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THE EPIPALAEOLITHIC AND
NEOLITHIC IN THE EASTERN
FERTILE CRESCENT

This volume brings together the latest results and discussions from research carried
out in the eastern Fertile Crescent, the so-called hilly flanks, and adjacent regions,
as well as providing key historical perspectives on earlier fieldwork in the region.
The emergence of sedentary food producing societies in southwest Asia ca.
10,000 years ago has been a key research focus for archaeologists since the 1930s.
This book provides a balance to the weight of work undertaken in the western Fertile
Crescent, namely the Levant and southern Anatolia. This preference has led to a heavy
emphasis on these regions in discussions about where, when and how the transition from
hunting and gathering to plant cultivation and animal domestication occurred. Chapters
assess the role of the eastern Fertile Crescent as a key region in the Neolithization
process in southwest Asia, highlighting the key and important contributions people in
this region made to the emergence of sedentary farming societies.
This book is primarily aimed at academics researching the transition from
hunting and gathering to agriculture in southwest Asia. It will also be of interest to
archaeologists working on this transition in other parts of Eurasia.

Tobias Richter is an associate professor in Near Eastern Archaeology and head of

the Centre for the Study of Early Agricultural Societies (CSEAS) at the University
of Copenhagen, Denmark. His work investigates the transition from hunting and
gathering to agriculture in prehistory, focusing on Southwest Asia.

Hojjat Darabi is an associate professor of prehistoric archaeology at Razi Univer-

sity, Kermanshah, Iran. For the past 15 years, he has been researching the Neolithic
in the Zagros, focusing on the transition from foraging to food producing and the
emergence of village life. He (co)-directed excavation at a number of important
Neolithic sites in the central Zagros.
THE EPIPALAEOLITHIC
AND NEOLITHIC IN
THE EASTERN FERTILE
CRESCENT
Revisiting the Hilly Flanks

Edited by Tobias Richter and Hojjat Darabi

Designed cover image: Tracking Cultural and Environmental Change
Project Archive
First published 2024
by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2024 selection and editorial matter, Tobias Richter and Hojjat Darabi; individual
chapters, the contributors
The right of Tobias Richter and Hojjat Darabi to be identified as the authors of the
editorial material, and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in
accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in
any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to
infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-032-37142-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-37140-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-33550-4 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003335504

Typeset in Times New Roman

by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd.
In memory of our colleague, mentor and friend Peder
Mortensen (7 May 1934–8 December 2022).
CONTENTS

List of Figures x
List of Tables xx
List of Contributors xxi
Acknowledgements xxiv

Introduction 1
Tobias Richter and Hojjat Darabi

PART I
General Perspectives 7

1 Revisiting the Hilly Flanks of Iran: New Data and Shifting

Paradigms 9
Barbara Helwing

2 Emergence and Dispersal of Neolithic Lifeways: From

Core to Peripheries 35
Mehmet Özdoğan

3 From Cradle to Mosaic: The Metaphors We Live By 57

Trevor Watkins

4 Human Dimensions of the Transition from Hunting-

Gathering to Agro-Pastoralism 65
Frank Hole
viii Contents

PART II
New Fieldwork/Regional Perspectives 87

5 Epipalaeolithic Campsite at the Bawa Yawan Rockshelter,

Nawdarwan Valley, Kermanshah Region, West-Central
Zagros Mountains 89
Saman Heydari-Guran, Rahmat Naderi, Sara Heydari,
Nemat Hariri, Samran Asiabani, Faramarz Azizi, Azar
Janatimehr, Elham Fotouhi and Elham Ghasidian

6 Environment and Subsistence in the Zagros

Epipalaeolithic: New Insights from Palegawra Cave 106
Eleni Asouti, Ceren Kabukcu, Kate Swinson and Louise
Martin

7 The TCEC Project and its Implications for Investigating

Neolithisation of the Eastern Fertile Crescent 119
Hojjat Darabi, Tobias Richter and Peder Mortensen

8 Körtiktepe in the Origin and Development of the

Neolithic in Upper Mesopotamia 138
Vecihi Özkaya and Abu B. Siddiq

PART III
Lithic Industries 169

9 The Earliest Neolithic Lithic Traditions: Evidence from

Chogha Golan in the Western Foothills of the Zagros
Mountains, Iran 171
Mohsen Zeidi and Nicholas J. Conard

10 Multiperiod Chipped Stone Assemblages:

Preliminary Report on Caves and Rock Shelters in Izeh
Plain, Khuzestan, Iran 199
Mozhgan Jayez

11 Aceramic Neolithic Flaked Stone Assemblages from

Trench III, East Chia Sabz, West Iran 225
Yoshihiro Nishiaki and Hojjat Darabi
 Contents ix

PART IV
Ceramics 239

12 Fars as a Multi-Cultural Zone during the Neolithic Period 241

Morteza Khanipour and Mohammad Hossein Azizi
Kharanaghi

13 Tell Begum, Shaikh Marif and Shakar Tepe: The Late

Neolithic Pottery in the Shahrizor Plain, Iraqi Kurdistan 261
Takahiro Odaka

14 The Dung Among Other Tempers in Zagros and

Mesopotamia Neolithic Pottery 279
Natalia Petrova

PART V
Miscellaneous 309

15 Ganj Dareh Burial Practice and Social Memory 311

Deborah C. Merrett, Christopher Meiklejohn,
David Reich and Ron Pinhasi

16 ‘DomestiSensation’: Current State of Plant Analyses in

Göbekli Tepe, Southeast Turkey 336
Birgül Öğüt with the collaboration of Ferran Antolín

17 Testing the Palaeolithic Harvesting Hypothesis at Ghar-E

Boof with Improved Botanical Recovery 350
Nicholas J. Conard, Christopher E. Miller, Simone Riehl,
and Mohsen Zeidi

Index 371
LIST OF FIGURES

1.1 Map of the eastern wing of the Fertile Crescent, showing sites
mentioned in the text (made with QGIS, base map by
Natural Earth).11
1.2 Linda and Robert Braidwood in 1985. © University of Chicago
Photographic Archive, [apf 1-09333], Hanna Holborn Gray
Special Collections Research Centre, University of Chicago
Library (photograph by Jim Wright). 13
1.3 Nevali Çori: human face belonging to a composite statue,
PPNB. © Photograph by B. Helwing, Nevali Çori Expedition.16
1.4 Göbekli Tepe: view into Building C, PPN. © Photograph by B.
Helwing, 2022. 17
1.5 Tappe Sarab: female figurine, Late Neolithic. © Courtesy
National Museum of Iran (photograph by Neda Tehrani). 23
2.1 Primary core areas of neolithisation and the emerging
secondary core. 37
2.2 Excavated Pre-Pottery Neolithic site with in the Upper
Euphrates-Upper Tigris core area of primary Neolithisation.40
2.3 Initial loose expansion of Neolithic way of living, also
indicating the main core area and the related peripheries.42
2.4 Rapid, massive expansion of Neolithic way of living, also
indicating primary, secondary cores and peripheries. 43
2.5 Comparative chart of two neighbouring Neolithic cultural
entities in the eastern and western parts of the Marmara region.46
2.6 Areal coverage of distinct Neolithic packages of the region
around the Sea of Marmara.47
 List of figures xi

2.7 Schematised diagram of different models of Neolithic

expansion. (a) Model one: Collective migration into an empty
territory. (b) Model two: Collective migration into a populated
territory. (c) Model three: segregated movement. (d) Model
four: Segregated infiltration.  50
5.1 Map showing the Kermanshah Region and sites mentioned in the text. 92
5.2 (a) View of the Nawdarwan valley showing the location of
Bawa Yawan rockshelter. (b) Detailed view of the cliff face in
front of which and Bawa Yawan is positioned. 93
5.3 Map of Bawa Yawan rockshelter. 93
5.4 Calibrated radiocarbon date of Epipalaeolithic layer in eastern
trench of the Bawa Yawan rockshelter used IntCal20 in OxCal4.3. 94
5.5 The Bawa Yawan Eastern Trench, where the most
Epipalaeolithic lithic artefacts were recovered and the only C14
sample dated. 96
5.6 Bawa Yawan cores and flakes: 1, 4, 5, 6: single platform bladelet
core; 2, 3: opposed platform bladelet core; 7: end scraper; 8:
platform core rejuvenation face flake; 9, 11: retouched blade;
10: crested blade; 12: burin; 13: centripetal flake; 14, 15: core
tablet; 16: single platform flake core. 98
5.7 Bawa Yawan tools: 1, 19, 21, 22, 27, 28, 33: Pointed backed
bladelet; 2, 3: Point; 4, 13, 31: Plain bladelet; 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 12,
29, 32: Twisted bladelet; 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 20, 30: Backed
bladelet; 17, 18: Lunate; 23: Trapezoidal microlith; 24, 25, 26:
Microburin. 99
6.1 Map showing the location of excavated Palaeolithic and Proto-
Neolithic sites in northern Iraq.107
6.2 Bayesian age model of the EP sequence excavated in Palegawra
Area A. (Model produced by C. Kabukcu; after Aasouti et al.
2020: Fig. 21.)110
6.3 The electric pump-operated, water recycling flotation system
used for processing the Palegawra soil samples: (1) flotation
operation; (2) flot fraction containing charred plant remains
and light molluscs retained in a 250-μm nylon mesh; (3) heavy
residue fraction containing animal bone and lithic debris
retained in a 500-μm nylon mesh; (4) internal view of the
flotation tank showing the custom-made jet water inlet.111
7.1 Location of Asiab, Ganj Dareh and Mar Gurgalan among other
key Epipaleolithic and early Neolithic sites in the central Zagros
(modified after Darabi et al. 2019:45, Fig. 1).120
7.2 The pit communal structure exposed at Asiab with spectacular
animal remains incorporated into its interior. 123
xii List of figures

7.3 General view of Ganj Dareh at the time of renewed excavation

in 2018, facing north.124
7.4 Aerial view of Mar Gurgalan at the time of the 2019 excavation,
facing northeast.126
7.5 Chronological placement of the Epipaleolithic and Neolithic
sites in the Zagros and lowlands of southwestern Iran (modified
after Darabi et al. 2021: 41, Fig. 5). 132
8.1 Location of sites mentioned in the text. (Map: A.B. Siddiq.)140
8.2 Obsidian cores and tools from Körtiktepe: presence of cores
and flakes confirms obsidian tool making at the site, whereas
the sourcing of obsidian (in the Bingöl region of eastern
Turkey) indicates the involvement of the inhabitant within raw
material exchange network; a great majority of these obsidian
cores, flakes, blades and other tools were unearthed from burial
contexts, suggesting their higher value and ritual importance at
the site. Not in scale. (Photo: Körtiktepe archive.) 150
8.3 Example of round-planned domestic buildings at Körtiktepe:
from the Younger Dryas to the Early Holocene the site did not
witness any major changes in round-planned building tradition;
however, changes were observed from semi-subterranean or
ephemeral structures with small clay/stone walls in the earlier
occupations compared to buildings with walls made of several
rows of unworked cobbles, river stones and fragments of
boulders as well as floors of compacted mud or pebbles in the
later occupations. Scale in 10 cm. (Photo: Körtiktepe archive.) 151
8.4 An Early Holocene burial from Körtiktepe: a rich number of
burial goods including stone vessels, stone objects with shaft-
holes and stone bowls were deliberately broken into pieces and
scattered around and onto the dead. Scale in 10 cm. (Photo:
Körtiktepe archive.) 154
8.5 Example of a lavishly treated Early Holocene burial from
Körtiktepe: in this burial, the human bones were extensively
decorated with red and black colorant, and burial gifts, including
stone vessels, painted bone plaquettes, perforated stone disc,
large stone beads and a rich number of stone and shell beads of
various kinds were placed around and onto the human skeleton
before it was coated with thick gypsum coverage. Scale in cm.
(Photo: Körtiktepe archive.) 155
8.6 A collection of shell beads (mainly of Nerita spp.) from an
Early Holocene burial M6 in Trench A25, Körtiktepe. The shell
beads were used as burial gifts, together with over 300 stone
beads and three decorated stone vessels. Similarly, hundred
thousands of shell beads were unearthed from burial contexts at
 List of figures xiii

Körtiktepe. The majority of the shell beads (mainly comprised

with Nerita spp. and Columbella spp.) was of the Mediterranean
origin, about 500 km from the site. Not in scale. (Photo:
Körtiktepe archive.) 156
8.7 Example of a rich burial from Körtiktepe placed with a large
number of valuable goods: (a) clusters of stone and shell
beads scattered onto and inside of the stone vessels in the
Early Holocene burial M11 in Trench A218; (b) burial gifts
including a large number of stone and shell beads and at least
eight decorated chlorite vessels unearthed from the burial M11.
(Photo: Körtiktepe archive.) 157
8.8 Example of decorated stone vessels from Körtiktepe: about half
of over 500 stone vessels (mostly made of chlorite) from the site
were decorated with animal imageries, geometric designs or a
combination of both. In many cases, a single burial could reveal
up to 8–10 chlorite vessels (see Fig. 8.7). Not in scale. (Photo:
Körtiktepe archive.) 158
8.9 Upper half of an elongated bone plaquette from Körtiktepe:
the anterior side features two incised mountain goats imageries,
painted with bitumen and unique to Körtiktepe. Both goats
showed the same conventions—a large oval head, large round
eye, two long horns curved towards the middle of the back,
two small ears straight down to the horns, four small and stout
legs having semi-triangular hooves and a curved beard below
the chin. The posterior side of the enigmatic plaquette features
a textile design made of bitumen and red ochre. Scale in cm.
(Photo: Körtiktepe archive.)160
9.1 Map showing the location of Chogha Golan and other early
Neolithic sites in the Zagros region. 1. Chogha Golan; 2. Tang-e
Bolaghi; 3. Ali Kosh; 4. Chogha Sefid: 5. East Chia Sabz; 6. Ganj
Dareh; 7. Asiab; 8. Warwasi; 9. Sheikh-e Abad; 10. Karim Shahir;
11. Palegawra; 12. M’lefaat; 13. Zawi Chemi Shanidar; 14. Shanidar.172
9.2 Chogha Golan. Stratigraphic profile of Deep Sounding showing
the location of the dated samples.174
9.3 Chogha Golan. General information on the assemblage of the
analysed lithics in AH XI (see text for description).177
9.4 Chogha Golan. The percentage and number of informal and
formal tools in AH XI.177
9.5 Chogha Golan. Examples of stone tools in AH XI. 178
9.6 Chogha Golan. Flake, blade/let cores and CTE (7) in AH XI.
(Drawing by H. Würschem.) 180
9.7 Chogha Golan. Flake, blade/let cores in different stage of
reduction and CTE (8) in AH XI. (Drawing by H. Würschem.) 181
xiv List of figures

9.8 Chogha Golan. Flake, blade/let cores in AH XI. (Drawing

by H. Würschem.) 182
9.9 Chogha Golan. Flake, blade/let cores in AH XI. (Drawing
by H. Würschem.) 183
9.10 Chogha Golan Flake, blade/let cores in AH XI. Many of
these cores are chipped using pressure flaking. (Drawing
by H. Würschem.) 184
9.11 Chogha Golan. Bullet-shaped bladelet cores in AH XI. 185
9.12 Chogha Golan. Counts and percentages of each core
type in AH XI. 185
9.13 Chogha Golan. The proportion of blank categories based for
formal and informal tools in AH XI. 186
9.14 Chogha Golan. Ranges of width for bladelets in AH XI. 187
9.15 Chogha Golan. Width ranges of blades in AH XI. 187
9.16 Chogha Golan. Comparison of widths of blade/let tool and
blanks in AH XI. 188
9.17 Chogha Golan. Counts and proportion of formal tools in AH XI. 189
9.18 Chogha Golan. The proportion of informal tools in AH XI. 189
9.19 Chogha Golan. The technology of the cores in AH XI. 190
10.1 Location of Izeh Plain in north-east of Khuzestan and the area
under survey in three seasons of intensive survey (Pion Plain,
2008; Bondun Lake margins, 2018; north and east of Lake
Miangaran, 2019).202
10.2 Bedrock mortar associated with Perchestan-e Fazel rock shelter
(IZ19155). 209
10.3 Takab rock shelter (IZ1881), view from south of Bondun
Lake Basin.210
10.4 Eshkaftgah (Gavmish) rock shelter (IZ1835), view from south.210
10.5 Diagram of the elevation of Late Paleolithic-Neolithic sites and
non-site caves and rock shelters of Izeh Plain (masl).212
10.6 Typical chipped stones from Izeh Plain assemblages (1, 2, 4–7,
9, 10, 15, 17: conical bladelet core; 3: narrow-faced bladelet
core; 8, 13, 19: bullet core; 11, 14, 16: semi-conical bladelet
core; 12, 18: pressure microblade core; 20–23: carinated scraper
and 24–27: carinated burin). 213
10.7 Typical chipped stones from Izeh Plain assemblages (1–17, 19–
30, 36: thumbnail scraper; 18, 34: end and side scraper; 31, 32,
37, 41: round scraper; 33: side scraper; 35, 38–40: end scraper;
42: notched; 43: end scraper and carinated burin denticulated;
44: end scraper and burin; 45, 49: denticulated; 46: notched-
denticulated; 47: end scraper and notched; 48: end scraper and
denticulated; 50: borer and end scraper and notched and 51:
retouched and notched).214
 List of figures xv

10.8 Typical chipped stones from Izeh Plain assemblages (1, 2:

aurignacian blade; 3, 4, 7–10, 12, 17, 26: retouched blade/
let; 5, 35–38: triangular; 6: end scraper on denticulated blade;
11: retouched twisted bladelet; 13, 14: notched blade; 15, 29:
denticulated blade/let; 16, 24: end scraper on Notched bladelet;
18: denticulated twisted blade; 19–21: notched blade/let; 22,
23, 25, 27, 28: twisted blade/let; 31, 32, 39–41, 43–50: backed
blade/let; 32, 42: lunate; 33, 34, 51: pointed backed bladelet; 52,
54: end scraper on blade/let; 53: end scraper on retouched blade/
let; 55–57: medial part of blades with sickle gloss along one or
both edges). 215
10.9 Neolithic and post-Neolithic elements of the chipped stone
assemblages from Izeh Plain (1, 4, 5: sickle blades; 2, 3, 6:
pressure bladelet cores); 1: IZ19113, 2: IZ1861, 3: IZ1895, 4:
IZ19129, 5: IZ19146-147, 6: IZ19120.217
11.1 Map showing the location of the East Chia Sabz site and the
excavated trenches (modified version of Fig. 3 from Darabi et al. 2011).226
11.2 Stone-walled buildings discovered in Trench III of East Chia
Sabz. Fills in the bottom right square room represent Context
3059; the open space on the left edge of this trench corresponds
to Context 3065. 227
11.3 Pressure blade/let cores from Trench III. Context 3059. 230
11.4 Percussion flake cores from Trench III. Context 3059. 230
11.5 Retouched tools and core-management pieces from Trench III.
1–11: retouched tools (Context 3065); 12–18: core-management
pieces (12, 16–18: Context 3065; 13–15: Context 3059). 231
11.6 Comparison of the core assemblages of Context 3065 and the
other Contexts of Trench III. 234
12.1 Location of Neolithic sites in Fars province, south Iran.242
12.2 Tol-e Sangi: a Neolithic site in Fars province. 243
12.3 Chronological framework of the neolithic period proposed for
the Fars region. 245
12.4 Geographic distribution of pottery cultures in Fars province
during of Neolithic period.246
12.5 Neolithic pottery from Tol-e Sangi.247
12.6 Mushki wares: 1–7 from Hormangan; 8–10 from Tol-e Bashi
(after Bernbeck 2010: 150); 11–17 from Tol-e Mushki (after
Fukai et al. 1973: PL: XLVII; Maeda 1986: Fig. 8); 18–21 from
Rahmat Abad Tape (after Azizi Kharanaghi et al. 2012b: Fig. 12). 248
12.7 Neolithic pottery from Tol-e Pol Bizdan (1-5) and Qasr-e Ahmad (6-11). 250
12.8 Lithic from Hormangan. 251
12.9 Wild plant remains from Rahmat Abad (source: Tenberg and
Azizi Kharanaghi 2016: Fig. 2). 253
xvi List of figures

12.10 Ratio of hunting tools to sickle blades from the early M’lefaatian
to the post-M’lefaatian (Abe and Khanipour 2019: Fig. 13). 255
13.1 The location of the Shahrizor Plain and the distribution of
prehistoric sites recorded by the Shahrizor Survey Project (base
map by Simone Mühl; modified by the author).262
13.2 Halaf Fine Ware (1–26) and Halaf Coarse Ware (27) from Tell
Begum (Nieuwenhuyse et al. 2016a: Fig. 23).264
13.3 Coarse Plant-tempered Ware from Shaikh Marif I (2–7, 9–12)
and Shaikh Marif II (1, 8) (after Odaka et al. 2019: Fig. 4).267
13.4 Fine Plant-Tempered Ware from Shaikh Marif I (after Odaka
et al. 2019: Fig. 5). 268
13.5 Fine Clay Ware from Shaikh Marif I (1, 9, 15, 16) and Shaikh
Marif II (2–8, 10–14, 17–26) (after Odaka et al. 2019: Fig. 6). 269
13.6 Proportions of ceramic ware groups, Shaikh Marif I and II
(Odaka et al. 2019: Fig.7).270
13.7 Coarse plant-tempered ware (1–5), fine plant-tempered ware
(6–8), and ‘Hassuna-like’ fine ware (9–17) from the upper late
Neolithic phase of Shakar Tepe (after Odaka et al. 2020: Fig. 4). 273
13.8 Tentative late Neolithic chronology in the Shahrizor Plain. 275
14.1 Experiments with dung: 1. Crushing of dry cow dung; 2.
Making vessel from pottery paste with clay and cow dung in
high concentration; 3. Vessel with a high concentration of wet
cow dung; 4. Fragment of the vessel with high concentration of
cow dung and view of organic plant inclusions. 283
14.2 Experiments with different ways of straw grinding: 1. cutting
by a flint knife; 2. pounding with a pestle; 3. the firing specially
made husking trays in dung; 4. pounding of straw with husking
trays; 5. collecting of grinding straw under the hoof of animals
in the stall. 284
14.3 Determination of plant temper (experimental data). Stereo
microscope Carl Zeiss 2000-C. 285
14.4 Organic temper in archaeological ceramic’s pottery paste:
1–2 – dung in the pottery paste. General view. 1. Tell Sotto,
Proto-Hassuna period (level 2, 1975, pocket 54/11); 2. Yarim
Tepe I, Archaic Hassuna (level 8, 1973, pocket 169/8) (stereo
microscope Carl Zeiss 2000-C). 3–4. Dung residues and their
prints with rounded ends: 3. Tell Sotto, Proto-Hassuna (level
1, 1975, pocket 75/2). Microphotos by the author; 4. Tell
Sotto, Proto-Hassuna (level 1, 1974, pocket 75/3) (by Petrova,
2019. Fig. 2.4; (Micro photo A. Simonenko, metallographic
microscope Olympus MX 51). 5–6. Dung residues and their
curved plant prints: 5. Tell Sotto, Proto-Hassuna (level 2, 1975,
pocket 91/1); 6. Yarim Tepe I, Proto-Hassuna (level 12, 1974,
 List of figures xvii

pocket 240/3) (by Petrova, 2021. Fig. 4.6). 6–11. Different

organic plant temper in one size to compare: 6. Dung sheep
and goats, Yarim Tepe I, Proto-Hassuna (level 12, 1974, pocket
240/3) (by Petrova, 2021. Fig. 4.6). 7–9. dung of cow. 7–8.
Yarim Tepe I, Archaic Hassuna (level 7, 1973, pocket 46/9); 9.
Tell Hazna II. 10–11 Straw. 10. Yarim Tepe I, Archaic Hasssuna
(level 8, 1973, pocket 184/12); 11. Tell Sotto, Proto-Hassuna
period (level 1, 1974, pocket 85/10). 12. Husks prints (possibly
chaff). Tell Kosak Shamali. Late Neolithic period. 287
14.5 Distributions of plant and mineral tempers in the Zagros and the
Upper Mesopotamia in the Pre-Pottery Neolithic clay vessels
and the ceramics of the first half of the 7th mil. BCE. 290
14.6 Distributions of plant and mineral tempers in the Zagros and the
Upper Mesopotamia in the second half of the 7th – beginning of
the 6th mil. BC. 291
15.1 Location of Ganj Dareh and other central Zagros sites
mentioned in the text. 1. Ganj Dareh, 2. Sheikh-e Abad, 3.
Jani, 4. Bestansur, 5. Asiab, 6. Abdul Hosein. Also shown, for
reference, is the central Zagros region in relation to the Tigris
and Euphrates Rivers. Used and modified under copyright
licence: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.
Generic. 315
15.2 Location of excavation units at Ganj Dareh Tepe showing
the Level D central area and Test Pits 4 and 5. Modified from
Merrett (2004: 135). 316
15.3 Location of burial clusters, including skeleton identification
numbers. Modified from Smith (1990: 327). 317
15.4 Distribution of adult and nonadult burials relative to burial
groupings (N = 33). 320
15.5 Distribution of adult and nonadult burials relative to house
floors (N = 33). 320
15.6 Distribution of adult and nonadult burials relative to fire
intensity (N = 33). 321
15.7 Distribution of burial location relative to fire intensity (N = 33). 322
15.8 Location of burials in Alcove AB showing proximity to sheep
skulls in an adjoining niche. P = porthole. Modified from Smith
(1990: 327). 325
15.9 The Kiln Room containing related individuals. Father is GD#20
who died as a young adult, son GD#40 who died as a young
man, son GD#22 who died as an older adult. Excavation depths
are shown below each burial number. Modified from Smith
(1990: 327). Skeletal diagrams from excavation notes. 326
16.1 Göbekli Tepe and other sites mentioned in the text. 337
xviii List of figures

17.1 Map showing the location of the TISARP excavations

mentioned in the text. 352
17.2 Large-scale bucket flotation by hand: (a) slow decanting of the
botanical remains, (b) recovery of the cleaned botanical sample
(c) gentle rinsing of the botanical remains, (d) drying multiple
botanical samples and heavy fractions, (a and b) Chogha Golan,
(c and d) Ghar-e Boof. TISARP Archive, photos M. Zeidi. 353
17.3 Chogha Golan. Examples of material from the heavy fraction
following flotation and water screening of AH XI. All finds that
do not go through 1 mm mesh are sorted and systematically
curated. TISARP Archive, photos M. Zeidi. 354
17.4 Ghar-e Boof. Excavation of Upper Palaeolithic deposits in
October 2017 by Abtrag and quarter metre together with the
collection of micromorphology samples. TISARP Archive,
photos N. J. Conard. 355
17.5 Ghar-e Boof. Micromorphological images from AH III: (a)
scan of sample Boof 265A. Note the dense microstructure with
planar voids. (b) Photomicrograph of sample Boof 265 B. Note
highly compacted nature of deposit with fragments of charcoal
(ch), burnt bone (bb) as well as aggregates of soil material (ag)
derived from outside the cave, and limestone fragments (lmst)
derived from the cave bedrock. Oblique incident light (OIL).
(c) Scan of sample Boof 265 C, with charred vegetal remains
(ch), burnt bone (bb), and domains of phosphatic material (ph)
indicated. (d) Scan of sample Boof 265 A, photomicrograph of
calcareous, ashy material from, cross-polarized light (XPL). (e)
Sparite (Ca) formed on fragment of limestone bedrock (lmst).
The fragment is surrounded by phosphatic material (ph) as well
as a burnt bone fragment (bb). Plane polarized light (PPL).
(f) Same view as (e), but in XPL. Images from F. Schilt 2011.
TISARP Archive. 356
17.6 Ghar-e Boof. Micromorphological images from AH IV: (a)
photomicrograph of sample Boof 213 C, transition from AH
IV to III. A zone marked by decalcification of the matrix (dc)
is associated with channel voids, likely from roots. Fragments
of haematite are also present (Fe). OIL, (b) Boof 213 C, upper
molar of a sheep or goat. XPL, (c) fragment of dung, likely
derived from sheep or goat and likely burnt (bpl), containing
faecal spherulites, XPL, (d) higher magnification view of sheep
or goat molar. PPL, (e) higher magnification view of decalcified
domain, with partially dissolved calcite hypocoating around
channel void. PPL, (f) same view as (e) but in XPL. Images
from F. Schilt 2011. TISARP Archive. 357
 List of figures xix

17.7 Chogha Golan. Micromorphological images from AH XI,

the basal midden of the tell immediately postdating the
Younger Dryas: (a) laminated midden deposit, containing rich
anthropogenic material, including charcoal, phytoliths, and dung
spherulites. Mud construction debris suggesting architecture.
(b) Dung spherulites, likely derived from goats or sheep,
suggesting some type of interaction between humans and
these animals. (c) Mixture of charcoal and other components
reflecting dumping. (d) lithic artifact. Images from A. Zanoni
2014. TISARP Archive. 358
17.8 Chogha Golan. Examples of changing densities of lithic
artefacts in 21 continuous samples from archaeological horizon
XI, together with data on the number of identified botanical
specimens, the number of specimens of the most abundant
taxon, and the number of taxa per bucket of sediment. Each
botanical sample has a volume of 10 litres, except the second
highest and the deepest, which have volumes of 12 litres 12-l.
The number of lithic artefacts recovered from the heavy fraction
per bucket is indicated on the x-axis, and elevations of the base
of each bucket are shown in metres on the y-axis. 359
17.9 Ghar-e Boof. Selected seed and chaff remains from the Middle
Palaeolithic: (a) Eragrostis type (lovegrass), GB17 – 6/8 – 970
– 6, AH VI; (b) Papaver sp. (poppy), GB17 – 6/8 – 964 – 6, AH
VI; (c) Poa type (annual bluegrass), GB17 – 6/8 – 964 – 6, AH
VI; (d) Triticum boeoticum/dicoccoides type (wild glume wheat
grains), GB17 – 6/8 – 921 – 6, AH VI; (e) Silene sp. (campion),
GB17 – 6/8 – 970 – 6, AH VI; (f) and (g) Triticum boeoticum/
dicoccoides type (spikelet and glume base fragment), GB17 –
6/8 – 964 – 6, AH VI. TISARP Archive. 363
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