S will be a subring if it is nonempty and closed
under the operations, that is closed under addition, multiplication and taking additive
inverses.

Lemma 1.4.2. A subset S of a ring R is a subring if and only if S is nonempty and

whenever a; b 2 S we have a C b 2 S , a  b 2 S and ab 2 S.
Section 1.4 Subrings and Ideals 7

Example 1.4.3. Show that if n > 1 the set nZ is a subring of Z. Here clearly nZ is
nonempty. Suppose a D nz1 ; b D nz2 are two element of nZ. Then

a C b D nz1 C nz2 D n.z1 C z2 / 2 nZ

a  b D nz1  nz2 D n.z1  z2 / 2 nZ
ab D nz1  nz2 D n.nz1 z2 / 2 nZ:

Therefore nZ is a subring.

Example 1.4.4. Show that the set of real numbers of the form
p
S D ¹u C v 2 W u; v 2 Qº

p R.
is a subring of p p
Here 1 C 2 2 S , so S is nonempty. Suppose a D u1 C v1 2, b D u2 C v2 2
are two element of S. Then
p p p
a C b D .u1 C v1 2/ C .u2 C v2 2/ D u1 C u2 C .v1 C v2 / 2 2 S
p p p
a  b D .u1 C v1 2/  .u2 C v2 2/ D u1  u2 C .v1  v2 / 2 2 S
p p p
a  b D .u1 C v1 2/  .u2 C v2 2/ D .u1 u2 C 2v1 v2 / C .u1 v2 C v1 u2 / 2 2 S:

Therefore S is a subring.

We will see this example later as an algebraic number field.

In the following we are especially interested in special types of subrings called
ideals.

Definition 1.4.5. Let R be a ring and I  R. Then I is a (two-sided) ideal if the

following properties holds:
(1) I is nonempty.
(2) If a; b 2 I then a ˙ b 2 I .
(3) If a 2 I and r is any element of R then ra 2 I and ar 2 I .
We denote the fact that I forms an ideal in R by I G R.

Notice that if a; b 2 I , then from (3) we have ab 2 I and ba 2 I . Hence I forms a

subring, that is each ideal is also a subring. ¹0º and the whole ring R are trivial ideals
of R.
If we assume that in (3) only ra 2 I then I is called a left ideal. Analogously we
define a right ideal.
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