ATMOSPHERE , ITS COMPOSITION & PROPERTIES

What is Meteorology :
o Is the study of the atmosphere and its processes that cause
particular “weather conditions” (cloud formation, lightning, wind
movement etc.) especially in order to predict the weather.
o Weather deals with the short term state of the atmosphere
o Climate deals with the long-term patterns
What is Atmosphere :
 Atmosphere is a thin shell of gases sorrounding the Earth. Whether on
land or sea, we are living at the bottom of an ocean of air n subjected to
pressure exerted by weight of air above us.
 It Comprises of a mixture of invisible permanent and variable gases as
well as suspended microscopic particles (both liquid and solid)
o Permanent Gases – Form a constant proportion of the total
atmospheric mass
o Variable Gases – Distribution and concentration varies in space
and time
o Aerosols – Suspended particles and liquid droplets (excluding
cloud droplets)
Thickness of the Atmosphere :
 Approximately 80% of the atmosphere occurs in the lowest 20km
above the Earth.
Composition of Earth’s Atmosphere :

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Permanent Gases :
 78% Nitrogen (N2)
 21% Oxygen (O2)
 <1% Argon (Ar)
Variable Gases in the Earth’s Atmosphere :
VARIABLE gases in the atmosphere and typical percentage
values (by volume):
 Water vapor (H2O) 0 to 4%
 Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 0.038%
 Methane(CH4) 0.00017%
 Ozone(O3) 0.000004%
(Note that water vapor is the third most common molecule in Earth’s
atmosphere after nitrogen and oxygen)
Variable Gases - Water Vapor :
• Water vapor is invisible – don’t confuse it with cloud droplets
• Less than 0.25% of total atmosphere

Water Vapor Image Visible Image

Variable Gases - Carbon Dioxide (CO2) :
Small percentage of total atmosphere (380 ppm). But, very important green
house gas.

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Earth’s greenhouse gases contribute to a ~30C warmer surface temperature
than would otherwise exist. More on this phenomenon in Ch. 2.
Variable Gases – Ozone (O3) :
• Upper atmospheric ozone is vital to blocking harmful radiation
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are believed to be depleting upper
atmospheric ozone

Satellite Images showing Ozone Depletion

Variable Gases – Methane (CH4) :
• Extremely potent green house gas - 21 times more powerful by weight
than carbon dioxide
• Increase attributed to agriculture, bio-mass burning, fossil fuel
extraction, some industry and ruminant out-gassing (cow/sheep burps)

Methane growth and sources (From EPA)

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Aerosols (or Particulates) :
 Small (or “tiny”) solid particles or liquid droplets (excluding clouds and
rain)
 Aerosols are man pollutants ( like emission of Sox and NOx (SO2 and
NO2 ) from Ships ) causing greenhouse gases or naturally occurring (like
ocean salt, dust, plant emissions)
 Some aerosols are very beneficial and, in fact, are required for
precipitation processes to occur.
Earth’s Early Atmosphere :
 5 Billion years ago when Earth formed, atmosphere consisted of mostly
H2 , He as well as some NH3 (Ammonia), and CH4 (Methane)
 Free H2 and He molecules have low molecular weight (so move very
fast), and were able to escape Earth’s gravitational pull.
 Volcanoes spewed large amounts of H2O, CO2 as well as lesser amounts
of N2 (outgassing)
 Clouds rained forming oceans, which dissolved much of CO2 locking it in
sedimentary rocks through chemical and biological processes (e.g.,
seashell formation) allowing concentrations of N2 to increase.
 O2 increased through photodissociation of H2O into H2 and O2—the H2
escaped.
 Life formed, plants grew adding additional O2 through photosynthesis
leading to today’s atmosphere.
Unique Features of Earth’s Atmosphere :
 Atmospheric composition – high Oxygen content, low Carbon Dioxide
content.
 Greenhouse gases contribute to livable surface temperatures
 Most important greenhouse gas is water vapor!
 Without an atmosphere, Earth’s surface temp would only be
approximately 0°F!
 Water in all three phases: solid, liquid, gas.
 Patchy cloud fields – extensive up and down convective motions in
atmosphere.

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  Circular motions with storms.
Weather on Earth in relation to orbital characteristics :
 Rotation once per 24 hrs.
 Primary weather systems are moving storms with clouds, circular winds,
and precipitation

Summary :
 Composition of gases on a planet is a function of the planet size
(strength of gravity holding gases onto the planet), planet temperature,
and life
 Primary permanent gases on Earth are Nitrogen, Oxygen, Argon
 Variable gases include Water Vapor, Carbon Dioxide, Ozone, Methane,
CFCs, etc.
 Water vapor is the most important greenhouse gas, others include
Carbon Dioxide, Methane and Ozone
 Gases on other planets are quite different from Earth’s because of
differing planet characteristics (Venus & Mars have primarily CO 2
atmospheres)
 Weather on Earth different from weather on other planets because of
gas composition, planet size, oceans and planet rotation speed
Composition of the Atmosphere :
 Exact Chemical composition not so important for Meteorology
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  Whereas amount of water vapor in the air is very important.
o Can vary from small to maximum (saturated)
o Depends on the temperature
o Max saturation value increases with temp
o At high temp as much as 4% of its weight
o Water vapor continuously added or removed …..
o Added by evaporation from Earth’s surface (Oceans, Lakes, rivers,
etc)
o And Removed from atmosphere by condensation resulting in
precipitation (rain, snow, etc.)

• As a parcel of air rises, it expands due to lower pressure.

• Work done by molecules to expand causes temperature to decrease
(cools)
• As air sinks, the parcel experiences compression due to higher pressure
• Air molecules have work done on them, temperature increases (warms)
Air Temperature Change with Changes in Parcel Altitude :
Rising à Expansion à Cooling
Sinking à Compression à Warming

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 VERTICAL STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE

 Vertical Structure of Atmosphere can be broken into different layers.

They are :
(a) Troposphere – Surface of earth to 12 Km – the Tropopause.
In actual atmosphere, its height varies from 16 Km at equator to 9 Km
at poles.
(b) Stratosphere – the Tropopause to 47 Km – the Stratopause.
(c) Mesosphere – the Stratopause to 80 Km – the Mesopause.
Above the Mesopause lies the thermosphere , a layer with negligible
quantity of gas, whose temperature increases with increase in height.
It should be noted that other layers may be defined on different criteria.
The Ionosphere for example where the gases ionized by solar radiation
affect the propogation of radio waves, exists from 60 km onwards.
 Troposphere is the lowest part of the atmosphere . Almost all weather
changes occur in troposphere as nearly all water vapour of atmosphere
is contained here.
Atmospheric temperature normally falls steadily as height increases.

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  Tropopause is the zone of separation between troposphere and
stratosphere and is the upper limit within which weather changes occur.

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Variation of Atmospheric Temperature with height :
 Temperature decreases with height unless energy is added.

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  In Troposphere , air temperature normally decreases as height
increases. The rate at which, it decreases is called LAPSE RATE or
Environmental Lapse Rate ( E.L.R ). For the standard atmosphere,
where air temperature at surface is 150 C , its value in troposphere is
6.50 C per Km.

 The temperature at times, notable just after fog, increases with

height This is called Temperature Inversion . or

 At times, it can remain constant with height. The air is then said to be
an Isothermal layer.

 Stratosphere temperature increases with height because of ozone

absorption of dangerous UV radiation

 Mesosphere temperature decreases with height

 Thermosphere temperature increases with height because of

absorption of solar particles, x-rays and gamma rays.

 Atmospheric composition remains fairly homogeneous up to ~80-100

km

Adiabatic Lapse Rate :

When a parcel of air rises up, the pressure exerted on it by the surrounding
atmosphere decreases which allows the parcel to expand.
In order to do so, it requires energy which it derives from the parcel itself and
its temperature therefore decreases.
Since, Air is a poor conductor, it is assumed that no exchange of energy
between parcel and surrounding atmosphere has taken place.
This process, in which no heat enters or leaves the system is called Adiabatic.
When an air parcel descends, the reverse happens and its temperature
decreases. The rate at which temperature of parcel changes is called
Adiabatic Lapse Rate.
D.A.L.R ( Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate ) :

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For a dry air parcel in which air is dry ( unsaturated ), Dry Adiabatic Lapse
Rate ( D.A.L.R ) is 100 C per Km which is applicable whether the air parcel is
ascending or descending.
S.A.L.R ( Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate ) :
The temperature of a saturated parcel of air , when made to rise falls at a
rate of approximately 50 C per Km ( to precise between 30 C per Km to 90 C
per Km ). Hence, Saturated Adiabatic lapse rate ( S.A.L.R ) is about 5 0 C per
Km.
S.A.L.R is less than D.A.L.R because, as the saturated air is cooled, its capacity
to hold water vapour decreases and excess moisture condenses releasing
latent heat of vapourisation. This warms up the parcel of air.
That’s why Value of S.A.L.R is about 50 C per Km in stead of 100 C.
S.A.L.R is variable and depends upon exact moisture content. An average
value of 6.50 C per Km height would give a reasonably good result.
Diurnal variation of Atmospheric Temperature :
Diurnal means one high and one low in a day and Semi - diunal means two
high and two lows in a day.
It has been observed that atmospheric temperature reaches its maximum
value at about 1400 local time and minimum at about half hour before
sunrise.
Since, this happens once per day, it is called diurnal variation of atmospheric
temperature.

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Diurnal range of Atmospheric Temperature :
The difference between the maximum and minimum values of temperature
in a day is called the diurnal range of atmospheric temperature for that day.
Diurnal range of air temperature over land is large ( about 20 0 C ) whereas
over sea, it is very small ( about 10 C ), for following reasons :

Stability of the Atmosphere :

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  STABLE – when distribution of temp and pressure with height are such
that any small displacement of a parcel of air invokes forces which tend
to restore the parcel to its former level
o Unsaturated air is stable when its lapse rate is LESS than the DALR
o Saturated air is stable when its lapse rate is LESS than the SALR
 UNSTABLE – When displacement produces forces moving the parcel
away from its former level
o Unsaturated air is unstable when its lapse rate > DALR
o Saturated air is unstable when its lapse rate > SALR
 NEUTRAL – when lapse rate = DALR or SALR – no force either to oppose
or increase the displacement

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Stability of the Atmosphere :
 An accurate knowledge of Temp & Humidity at all levels of the
atmosphere is v imp for the forecaster
 Then he can forecast type & amount of cloud cover he expects
 TEPHIGRAM – thermodynamic diagrams used
Subsidence :
 Stable – Unstable in terms of parcels of air displaced upwards or
downwards already discussed
 However at times horizontal movement of air over a large area – e.g.
lower layers of a stationary anticyclone
 This air then replaced by air slowly descending from higher level
 This process of descent is known as SUBSIDENCE
 Subsiding air warmed at DALR – moisture content not changed and so
RH must decrease
 Hence subsiding areas have warm, generally dry air

END OF CHAPTER

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