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Visions of Community in the Post Roman World The
West Byzantium and the Islamic World 300 1100 Pohl
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Pohl, Walter; Payne, Richard E.; Gantner, Clemens
ISBN(s): 9781409427100, 1409427102
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Year: 2012
Language: english
Visions of Community in the
Post-Roman World
The West, Byzantium and the
Islamic World, 300–1100

Edited by
Walter Pohl, Clemens Gantner
and Richard Payne
Visions of Community in the
Post-Roman World
This page has been left blank intentionally
 Visions of Community in the
Post-Roman World
The West, Byzantium and the Islamic World, 300–1100

Edited by

Walter Pohl
University of Vienna, Austria

Clemens Gantner
Institut für Mittelalterforschung,
Österreichische Akademie der Wissenschaften, Austria

Richard Payne
Mount Holyoke College, Massachusetts, USA
© Walter Pohl, Clemens Gantner, Richard Payne and the contributors 2012

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.

Walter Pohl, Clemens Gantner and Richard Payne have asserted their right under the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the editors of this work.

Published by
Ashgate Publishing Limited Ashgate Publishing Company
Wey Court East Suite 420
Union Road 101 Cherry Street
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BRITISH LIBRARY CATALOGUING IN PUBLICATION DATA

Visions of community in the post-Roman world : the West, Byzantium and the Islamic
world, 300-1100.
1. Ethnicity--History--To 1500. 2. Political culture--History--To 1500. 3. Religion and
politics--History--To 1500. 4. Cultural fusion--History--To 1500. 5. Identification
(Religion)--History--To 1500. 6. Social history--Medieval, 500-1500. 7. Social history
--To 500.
I. Pohl, Walter, 1953- II. Gantner, Clemens. III. Payne, Richard E., 1981-
306’.0902-dc23

LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA

Visions of community in the post-Roman world : the West, Byzantium and the Islamic
world, 300-1100 / [edited by] Walter Pohl, Clemens Gantner, and Richard Payne.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4094-2709-4 (hardcover : alk. paper) -- ISBN 978-1-4094-2710-0 (ebook)
1. Europe--History--476-1492. 2. Europe--History--To 476. 3. Europe, Western--History.
4. Byzantine Empire--History. 5. Islamic Empire--History. 6. Civilization--Roman
influences. 7. Community life--History--To 1500. 8. Political culture--History--To 1500.
9. Identification (Religion)--History--To 1500. 10. Ethnicity--History--To 1500. I. Pohl,
Walter, 1953- II. Gantner, Clemens. III. Payne, Richard E., 1981-

D121.V57 2012
940.1’2--dc23
2011043230
ISBN 9781409427094 (hbk)
ISBN 9781409427100 (ebk)

III

Printed and bound in Great Britain by the

MPG Books Group, UK.
 Contents

Figures   ix
Abbreviations   xi

Introduction: Ethnicity, Religion and Empire   1

Walter Pohl

Part I What Difference Does Ethnicity Make?

Tribe and State: Social Anthropological Approaches

1 Envisioning Medieval Communities in Asia: Remarks on Ethnicity,

Tribalism and Faith   29
Andre Gingrich

2 Tribal Mobility and Religious Fixation: Remarks on Territorial

Transformation and Identity in Imperial and Early Post-Imperial
Tibet   43
Guntram Hazod

Identity and Difference in the Roman World

3 Zur Neustiftung von Identität unter imperialer Herrschaft:

Die Provinzen des Römischen Reiches als ethnische Entitäten   61
Fritz Mitthof

4 The Nabataeans – Problems of Defining Ethnicity in the

Ancient World   73
Jan Retsö

5 Political Identity versus Religious Distinction? The Case of Egypt

in the Later Roman Empire   81
Bernhard Palme

Ethnic Identities in the Early Medieval West

6 How Many Peoples Are (in) a People?   101

Herwig Wolfram
vi Visions of Community in the Post-Roman World

7 The Providential Past: Visions of Frankish Identity in the Early

Medieval History of Gregory of Tours’ Historiae (sixth–ninth
century)   109
Helmut Reimitz

8 Inventing Wales   137

Catherine McKenna

Early Islamic Identities

9 Religious Communities in the Early Islamic World   155

Michael G. Morony

10 Seventh-Century Identities: The Case of North Africa   165

Walter E. Kaegi

Christian Identities in the Middle East

11 Ethnicity, Ethnogenesis and the Identity of Syriac Orthodox

Christians   183
Bas ter Haar Romeny

12 Avoiding Ethnicity: Uses of the Ancient Past in Late Sasanian

Northern Mesopotamia   205
Richard Payne

13 Truth and Lies, Ceremonial and Art: Issues of Nationality in

Medieval Armenia   223
Lynn Jones

14 Roman Identity in a Border Region: Evagrius and the Defence

of the Roman Empire   241
Hartmut Leppin

15 Holy Land and Sacred History: A View from Early Ethiopia   259
George Hatke

Part II Political Identities and the Integration of Communities

Regional and Imperial Identites in the East

16 Anastasios und die ‚Geschichte‘ der Isaurier   281

Mischa Meier
 Contents vii

17 Zur Stellung von ethnischen und religiösen Minderheiten in

Byzanz: Armenier, Muslime und Paulikianer   301
Ralph-Johannes Lilie

18 Regional Identities and Military Power: Byzantium and Islam

ca. 600–750   317
John Haldon and Hugh Kennedy

The Challenge of Difference: Early Medieval Christian Europe

19 ‘Faithful believers’: Oaths of Allegiance in Post-Roman Societies

as Evidence for Eastern and Western ‘Visions of Community’   357
Stefan Esders

20 „Einheit“ versus „Fraktionierung“: Zur symbolischen und

institutionellen Integration des Frankenreichs im 8./9.
Jahrhundert   375
Steffen Patzold

21 Diaspora Jewish Communities in Early Medieval Europe:

Structural Conditions for Survival and Expansion   391
Wolfram Drews

22 New Visions of Community in Ninth-Century Rome: The Impact

of the Saracen Threat on the Papal World View   403
Clemens Gantner

Part III Visions of Community, Perceptions of Difference

Islamic Views

23 Arabic-Islamic Historiographers on the Emergence of Latin-Christian

Europe   427
Daniel G. König

24 The Vikings in the South through Arab Eyes   447

Ann Christys

25 Identities of the Ṣaqāliba and the Rūsiyya in Early Arabic

Sources   459
Przemysław Urbańczyk
viii Visions of Community in the Post-Roman World

Byzantine Views

26 Gog, Magog und die Hunnen: Anmerkungen zur eschatologischen

„Ethnographie“ der Völkerwanderungszeit   477
Wolfram Brandes

27 Strategies of Identification and Distinction in the Byzantine

Discourse on the Seljuk Turks   499
Alexander Beihammer

Western Views

28 ‘A wild man, whose hand will be against all’: Saracens and

Ishmaelites in Latin Ethnographical Traditions, from Jerome
to Bede   513
John Victor Tolan

29 Where the Wild Things Are   531

Ian N. Wood

Conclusions

Conclusions   545
Leslie Brubaker

Conclusions   551
Chris Wickham

Index   559
 Figures

2.1 Tibet in the late eighth, early ninth century 47

2.2 The geography of the Tibet demoness53
13.1 Map of Armenia 224
13.2 Gurgēn and Smbat Bagratuni, east façade, Church of the Holy
Saviour, Sanahin 228
13.3 Drawing, Bagrat Bagrationi, south façade, Osk‘ Vank Cathedral 229
13.4 Gurgēn and Smbat Bagratuni, east façade, Church of the Holy
Sign, Haghbat 230
13.5 Gagik I Bagratuni, Church of St. Gregory the Illuminator, Ani (lost) 231
13.6 General View, Aght‘amar, Church of the Holy Cross, Aght‘amar,
Lake Van 234
13.7 East façade, Church of the Holy Cross, Aght‘amar, Lake Van 235
13.8 Detail, Gagik Artsruni, Church of the Holy Cross, Aght‘amar,
Lake Van 236
13.9 Silver medallion, Caliph al-Moqtadir 236
13.10 West façade, Gagik Artsruni presenting a model of his church to
Christ, Church of the Holy Cross, Aght‘amar, Lake Van 237
13.11 Detail, Gagik Artsruni, Church of the Holy Cross, Aght‘amar,
Lake Van 237
This page has been left blank intentionally
 Abbreviations

AASS Acta Sanctorum

BHG Bibliotheca hagiographica graeca, ed. François
Halkin, Subsidia Hagiographica, 8a (3rd edn, 3 vols,
Brussels, 1957; repr. 1986)
CC CM Corpus Christianorum Continuatio Mediaevalis
CC SG Corpus Christianorum, series Graeca
CC SL Corpus Christianorum, series Latina
CSCO Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium
CSEL Corpus Scriptorum Ecclesiasticorum Latinorum
CSHB Corpus Scriptorum Historiae Byzantinae
Deutsches Archiv Deutsches Archiv für Erforschung des Mittelalters
EI2 The Encyclopedia of Islam (2nd edn, Leiden, New York,
1960–2004)
MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica (Hanover-Berlin,
1824– )
AA Auctores antiquissimi
DD Diplomata
EE Epistulae
LL Leges
SS Scriptores
Neues Archiv Neues Archiv der Gesellschaft für ältere deutsche
Geschichtskunde
PG Patrologia Graeca, see PL.
PL Patrologia Latina, cursus completus, ed. Jacques-Paul
Migne (Paris 1841– )
PLRE Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire, ed.
Arnold Hugh Martin Jones, John Robert Martindale
and John Morris (3 vols, Cambridge, 1971–92)
PO Patrologia Orientalis
RE Realencyklopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaften
SC Sources Chrétiennes
This page has been left blank intentionally
 Introduction
Ethnicity, Religion and Empire
Walter Pohl

Traditional religions are often community-based and community-oriented,

from civic cults and divine origins of lineages and peoples to the flexible forms
of cultural adaptation in classical religion. With the emergence of universal
religions, the relationship between cult and community, religious and political
identity became much more complex. A proselytizing religion tends to transcend
other forms of community through defining membership by conversion.1 But
on the other hand, it often attaches itself to definite political realms which
it legitimates and helps to integrate. This may create a rather dynamic and
sometimes paradoxical relationship between religious identity and particular
communities. With the emergence of the Christian Roman Empire in the fourth
and the Islamic Caliphate in the seventh century, it might seem for a while that
empire was the adequate form of political organization for a universal religion.2
But the equation between empire and religion remained ephemeral, and the
religious dynamic invariably outgrew its imperial framework. In Western Europe,
Christian kingdoms predominantly named after peoples developed. We have
become so accustomed to seeing the world as a world of nations that we have
taken for granted that Europe should have developed that way, as an aggregate
of independent peoples. Ethnicity, however, played a very different role in the
many other political cultures that preceded and surrounded medieval Europe,
and more comparative research is necessary to understand these differences.3
This volume, therefore, raises the question of how ethnic identities, civic
and regional communities, religious beliefs and political allegiances interacted
in shaping different social worlds. It takes a comparative look at visions and
practices of community and at the role of identity and difference in the three
post-classical political cultures: the Latin West, Byzantium and the Islamic
world, roughly between the fifth and the eleventh centuries. For this period,

1
Werner Gephart and Hans Waldenfels (eds), Religion und Identität (Frankfurt, 1999).
2
Averil Cameron, Christianity and the Rhetoric of Empire (Berkeley, Los Angeles,
Oxford, 1991); Hugh Kennedy, The Prophet and the Age of the Caliphates: The Islamic Near East
from the Sixth to the Eleventh Century (London, New York, 1986).
3
Walter Pohl, ‘Aux origines d’une Europe ethnique: Identités en transformation
entre antiquité et moyen âge’, in Annales: Histoire, Sciences sociales, 60, 1 (2005): 183–208.
2 Visions of Community in the Post-Roman World

such questions have never been raised from a comparative point of view. This is
all the more surprising as the differences in the development of modern nations
between Europe and the Middle East have often been noticed. It is commonplace
to say that there was little sense of national community on which states such as
Iraq, Lebanon, Syria or Jordan could be established after the fall of the Ottoman
Empire. Even the Turkish nation was a controversial issue; for instance, the poet
who wrote the text that was used for the Turkish national anthem, Mehmet Akif,
was in fact a bitter critic of nationalism and went into exile when the Turkish
republic was proclaimed.4 Obviously, ethnicity and nationality played a different
role in Islamic history than they did in the West. The present volume is intended
to raise new questions about the early stages of these differing developments.
Comparison between the West and the Islamic world, sometimes also
taking the Byzantine commonwealth into account, has become a hot topic in
recent years.5 But in many respects we are still at the beginning. Ambitious
attempts to write a comparative history of the post-Roman Mediterranean
seem to show that it is too early for synthesis.6 Research in all fields involved
could profit enormously from critical comparison. This could also lead to a
better awareness of the way in which traditional paradigms, master-narratives
and methodological choices still influence our perceptions of the period. For
instance, the recently renewed controversies about the ‘Fall of Rome’ or the
‘Transformation of the Roman World’ have once again tended to concentrate on
the Western Empire, and on the ‘barbarian’ kingdoms that were founded on its
territory.7 But Rome fell in at least four different ways: the Western transition
from empire to kingdoms in the course of the fifth century, the Slavic rupture
in the Balkans, the Islamic conquest of the East in the seventh century and the
gradual Byzantine transformation of eastern Rome. Differences and similarities

4
Bernard Lewis, The Multiple Identities of the Middle East (New York, 1998), p. 24.
5
For a broad socio-economic comparison, see Chris Wickham, Framing the Early
Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean 400–800 (Oxford, New York, 2005); see also
Michael Borgolte (ed.), Das europäische Mittelalter im Spannungsbogen des Vergleichs. Zwanzig
internationale Beiträge zu Praxis, Problemen und Perspektiven der historischen Komparatistik,
Europa im Mittelalter. Abhandlungen und Beiträge zur historischen Komparatistik, 1
(Berlin, 2001).
6
Judith Herrin, The Formation of Christendom (Princeton, 1987); Ernst Pitz, Die
griechisch–römische Ökumene und die drei Kulturen des Mittelalters. Geschichte des mediterranen
Weltteils zwischen Atlantik und Indischen Ozean 270–812, Abhandlungen und Beiträge zur
historischen Komparatistik, 3 (Berlin, 2001); Michael Borgolte, Christen, Juden, Muselmanen.
Die Erben der Antike und der Aufstieg des Abendlandes, 300–1400 n. Chr., Siedler Geschichte
Europas (Munich, 2006).
7
Peter J. Heather, The Fall of the Roman Empire: A New History (London, Oxford, 2005);
Bryan Ward-Perkins, The Fall of Rome: And the End of Civilization (Oxford, 2005); Walter A.
Goffart, Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire (Philadelphia, 2006);
Guy Halsall, Barbarian Migrations and the Roman West, 376–568 (Cambridge, 2007); Walter
Pohl, ‘Rome and the barbarians in the fifth century’, Antiquité Tardive, 16 (2008): 93–101.
 Introduction 3

in these processes can shed additional light on the reasons why the Roman
Empire lost its hegemony in the Mediterranean; and they help to understand
how different ‘visions of community’ developed in these regions.
In the Latin West,8 the Roman Empire was replaced by a plurality of Christian
kingdoms with ethnic appellations: the Franks, the Anglo-Saxons, the Lombards
and others. The political landscape of Latin Europe around 1000 ce was already
dominated by France, England, Scotland, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia, Croatia,
Norway, Denmark, and Sweden.9 The Byzantine Empire still comprised a
considerable number of different ethnic, regional and even religious identities,
as Ralph-Johannes Lilie shows in Chapter 17. It had recovered lost territory in
the east and the Balkans, and pushed Bulgaria westward into modern Serbia and
Macedonia. Still, more or less orthodox states developed on its peripheries, for
instance the Rūs in Kiev, and ethnicity played a role in most of them. In the
Islamic world, ethnic affiliations (in the broad sense) existed on several levels,
but political power rested mostly on Islamic and dynastic foundations. At the end
of the period under consideration here, the power of the caliphs of Baghdad had
faded away, and regional dynasties had established themselves, the Umayyads in
al-Andalus, the Fatimids in Egypt, the Buyids in Iran, the Hamdanids in northern
Syria and others, some of them supported by Ismaili or other Shiite religious
movements. Thus, the imperial heritage of the Roman Mediterranean gave way
to distinct political cultures. Realms with ethnic appellations covered large parts
of Europe,10 whereas imperial and dynastic polities resting on strong religious
foundations continued to dominate the Eastern Mediterranean. Or were these
differences not as fundamental as they appear? The answer depends, not least,
on our concept of ethnicity.
The role of ethnicity in early medieval Europe, especially in the migration
period, was quite thoroughly studied in the last quarter of the twentieth century,
not least in Vienna. Research on ethnogenesis has shown how complex was
the process of ethnic aggregation and the formation of distinct peoples in the
early Middle Ages.11 Herwig Wolfram’s contribution, Chapter 6 in this volume,

8
For the problem of terminology, see Chapter 23 by Daniel König in this volume.
9
See, for instance, the map in Putzger Atlas und Chronik zur Weltgeschichte (Berlin,
2002), p. 74. Of course, the map presents a modern view of the situation; on the other
hand, all of the names are attested in contemporary sources, and most of them in official
self-identifications (such as titles of rulers).
10
It has been argued that the West had already entered a proto-national phase:
see, for example, Helmut Beumann and Werner Schröder, Aspekte der Nationenbildung im
Mittelalter, Nationes, 1 (Sigmaringen, 1978); but that presumes a clear break between a
‘gentile’ period up to the ninth century and the beginning of nationhood (German,
French, English) after that.
11
Reinhard Wenskus, Stammesbildung und Verfassung. Das Werden der frühmittelalterlichen
gentes (Cologne, Vienna, 21977); Herwig Wolfram, ‘Typen der Ethnogenese. Ein Versuch’,
in Dieter Geuenich (ed.), Die Franken und die Alemannen bis zur „Schlacht bei Zülpich“ (496/97),
4 Visions of Community in the Post-Roman World

represents this line of research by showing ‘how many peoples are in a people’.
This approach can surely be of use to scholars studying other parts of the world.
Although ‘ethnogenesis’ is still at the centre of polemic, research has moved on.
As national origins have lost much of their political appeal, origin myths do not
require the same amount of scholarly attention (or sometimes, fury, as Chris
Wickham notices in his Conclusion).12 Rather, scholarly interest has turned to
ongoing ethnic processes that continually transform the composition of ethnic
groups, and to the role ethnicity plays in their strategies of identification and
distinction. The centuries after the dissolution of the Western Roman Empire
saw the emergence of new peoples and of states that were named after them:
the kingdoms of the Vandals, Goths, Burgundians, Franks, Lombards, Angles
and Saxons. Most of them did not survive in the long run. But ethnic polities,
however mixed their populations really were, continued to play an important
role in the political landscape. This underlying phenomenon was at the heart
of the Wittgenstein Prize project conducted in Vienna between 2005 and 2010.13
The post-imperial centuries in the West established a new discourse of ethnicity,
and models of legitimate rule in the name of a people.
The resources of ethnic identification and distinction created in the early
centuries of the Middle Ages remained available throughout European history.
Even many early medieval peoples who failed, such as the Vandals, Huns, Goths
or Burgundians, accumulated such prestige that others attempted to partake in
it by identifying with peoples who had long disappeared: several medieval states
adopted the name of the Burgundians, up to the Grand Dukes of the fifteenth
century; Hungary appropriated the Huns as ancestors; early modern Sweden
the Goths and Vandals (who represent two of the Three Crowns of the Swedish
coat of arms); and some Slavic dynasties traced their origins back to the

Reallexikon der Germanischen Altertumskunde, Ergänzungsband, 19 (Berlin, New York,

1998), pp. 608–27; Walter Pohl, ‘Tradition, Ethnogenese und literarische Gestaltung: eine
Zwischenbilanz’, in Karl Brunner and Brigitte Merta (eds), Ethnogenese und Überlieferung.
Angewandte Methoden der Frühmittelalterforschung, Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für
Österreichische Geschichtsforschung, 31 (Vienna, 1994), pp. 9–26. For critical views,
see Andrew Gillett (ed.), On Barbarian Identity – Critical Approaches to Ethnogenesis Theory,
Studies in the Early Middle Ages, 4 (Turnhout, 2002), with the response by Walter Pohl,
‘Ethnicity, theory and tradition: a response’, on pp. 221–40; Pohl, ‘Aux origines d’une
Europe ethnique’, p. 208.
12
Herwig Wolfram, ‘Origo gentis (Goten)’, in Reallexikon der Gemanischen
Altertumskunde, 2. Aufl., 22 (2003): 178–83; Herwig Wolfram, ‘Auf der Suche nach den
Ursprüngen’, in Walter Pohl (ed.), Die Suche nach den Ursprüngen. Von der Bedeutung des
frühen Mittelalters, Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters, 8 (Vienna, 2004),
pp. 11–22.
13
For results of the project, see Walter Pohl and Gerda Heydemann (eds), Strategies
of Identification – Ethnicity and Religion in Early Medieval Europe, Cultural Encounters in Late
Antiquity and the Middle Ages, 13 (Turnhout, 2012, forthcoming).
 Introduction 5

Vandals-Vends.14 However, the military exploits of a heroic age would hardly

have been enough to establish the political role of ethnicity. It is easy to observe
that all successful ethnic states were or soon became Christian. This was partly
due to the valuable infrastructure offered by the Church, and to the support
of the bishops. But there is more to it, and this is a neglected element in the
study of European ‘visions of community’: Christianity also provided a world
view that made the gentes essential actors in the history of salvation.15 Thus, the
baptism of the Frankish king Clovis around 500 ce came to be regarded as the true
foundational act of the French state, and its 1500th anniversary was celebrated
with pomp and furious debates in 1996.16 Much more than Islam, Christianity
could be understood to support the particularity and importance of ethnically
defined groups.17 Therefore, most medieval rulers’ titles contain a double
legitimation: Gratia Dei rex Francorum, rex Angliae or similar.18 The long-term
success of ethnic states, which paved the way for the eventual development of
European nations, would not have been possible without the Christian discourse
of ethnicity.
Therefore, this volume is not simply entitled ‘Ethnicity in East and West’ or
similar. Two key questions that have emerged from recent research on the role of
ethnicity in the post-Roman West are both more general and more specific. First,
in what way did supra-regional kingdoms come to be distinguished by ethnic
labels? And second, what was the role of Christianity in encouraging the political
use of ethnic identities? These two questions point strongly towards comparison
with Christian Byzantium and with the Islamic world. What is the role of
particular identities within the universal vision proposed by the two religions?
And what are the realities on the ground created by the sometimes conflicting,
but more often aggregated religious, ethnic and other social identities? Which

14
Roland Steinacher, ‘Wenden, Slawen, Vandalen. Eine frühmittelalterliche
pseudologische Gleichsetzung und ihre Nachwirkungen’, in Walter Pohl (ed.), Die Suche
nach den Ursprüngen. Von der Bedeutung des frühen Mittelalters, Forschungen zur Geschichte
des Mittelalters, 8 (Vienna, 2004), pp. 329–53; János M. Bák, Jörg Jarnut, Pierre Monnet
and Bernd Schneidmüller (eds), Gebrauch und Missbrauch des Mittelalters, 19.–21. Jahrhundert/
Uses and Abuses of the Middle Ages, 19th–21st Century, MittelalterStudien, 17 (Munich, 2009).
15
See below.
16
Dieter Geuenich (ed.), Die Franken und die Alemannen bis zur ‘Schlacht bei Zülpich’
(496/97) (Beihefte zum RGA, Berlin, New York, 1998), pp. 636–51.
17
Walter Pohl, ‘Disputed identification: the Jews and the use of biblical models in
the barbarian kingdoms’, in Yitzhak Hen et al. (eds), Barbarians and Jews: Jews and Judaism
in the Early Medieval West (Turnout, forthcoming).
18
Herwig Wolfram, Intitulatio I. Lateinische Königs- und Fürstentitel bis zum Ende des
8. Jahrhunderts, Mitteilungen des Instituts für Österreichische Geschichtsforschung,
Ergänzungsband, 21 (Graz, Cologne, Vienna, 1967); Andrew Gillett, ‘Was ethnicity
politicized in the earliest medieval kingdoms?’, in Andrew Gillett (ed.), On Barbarian
Identity – Critical Approaches to Ethnogenesis Theory, Studies in the Early Middle Ages, 4
(Turnhout, 2002), pp. 85–121.
6 Visions of Community in the Post-Roman World

‘visions of community’ inspired political action and legitimated rulership in the

three post-classical political cultures?
Comparison between different regions, cultures or periods is an expanding
but methodologically sensible field.19 Sociological models tend to offer sweeping
blueprints for comparison, but they often sit poorly with the complexity of
historical evidence.20 Are our categories for historical analysis – such as state,
empire, tribe, religion, ethnicity, culture – flexible enough to sustain systematic
comparison? Socio-cultural anthropology recently has gone through a revival of
methodological and conceptual attention for cross-cultural comparison.21 One
of the problems is that comparison tends to reify the cultures that are being
compared, and the boundaries between them. In the case of this book, the common
past and the intense communication between the regions under scrutiny do not
allow them to be marked off against each other in any wholesale way.22 In spite
of all difficulties, we are even being encouraged to ‘compare the incomparable’
across academic boundaries.23 As we go along, more methodological reflection
will be needed to assess the results of cross-disciplinary encounters such as the
one presented in this volume.
Most importantly for our topic, we have to reflect on the categories of
identity and ethnicity. Theoretical questions of ethnicity and of its uses are
raised in several contributions to this volume, among them the essays by
two social anthropologists working on Asia (Andre Gingrich, Guntram Hazod,
Chapters 1 and 2 respectively), by Bas ter Haar Romeny (Chapter 11), and in
Chris Wickham’s Conclusion; I would like to add a few observations here. What is
ethnicity?24 It is probably safe to say that the barbarian peoples of the West were
ethnic groups. It is already more problematic in the case of the umbrella terms.

19
Represented in Germany not least by the Institut für vergleichende Geschichte
Europas im Mittelalter and its series of publications: Borgolte, Das europäische Mittelalter im
Spannungsbogen des Vergleichs; Michael Borgolte, Juliane Schiel, Bernd Schneidmüller and
Annette Seitz (eds), Mittelalter im Labor. Die Mediävistik testet Wege zu einer transkulturellen
Europawissenschaft, Europa im Mittelalter, Abhandlungen und Beiträge zur historischen
Komparatistik, 10 (Berlin, 2008).
20
Even some of the most successful attempts at model-building have problems
integrating Late Antiquity and the early Middle Ages: for instance, Anthony D. Smith, The
Ethnic Origins of Nations (London, 1986); Michael Mann, The Sources of Social Power, vol. 1:
A History of Power from the Beginning to A.D. 1760 (Cambridge, 1986).
21
Andre Gingrich and R.G. Fox (eds), Anthropology, by Comparison (London, New York,
2002).
22
See, for instance, Michael McCormick, The Origins of the European Economy:
Communications and Commerce c.700–c.900 (Cambridge, 2001).
23
Marcel Detienne, Comparing the Incomparable (Stanford, 2008).
24
For a more extensive discussion, see Walter Pohl, ‘Introduction. Strategies of
identification: a methodological profile’, in Walter Pohl and Gerda Heydemann (eds),
Strategies of Identification – Ethnicity and Religion in Early Medieval Europe, Cultural Encouters
in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, 13 (Turnhout, 2012, forthcoming).
 Introduction 7

‘Arab’ clearly represented a self-designation in the early Middle Ages, but it may
not always have been understood in an ethnic sense; when and how it was used
in the Middle Ages needs more detailed investigation.25 ‘Germanic’ was hardly
used for self-identification in antiquity, although modern scholarship has long
maintained that, and was not used for contemporary ascription between ca. 400
and 750.26 ‘Roman’ is even more difficult to assess. A number of recent studies
have discussed its significance in antiquity;27 similar assessments are lacking for
the early Middle Ages, when ‘Roman’ had several different meanings. Classical
Roman-ness was maintained with considerable efforts; if Evagrios presents the
late sixth-century bishop Gregory of Theopolis as addressing a Byzantine army
as ‘Men, Romans in action and in appellation’, this refers to a performative
identity following an ancient classical tradition.28 ‘Roman’ might be also used
for the inhabitants of the city of Rome or for the Latin-speaking population of
the western kingdoms or, of course, for the Rhomaioi, the mostly Greek-speaking
citizens of the empire. In some contexts, it might acquire a more or less ethnic
note; since Late Antiquity, the ‘Romans’ could be seen as one gens among others.
The identity of the eastern Romans was even more contradictory: they were
the descendants of the ancient ‘Hellenes’, a term that was hardly used for
self-identification since it had come to be understood as a synonym for ‘pagans’;
speakers of Latin and other languages called them ‘Greeks’, whereas they might
be designated ‘Ionians’ (al-yūnāniyīn) by Arabs and later by the Turks.29 We call

25
See Chapter 4 by Jan Retsö in this volume; and the rather different view from
Robert Hoyland, Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam (London,
New York, 2001), pp. 229–47. I would like to thank Patricia Crone, Princeton, for advice
on this point.
26
Walter Pohl, ‘Der Germanenbegriff vom 3. bis 8. Jahrhundert – Identifikationen
und Abgrenzungen’, in Heinrich Beck, Dieter Geuenich, Heiko Steuer and Dietrich
Hakelberg (eds), Zur Geschichte der Gleichung „germanisch – deutsch“, Reallexikon der
Germanischen Altertumskunde, Ergänzungsband, 34 (Berlin, New York, 2004), pp. 163–83;
Jörg Jarnut, ‘Germanisch. Plädoyer für die Abschaffung eines obsoleten Zentralbegriffes
der Frühmittelalterforschung’, in Walter Pohl (ed.), Die Suche nach den Ursprüngen. Von der
Bedeutung des frühen Mittelalters, Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters, 8 (Vienna,
2004), pp. 107–13.
27
E. g. David J. Mattingly, Imperialism, Power, and Identity: Experiencing the Roman
Empire (Princeton, 2010).
28
Evagrius, Historia ecclesiastica, ed. Joseph Bidez and Leon Parmentier, The
Ecclesiastical History of Evagrius with the Scholia (Amsterdam, 1964), p. 231; see Chapter 14
by Hartmut Leppin in this volume.
29
See Clemens Gantner, ‘The label “Greeks” in the papal diplomatic repertoire in
the eighth century’, in Walter Pohl and Gerda Heydemann (eds), Strategies of Identification
– Ethnicity and Religion in Early Medieval Europe, Cultural Encouters in Late Antiquity and the
Middle Ages, 13 (Turnhout, 2012, forthcoming). See also Chapters 22 and 23 by Clemens
Gantner and Daniel König, respectively, in this volume. Nowadays, the Turkish name for
Greece is still ‘Yunanistan’.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Machine Learning - Answer Key
Second 2024 - Faculty

Prepared by: Instructor Williams

Date: August 12, 2025

Chapter 1: Statistical analysis and interpretation

Learning Objective 1: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 2: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 2: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 3: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 3: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 4: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Learning Objective 5: Study tips and learning strategies
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 8: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 9: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Abstract 2: Critical analysis and evaluation
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 12: Best practices and recommendations
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 13: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 17: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Appendix 3: Critical analysis and evaluation
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 25: Study tips and learning strategies
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 26: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 27: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 27: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 28: Best practices and recommendations
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 4: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 31: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 32: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Appendix 5: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Practice Problem 40: Literature review and discussion
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 43: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 43: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 44: Experimental procedures and results
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 45: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Key terms and definitions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 49: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Chapter 6: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 57: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 58: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 59: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice 7: Theoretical framework and methodology
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 66: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Literature review and discussion
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 67: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 68: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Conclusion 8: Learning outcomes and objectives
Practice Problem 70: Experimental procedures and results
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 76: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 77: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 78: Best practices and recommendations
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 79: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Exercise 9: Study tips and learning strategies
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 81: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 82: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 82: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 83: Experimental procedures and results
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Best practices and recommendations
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 88: Historical development and evolution
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 89: Practical applications and examples
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Results 10: Key terms and definitions
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 92: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 98: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 99: Ethical considerations and implications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Lesson 11: Learning outcomes and objectives
Example 100: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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