(Ebook) Cognitive Computing: Theory and Applications by

Venkat N. Gudivada, Vijay V. Raghavan, Venu Govindaraju

and C.R. Rao (Eds.) ISBN 9780444637444, 0444637443 Pdf
Download

https://ebooknice.com/product/cognitive-computing-theory-and-
applications-5600914

★★★★★
4.6 out of 5.0 (31 reviews )

DOWNLOAD PDF

ebooknice.com
 (Ebook) Cognitive Computing: Theory and Applications by
Venkat N. Gudivada, Vijay V. Raghavan, Venu Govindaraju and
C.R. Rao (Eds.) ISBN 9780444637444, 0444637443 Pdf Download

EBOOK

Available Formats

■ PDF eBook Study Guide Ebook

EXCLUSIVE 2025 EDUCATIONAL COLLECTION - LIMITED TIME

INSTANT DOWNLOAD VIEW LIBRARY

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

(Ebook) Big Data Analytics, Volume 33 by Venu Govindaraju, Vijay

Raghavan, C.R. Rao ISBN 9780444634924, 0444634924

https://ebooknice.com/product/big-data-analytics-volume-33-5329826

(Ebook) Biota Grow 2C gather 2C cook by Loucas, Jason; Viles, James

ISBN 9781459699816, 9781743365571, 9781925268492, 1459699815,
1743365578, 1925268497

https://ebooknice.com/product/biota-grow-2c-gather-2c-cook-6661374

(Ebook) SAT II Success MATH 1C and 2C 2002 (Peterson's SAT II Success)

by Peterson's ISBN 9780768906677, 0768906679

https://ebooknice.com/product/sat-ii-success-
math-1c-and-2c-2002-peterson-s-sat-ii-success-1722018

(Ebook) Matematik 5000+ Kurs 2c Lärobok by Lena Alfredsson, Hans

Heikne, Sanna Bodemyr ISBN 9789127456600, 9127456609

https://ebooknice.com/product/matematik-5000-kurs-2c-larobok-23848312
(Ebook) Handbook of Statistics_29B, Volume 29: Sample Surveys:
Inference and Analysis by Danny Pfeffermann, C.R. Rao ISBN
9780444531247, 0444531246

https://ebooknice.com/product/handbook-of-
statistics-29b-volume-29-sample-surveys-inference-and-analysis-1958348

(Ebook) Master SAT II Math 1c and 2c 4th ed (Arco Master the SAT
Subject Test: Math Levels 1 & 2) by Arco ISBN 9780768923049,
0768923042

https://ebooknice.com/product/master-sat-ii-math-1c-and-2c-4th-ed-
arco-master-the-sat-subject-test-math-levels-1-2-2326094

(Ebook) Cambridge IGCSE and O Level History Workbook 2C - Depth Study:

the United States, 1919-41 2nd Edition by Benjamin Harrison ISBN
9781398375147, 9781398375048, 1398375144, 1398375047

https://ebooknice.com/product/cambridge-igcse-and-o-level-history-
workbook-2c-depth-study-the-united-states-1919-41-2nd-edition-53538044

(Ebook) Multibiometrics for Human Identification by Bir Bhanu, Venu

Govindaraju ISBN 9780521115964, 0521115965

https://ebooknice.com/product/multibiometrics-for-human-
identification-2491746

(Ebook) Data Science: Theory and Applications (Volume 44) (Handbook of

Statistics, Volume 44) by Arni S.R. Srinivasa Rao (editor), C.R. Rao
(editor) ISBN 9780323852005, 0323852009

https://ebooknice.com/product/data-science-theory-and-applications-
volume-44-handbook-of-statistics-volume-44-50202212
 Handbook of Statistics

Series Editor

C.R. Rao
C.R. Rao AIMSCS, University of Hyderabad Campus,
Hyderabad, India
North-Holland is an imprint of Elsevier
Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, Netherlands
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by

any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any
information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the
publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s
permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright
Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
www.elsevier.com/permissions.

This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under
copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and
experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional
practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.

Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge
in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments
described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their
own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a
professional responsibility.

To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or
editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a
matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of
any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-444-63744-4
ISSN: 0169-7161

For information on all North-Holland publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/

Publisher: Zoe Kruze

Acquisition Editor: Kirsten Shankland
Editorial Project Manager: Hannah Colford
Production Project Manager: Radhakrishnan Lakshmanan
Cover Designer: Victoria Pearson
Typeset by SPi Global, India
Contributors

Numbers in Parentheses indicate the pages on which the author’s contributions begin.
S. Chakraborty (229), University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States
E. Fathi (169), East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, United States
J.-B. Fiot (255), IBM Research, Dublin, Ireland
R.N. Gottumukkala (81), University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA,
United States
V.N. Gudivada (3, 169, 283, 301), East Carolina University, Greenville, NC,
United States
E. Harley (117), The MITRE Corporation, McLean, VA, United States
F.D. Hudson (341), University Corporation for Advanced Internet Development,
White Plains, NY, United States
M.T. Irfan (169, 283), Bowdoin College, Brunswick, ME, United States
S. Jothilakshmi (301), Annamalai University, Chidambaram, Tamil Nadu, India
M. Limiero (117), The MITRE Corporation, McLean, VA, United States
V.P.A. Lonij (255), IBM Research, Dublin, Ireland
A.S. Maida (39), The Center for Advanced Computer Studies, The University of
Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, United States
E.W. Nichols (341), University Corporation for Advanced Internet Development,
White Plains, NY, United States
S. Noel (117), The MITRE Corporation, McLean, VA, United States
V.V. Raghavan (81), University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA,
United States
D.L. Rao (169), East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, United States
M. Share (117), The MITRE Corporation, McLean, VA, United States
S. Suthaharan (207), The University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro,
NC, United States
K.H. Tam (117), The MITRE Corporation, McLean, VA, United States
S.R. Venna (81), University of Louisiana at Lafayette, Lafayette, LA, United States

xiii
Preface

Cognitive computing is a nascent interdisciplinary domain. It is a confluence

of cognitive science, neuroscience, data science, and cloud computing. Cogni-
tive science is the study of mind and offers theories, and mathematical and
computational models of human cognition. Cognitive science itself is an inter-
disciplinary domain and draws upon philosophy, linguistics, psychology, and
anthropology, among others.
Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system including its development,
structure, and function. More specifically, neuroscientists study the structure of
the brain, and how behavior and cognitive functions are regulated by the brain.
Brain imaging techniques such as positron emission tomography, functional
magnetic resonance imaging, diffusion tensor imaging, and arterial spin label-
ing enable probing brain functions both qualitatively and quantitatively.
Data science is also an interdisciplinary domain. It deals with processes
and systems to extract information and knowledge from structured and
unstructured data using machine learning algorithms and statistical methods.
The end goal is to discover patterns, generate actionable insights, and answer
predictive questions.
Cloud computing provides turnkey solutions such as platform-as-a-service,
infrastructure-as-a-service, and software-as-a-service. It uses high-performance
CPUs, GPUs, neuromorphic processors, virtually unlimited memory and stor-
age, and high-speed networks to provide computing resources on demand.
A fixed pool of these resources is dynamically provisioned among various
applications and continually adjusted so that the applications can guarantee per-
formance amid fluctuating workloads. Cloud computing achieves economies of
scale and helps cognitive computing applications to perform at scale without
upfront computing investments. Applications are billed for only the resources
they actually use.
Broadly, there are two lines of research in the cognitive computing discipline.
The first one is centered on cognitive science as the foundation and encompasses
neuroscience, philosophy, psychology, anthropology, and linguistics research.
The second one is more recent and is based on computer science as the foundation.
It encompasses data science, statistics, and subdisciplines of computer science
such as high-performance computing, cloud computing, natural language proces-
sing, computer vision, machine learning, information retrieval, and data manage-
ment. These two lines of research are not only complementary but mutually
helping to accelerate discoveries and innovation.

xv
xvi Preface

It is this synergistic confluence that makes cognitive computing powerful

and has the potential for groundbreaking discoveries and advances. Especially
the advances in the computing discipline are poised to bring about transforma-
tional changes to the way research is conducted in the discipline. For example,
IBM’s TrueNorth cognitive computing system is a case in point. Its design is
inspired by the function and efficiency of the human brain. The TrueNorth
architecture provides a spiking neuron model as a building block. Its program-
ming paradigm is based on an abstraction called corelet, which represents a
network of neurosynaptic cores. The corelet encapsulates all details except
the external inputs and outputs. An object-oriented language is available for
programming corelets. A library of reusable corelets as well as an integrated
development environment help accelerate the development of cognitive com-
puting applications. Using this environment, IBM has already implemented
several algorithms including hidden Markov models, convolution networks,
and restricted Boltzmann machines. These algorithms have been incorporated
into applications such as speaker recognition, sequence prediction, and colli-
sion avoidance.
As of this writing, Nvidia released Tesla P100 GPU, which specifically
targets machine learning algorithms that employ deep learning. P100 features
150 billion transistors on a single chip. Also, Google released Natural
Language API, a cloud service that provides application developers access
to pretrained algorithms for sentiment analysis, entity recognition, and syntax
analysis. Likewise, Speech API, Translate API, and Vision API are public
cloud services for speech to text conversion, translation between natural lan-
guages, and image analysis, respectively. The Speech API enables converting
audio to text for over 80 languages and the Translate API provides machine
translation between these languages. Applications can use the Vision API to
perform image analysis tasks including object detection and classification.
These computing advances will propel further research in cognitive and
neurosciences.
The goal of this handbook is to bring together a coherent body of knowl-
edge and recent research in cognitive computing. It promotes a unified view
of the domain and lays the foundation for cognitive computing as an academic
discipline and a research enterprise. To the best of the editors’ knowledge, this
handbook is the first in formally defining cognitive computing and providing
an academic exposition of the field. The handbook aims to serve as a catalyst
for advancing research in cognitive computing.

AUDIENCE
The handbook aims to meet the needs of both students and industry practi-
tioners. Especially it is suited for students in advanced undergraduate and
beginning graduate courses on cognitive computing, neuroscience, and cogni-
tive science. It is also a good source for graduate students who plan to pursue
Preface xvii

research in cognitive computing. The handbook is also a good reference for

industry practitioners who desire to learn about cognitive computing.

ORGANIZATION
The handbook is comprised of 11 chapters, which are organized into 3 sections.
Section A: Fundamentals and Principles consists of two chapters, provides an
introduction to cognitive computing, and sets the backdrop for reading rest of
the handbook. Section B: Complex Analytics and Machine Learning is com-
prised of five chapters. Complex analytics and machine learning areas are dis-
cussed in this section. Lastly, Section C: Applications discusses applications
of cognitive computing and four chapters are devoted to these topics.

Section A: Fundamentals and Principles

Chapter 1: Cognitive Computing: Concepts, Architectures,
Systems, and Applications
This chapter provides an interdisciplinary introduction to cognitive comput-
ing. The aim of the chapter is to provide a unified view of the discipline. It
begins with an overview of cognitive science, data science, and cognitive
computing. Principal technology enablers of cognitive computing, an over-
view of three major categories of cognitive architectures, cognitive computing
systems, and their applications are discussed. Current trends and future
research directions in cognitive computing are indicated. The chapter con-
cludes by listing various cognitive computing resources.

Chapter 2: Cognitive Computing and Neural Networks: Reverse

Engineering the Brain
IBM, Nvidia, and Qualcomm have developed microprocessors which mimic
neurons and synapses of the human brain. These microprocessors are called
neuromorphic chips, and IBM’s TrueNorth and the HumanBrain Project’s
SpiNNaker are examples. This chapter presents principles and theory needed
as a backdrop to understanding these advances from a cognitive science
perspective. Neural networks found within the mammalian neocortex, and
associated formal and computational models that appear to form the basis of
human cognition are described.

Section B: Complex Analytics and Machine Learning

Chapter 3: Visual Analytic Decision-Making Environments for
Large-Scale Time-Evolving Graphs
Data scientists are faced with the challenge of analyzing large-scale graphs
that change dynamically. Existing tools and metaphors for data collection,
processing, storage, and analysis are not suitable for handling large-scale
xviii Preface

evolutionary graphs. This chapter describes visual analytics as a cognitive

computing approach to improving decision making with large-scale dynamic
graphs. It provides a conceptual introduction to time-varying graphs,
describes functional components of systems for visual analytics including
performance considerations, and presents a visual graph analytics sandbox
architecture and sample applications implemented within it.

Chapter 4: CyGraph: Graph-Based Analytics and Visualization

for Cybersecurity
The adversarial nature and complex interdependencies of networked machines
demand a cognitive systems approach to cybersecurity. This chapter describes
CyGraph, a graph-based cognitive system for protecting mission-critical
computing assets and applications. CyGraph brings together isolated data
and events into a comprehensive property-graph model, providing an overall
picture for decision support and situational awareness. CyGraph features
CyQL (CyGraph Query Language), a domain-specific query language for
expressing graph patterns of interest, with interactive visualization of query
results. CyGraph integrates with third-party tools for visualizing graph state
changes. CyGraph can also synthesize graph models with particular statistical
properties.

Chapter 5: Cognitive Analytics: Going Beyond Big Data Analytics

and Machine Learning
Traditional data analytics evolved from the database domain and exclusively
focused on structured data stored in relational databases. It was propelled to
the next stage in its evolution with the advent of data warehouses and data
mining. Cognitive analytics is the third stage in this evolutionary path and
goes beyond structured data. It integrates semistructured and unstructured data
into the analytic process. This chapter provides an introduction to cognitive
analytics. It describes types of learning and classes of machine learning algo-
rithms in the context of cognitive analytics. It proposes a reference architec-
ture for cognitive analytics and indicates ways to implementing it. It also
describes a few cognitive analytics applications.

Chapter 6: A Cognitive Random Forest: An Intra- and

Intercognitive Computing for Big Data Classification
Under Cune Condition
This chapter address the classification problem in the big data context. The
data is often noisy, inconsistent, and incomplete. To solve the classification
problem, a cognitive model (called STE-M) is proposed in this chapter.
Also, a cognitive computing architecture, called Cognitive Random Forest,
is proposed to implement STE-M. The architecture amalgamates the STE-M
model and a set of random forest classifiers to enhance continuous learning.
The architecture is implemented and validated.
Preface xix

Chapter 7: Bayesian Additive Regression Tree for Seemingly

Unrelated Regression with Automatic Tree Selection
This chapter introduces a flexible Bayesian additive regression tree (seem-
ingly unrelated regression) model, called BART-SUR, which is suitable for
situations where the response variable is a vector and the components of the
vector are highly correlated. BART-SUR can jointly model the correlation
structure among the related response variables and provide a highly flexible
and nonlinear regression structure for each of the individual regression func-
tions. The number of trees in BART-SUR is selected adaptively by treating
it as a model parameter and assigning a prior distribution on it. The adaptive
tree selection makes BART-SUR extremely fast. The author demonstrates the
superiority of BART-SUR over several out of the shelve popular methods like
the random forest, neural network, wavelet regression, and support vector
machine through two simulation studies and three real data applications.

Section C: Applications
Chapter 8: Cognitive Systems for the Food–Water–Energy Nexus
Meeting the food, water, and energy needs of a growing world population is a
grand challenge. These resources are often not produced in places where they
are consumed, which entails transportation and storage costs. One can avoid
storing a resource, if good forecast models for supply and demand exist.
Developing such models requires handling large-scale datasets efficiently,
building forecasting models using machine learning methods, and leveraging
optimization techniques to help incorporate forecasting results into a
decision-making process. Toward these goals, this chapter discusses methods
to make the most of the sensor data, including data from satellites and ground-
based cameras. Forecasting methods ranging from minutes-ahead to days-
ahead are described. Finally, ways to use the outputs of these analytics tools
to help decision-making processes are discussed in the context of energy.

Chapter 9: Cognitive Computing Applications in Education

and Learning
Education and learning applications stand out among many uses of cognitive
computing due to their practical appeal and research challenges. This chapter
discusses the role of cognitive computing in teaching and learning environ-
ments. More specifically, the chapter examines the important roles played
by the Educational Data Mining (EDM) and Learning Analytics (LA)
researchers in improving student learning. It describes an architecture for per-
sonalized eLearning and summarizes relevant research.

Chapter 10: Large-Scale Data Enabled Evolution of Spoken

Language Research and Applications
Human languages are used in two forms: written and spoken. Text and speech
are the mediums for written and spoken languages, respectively. Human
xx Preface

languages are the most natural means of communication between cognitive

computing systems and their users. The emergence of big data and data sci-
ence is accelerating research and applications in the analysis and understand-
ing of human/natural languages. This chapter provides an introductory tutorial
on the core tasks in speech processing, reviews recent large-scale data-driven
approaches to solving problems in spoken languages, describes current trends
in speech research, and indicates future research directions.

Chapter 11: The Internet of Things and Cognitive Computing

Internet of Things (IoT) technologies are now more widely deployed. The
confluence of IoT and cognitive computing provides unprecedented opportu-
nities to develop deeper insights from the data generated by IoT devices.
These actionable insights have the potential for transformational changes that
affect people, cities, and industry. This chapter explores the state of the art
and future opportunities to bring IoT and cognitive computing together to
solve a range of problems including smart cities and connected health care.

Venkat N. Gudivada
Vijay V. Raghavan
Venu Govindaraju
C.R. Rao
Chapter 1

Cognitive Computing:
Concepts, Architectures,
Systems, and Applications
V.N. Gudivada1
East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, United States
1
Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT
Cognitive computing is an emerging field ushered in by the synergistic confluence of
cognitive science, data science, and an array of computing technologies. Cognitive sci-
ence theories provide frameworks to describe various models of human cognition
including how information is represented and processed by the brain. Data science pro-
vides processes and systems to extract knowledge from both structured and unstructured
data. Cognitive computing employs the computing discipline’s theories, methods, and
tools to model human cognition. The recent advances in data science and computing
disciplines—neuromorphic processors, big data, predictive modeling, machine learning,
natural language understanding, and cloud computing—are accelerating advances in
cognitive science and cognitive computing.
The overarching goal of this chapter is to provide an interdisciplinary introduction
to cognitive computing. The focus is on breadth to provide a unified view of the disci-
pline. The chapter begins with an overview of cognitive science, data science, and cog-
nitive computing. The principal technology enablers of cognitive computing are
presented next. An overview of three major categories of cognitive architectures is pre-
sented, which is followed by a description of cognitive computing systems and their
applications. Trends and future research directions in cognitive computing are dis-
cussed. The chapter concludes by listing various cognitive computing resources.
Keywords: Cognitive computing, Cognitive architectures, Cognitive models, Cogni-
tive systems, Cognitive applications, Cognitive computing systems, Data science

1 INTRODUCTION
An autonomous system is a self-contained and self-regulated entity. The sys-
tem continually reconstitutes itself in real time in response to changes in its

Handbook of Statistics, Vol. 35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/bs.host.2016.07.004

© 2016 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. 3
4 SECTION A Fundamentals and Principles

environment (Vernon, 2014). The self-reorganization aspect embodies

learning, development, and evolution. Cognition is the process by which an
autonomous system acquires its knowledge and improves its behavior through
senses, thoughts, and experiences (Anderson, 1983). Cognitive processes are
critical to autonomous systems for their realization and existence (Franklin
et al., 2014; Newell, 1994).
Human cognition refers to the cognitive processes which enable humans to
perform various tasks, both mundane and highly specialized (Chipman, 2015).
A collection of processes that enable computers to accomplish tasks that target
performance at human cognition levels is referred to as machine cognition.
Human cognition employs biological and natural means—brain and mind—
for its realization. On the other hand, machine cognition views cognition as a
type of computation and uses cognitive computing techniques for its realization.
Cognitive science is an interdisciplinary approach to the study of human
and animal cognition (Frankish and Ramsey, 2012; Friedenberg and
Silverman, 2015). Abrahamsen and Bechtel (2012) provide an exposition
and core themes of cognitive science. Cognitive computing is an emerging
field ushered in by the synergistic confluence of cognitive science, data sci-
ence, and an array of computing technologies (Hurwitz et al., 2015). The
recent advances in the computing discipline—high-performance computers,
neuromorphic chips, neurocams, big data, machine learning, predictive mod-
eling, natural language processing (NLP), and cloud computing—are acceler-
ating advances in cognitive science and cognitive computing disciplines.
Given the interdisciplinary origin of cognitive science and data science,
there are multiple perspectives on cognitive computing. These perspectives
are shaped by diverse domain-specific applications and fast evolution of
enabling technologies. There is no consensus on what exactly comprises the
field of cognitive computing. Our exposition of cognitive computing in this
chapter is driven by big data, information retrieval, machine learning, and
natural language understanding and applications.

1.1 Chapter Organization

The overarching goal for this chapter is to provide a unified introduction to
cognitive computing by drawing on multiple perspectives. Section 2 provides
an overview of cognitive science as an interdisciplinary domain. The primary
characteristics of cognitive computing systems and a preview of cognitive
applications are provided in Section 3. Principal technology enablers of cog-
nitive computing are discussed in Section 5. Concepts of knowledge represen-
tation are presented in Section 4.
Cognitive architectures model human performance on multiple cognitive
tasks. They are computational frameworks which specify structure and
functions of cognitive systems as well as how structure and functions interact.
Section 6 discusses cognitive architectures and approaches to cognitive tasks.
 Concepts, Architectures, Systems, and Applications Chapter 1 5

Cognitive computing systems and their applications are presented in

Section 7. Trends and future research directions in cognitive computing are
discussed in Section 8. Finally, Section 9 ends the chapter by listing various
cognitive computing resources.

2 INTERDISCIPLINARY NATURE OF COGNITIVE SCIENCE

Cognitive science theories provide frameworks to describe various models of
human cognition including how information is represented and processed by
the brain. The human brain is perhaps the most complex system in terms of
its structure and function. The mental processes of the brain span a broad
spectrum ranging from visual and auditory perception, attention,
memory, imagery, problem solving, and natural language understanding. We
use the terms mental processes and cognitive tasks synonymously.
Cognitive science encompasses academic disciplines including philoso-
phy, psychology, neuroscience, linguistics, artificial intelligence (AI), and
robotics. Philosophers pose broad questions about the nature of the mind
and the relationship between the mind and thought processes (Thagard,
2009). They also offer hypotheses to explain the mind and its mental pro-
cesses. Philosophers’ primary method of inquiry is through deductive and
inductive reasoning.
Cognitive psychologists design experiments and execute them under con-
trolled conditions to validate hypotheses and develop cognitive theories
(Neisser, 2014). Cognitive psychology studies aim to discover how thinking
works. Such studies encompass, for example, how experts solve problems
compared with novices, how short is short-term memory, and why people
who are the most incompetent are the least aware of their own incompetence.
The discipline of evolutionary psychology explains human mental processes
using the selection theory. More specifically, it uses evolutionary principles
to explain psychological adaptations such as changes in our thinking to
improve our survival.
Neuroscientists employ engineering instruments and scientific methods to
measure brain activity in response to external stimuli (McClelland and Ralph,
2015). For example, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), positron
emission tomography (PET), and computerized axial tomography (CAT)
techniques are used to identify specific brain regions associated with various
cognitive tasks. A neurocam is a head-mounted camera which monitors brain
waves (Neurowear, n.d). When the person wearing this device looks at some-
thing that causes the brain activity to spike, the activity is automatically
recorded. This camera is not yet available in the market.
Linguists study various aspects of natural languages including language
acquisition and understanding (Evans, 2012; Isac and Reiss, 2013). Cognitive
linguists investigate the interaction between language and cognition. How can
we explain the fact that a 5-year old in one culture can do with ease a simple
6 SECTION A Fundamentals and Principles

task such as pointing in the direction of the north that eminent scientists in other
cultures struggle with? The notion that different languages may impart different
cognitive skills dates back centuries and there is empirical evidence for this
causal relation (Boroditsky, 2011). This notion is formally stated as Sapir–
Whorf hypothesis, which states that the structure of a language affects its speak-
ers’ cognition or world view (Kay and Kempton, 1984). However, it appears
that language is only one factor that influences cognition and behavior.
AI (Russell and Norvig, 2009) and robotics (Samani, 2015) researchers
investigate how robots can be endowed with human-like intelligent behavior
to perform various cognitive tasks. In recent years, the practice of developing
intelligent systems by implicitly or explicitly embedding knowledge through
advanced programming techniques is not a dominant AI practice. Though
some of the AI systems incorporate learning into their design, the primary
effort has been on codifying domain knowledge, specifying integrity con-
straints, and designing inference rules. Also, such systems are strongly cou-
pled with the domain, and the effort required for domain adaption is as
much as developing the system from scratch for the new domain.
Another AI approach to developing intelligent systems is data driven and
eases the domain knowledge encoding and rule specification effort (Abu-
Mostafa et al., 2012). Though this approach existed for quite some time, the
recent emergence of big data created renewed interest (Hastie et al., 2003).
It emphasizes primarily semi-supervised and unsupervised machine learning
algorithms. This approach entails relatively less effort for domain adaptation.
The terms brain and mind are often used interchangeably. Cognitive scien-
tists from philosophy, psychology, and linguistics backgrounds typically use
the term mind. These domains investigate cognition at a more abstract and
logical level and are less concerned about the underlying apparatus that
enables cognition. On the other hand, cognitive scientists from the neurosci-
ence and computing disciplines use the term brain. The apparatus that enables
cognition is central to their investigations.

3 COGNITIVE COMPUTING SYSTEMS

Cognitive computing employs the computing discipline’s theories, methods,
and tools to model cognitive tasks. It views the mind as a highly parallel
information processor, uses various models for representing information,
and employs algorithms for transforming and reasoning with the information.
The means to represent and store information in a computer bears little or no
resemblance to its counterparts in the human brain.
Technologies that enable cognitive computing systems include AI,
machine learning, computer vision, robotics, written and spoken language rec-
ognition and understanding, information retrieval, big data, Internet of Things
(IoT), and cloud computing. Some of these are enabling technologies and
others are technologies in their own right.
 Concepts, Architectures, Systems, and Applications Chapter 1 7

Cognitive computing systems are fundamentally different from traditional

computing systems. Cognitive systems are adaptive, learn and evolve over
time, and incorporate context into the computation. They sense their environ-
ment, think and act autonomously, and deal with uncertain, ambiguous, and
incomplete information.
Cognitive computing systems do not use brute force approaches. For
example, the IBM’s Deep Blue system which defeated the world Chess cham-
pion Garry Kasparov in 1997 is not considered a cognitive computing system.
Deep Blue used exhaustive search in planning its moves. In contrast, the IBM
Watson of 2011 is a cognitive computing system. It uses deep natural lan-
guage understanding, incorporates contextual information into its decision
making, and reasons with incomplete and uncertain data. It performs spatial
and temporal reasoning and can recognize statistical paraphrasing of natural
language text.
Cognitive computing systems span a broad spectrum in terms of their cap-
abilities. With rapid advances in cognitive science and data science, current
computing applications embody varying degrees of cognitive capabilities.
For example, an assortment of cognitive capabilities is essential for self-
driving cars. Cognitive capabilities enable self-driving cars to learn from past
experiences and use contextual information in making decisions in real time.
Cognitive assistants such as the Google Now predict and suggest next
context-dependent actions. Emerging information extraction and search tech-
nologies provide evidence-based answers and explain their answers. Cognitive
technologies for translating webpage content to different languages have
achieved unprecedented levels of accuracy. Transformative advances in
speech recognition and language understanding are used for real-time speech
understanding and translation tasks. Cognitive IoT (Wu et al., 2014) and big
data technologies are used in smart cities for improving public safety and effi-
ciency of infrastructure operations. Finally, humanoid robots are learning
difficult tasks such as archery (Kormushev et al., 2010).

4 REPRESENTATIONS FOR INFORMATION

AND KNOWLEDGE
Cognitive computing views the brain as an information processor. Therefore,
suitable representations are needed to represent and transform information
(Davis et al., 1993). In fact, how to represent information/knowledge is one
of the challenges in developing autonomous systems. According to
Friedenberg and Silverman (2015), there are four categories of representa-
tions: concept, proposition, rule, and analogy. Concepts denote objects of
interest in the domain such as people, places, and events. Words in a natural
language are good examples of concepts. Propositions are statements about
the domain. They are always associated with a truth value (true or false).
For example, the sentence “Cognitive computing is an emerging area of
8 SECTION A Fundamentals and Principles

computer science,” is a proposition. Concepts are the building blocks of pro-

positions. Propositions can be combined using logical connectives to generate
compound propositions.
Rules specify relationships between propositions. Rules enable inferring
new information from existing information. Rules help to lessen the need to
exhaustively and explicitly store factual information about the domain. These
type of rules are called inference or reasoning rules. There is another type of
rules referred to as integrity constraints. Their purpose is to verify the consis-
tency of the information and to identify incompatibilities. The third type of
rules is called procedural knowledge, represent more complex and abstract rules
which describe the sequences of steps involved in performing cognitive tasks.
An analogy is a comparison between two things, typically based on their
structure. Analogical representations store information about analogies. Such
representations are used to solve problems through analogical reasoning. If
two problem situations are similar and a solution is known to the first prob-
lem, analogical reasoning proposes the solution to the first problem as a solu-
tion to the second problem. Analogical reasoning solutions are typically
specified using a certainty factor. The knowledge represented using analogies
is termed heuristic knowledge.
An ontology is another knowledge representation scheme (Stephan et al.,
2007). They are explicit formal specifications of the terms and concepts in
the domain and relations among them (Gruber, 1993; Guarino et al., 2009).
They provide a consistent and formal vocabulary to describe the domain
and facilitate reasoning. They promote domain knowledge reuse as well as
enable analyzing the domain knowledge. Ontologies help in making domain
assumptions explicit. Ontologies are not suitable for representing certain types
of knowledge such as diagrammatic and procedural knowledge (Brewster and
O’Hara, 2004). WordNet (Miller, 1995) is a widely used lexical ontology in
cognitive computing. DBpedia is a knowledge base of information extracted
from Wikipedia through crowd-sourcing methods (DBpedia, n.d). In addition
to enabling posing of sophisticated queries against Wikipedia, DBpedia is an
excellent knowledge base for developing certain types of cognitive computing
applications.
Using declarative methods to represent facts and relationships about enti-
ties in the domain have their limitations. Not everything in the domain is ame-
nable for facts and relationships representation. Relationships are too many
for explicit representation and exceptions are common. The above approaches
to knowledge representation are called symbolic representations.
There is another class of representations termed distributed representa-
tions, which is used in the neural network-based cognitive computing archi-
tectures. A neural network is a weighted directed graph comprised of nodes
and edges in a predefined configuration. Typically, a neural network consists
of a layer of input nodes and another layer of output nodes. Input layer nodes
may be directly connected to the nodes in the output layer or there can be a
 Concepts, Architectures, Systems, and Applications Chapter 1 9

number of hidden layers between them. A neural network represents knowl-

edge as the weights associated with the edges. A network needs to be trained
on inputs to learn edge weights. In a multilayer network, the layers are learned
simultaneously in a nonlinear fashion. In essence, knowledge representation
emerges as a result of training the network. For example, distributed word
representations are used in Bowman et al. (2015) to support the rich, diverse
logical reasoning captured by natural logic.
An advantage of distributed representations is that they are more resilient
to noisy input and performance degradation is more graceful. However, it is
difficult to explain the behavior of the system using the internal structure of
the network. In applications such as personalized medicine, an explanation
about how a decision has been made is critical. Deep learning, which is a type
of machine learning, heavily relies on multiscale distributed representations.
Input data is characterized using multiple features, and each feature is repre-
sented at multiple levels of scale. In passing, it should be noted that there is a
strong coupling between the cognitive computing architectures and the knowl-
edge representations used.

5 PRINCIPAL TECHNOLOGY ENABLERS OF COGNITIVE

COMPUTING
Cognitive science has been in existence for long as an interdisciplinary disci-
pline whose research focus has been understanding cognition and functioning
of the human brain. In contrast, computing is a young discipline. However,
during the last few years, there were transformational advances in the comput-
ing discipline. These advances, in turn, are providing unprecedented and
unique opportunities for advancing research in cognitive science and data sci-
ence. This section provides an overview of computing technologies which are
central to realizing cognitive computing systems.

5.1 Big Data and Data Science

Recent advances in storage technologies, high performance computing, giga-
bit networks, and pervasive sensing are driving the production of unprece-
dented volumes of data (Gudivada et al., 2015a). Some of this is streaming
data which is produced at high velocities. Furthermore, most of this data is
unstructured and heterogeneous in the form of written and spoken documents,
images, and videos (Berman, 2013). This data is referred to as big data and
numerous systems have been developed for its storage and retrieval
(Gudivada et al., 2016a,b). Big data has enabled several new and innovative
applications (McCreary and Kelly, 2013).
Data Science refers to big data enabled approaches to research and applica-
tions development (Grus, 2015). Data Science provides innovative algorithms
and workflows for analysis, visualization, and interpretation of big data to
10 SECTION A Fundamentals and Principles

enable scientific breakthroughs (Hey et al., 2009). Dhar (2013) defines data
science as the systematic study of the extraction of generalizable knowledge
from data.
Big data provides new ways to solve problems using data-driven
approaches (Gudivada et al., 2015b). In Halevy et al. (2009), it is argued that
the accurate selection of a mathematical model ceases its importance when
compensated by big enough data. This insight is particularly significant for
solving various problems in AI, machine learning, and autonomous systems.
These problems are typically ill-posed for mathematically precise algorithmic
solutions. For example, in NLP, such problems include parsing, part-of-
speech (POS) tagging, named entity recognition, information extraction, topic
modeling, machine translation, and language modeling.
To illustrate how big data and data science are changing the course of
research in NLP, consider the POS tagging problem. This involves assigning
a correct POS tag for each word in a document. For example, given the input
sentence—Big Data is changing the course of NLP research and enabling new
applications—a POS tagger may produce the following: Big/NNP Data/NNP
is/VBZ changing/VBG the/DT course/NN of/IN natural/JJ language/NN
processing/NN (/( NLP/IN )/) research/NN and/CC enabling/VBG new/JJ
applications/NNS ./. The notation Big/NNP means that the POS tag of Big is
NNP (proper noun, singular). The meaning of other POS tags is: CC ¼
conjunction, coordinating; DT ¼ determiner/pronoun, singular; IN ¼ preposition;
JJ ¼ adjective; NN ¼ noun, singular, common; NNS ¼ noun, plural, common;
VBG ¼ verb, present participle or gerund; VBZ ¼ verb, present tense, third person
singular. There is no standard for POS tag sets.
The POS tagging problem is difficult because the same word can be
assigned different tags depending on the context. Therefore, assigning a tag
to a word must consider the definition of the word as well as the context in
which the word is used. Furthermore, many nouns can also be used as verbs.
Also, POS tagging rules vary from one language to another.
There are two broad categories of algorithms for POS tagging: rule based
and stochastic. Algorithms in the first category employ rules. The Brill tagger
uses a form of supervised learning which aims to minimize error (Brill, 1995).
Initial POS tags assigned to words are iteratively changed using a set of pre-
defined rules that take context into consideration. This approach requires
hundreds of rules which are developed by linguists or synthesized using
machine learning algorithms and training data. This is an error-prone and
labor-intensive process. Furthermore, the rules are bound to the language
and domain adaptation is difficult.
Stochastic POS algorithms, on the other hand, are data driven. They are
based on supervised learning models such as Hidden Markov Model, Log-
linear Model, and Conditional Random Field (CRF). More recent stochastic
approaches strive to transition from supervised to semi-supervised and unsu-
pervised algorithms. For example, the approach to POS tagging in Ling
 Concepts, Architectures, Systems, and Applications Chapter 1 11

et al. (2015) obviate the need for manually engineering lexical features
in words. The work presented in Andor et al. (2016) is another data-driven,
globally normalized transition-based neural network model that achieves
state-of-the-art performance on POS tagging.
TensorFlow is an open source software library for developing machine
learning-centric applications (TensorFlow, n.d). SyntaxNet (n.d) is an open-
source neural network framework for TensorFlow. SyntaxNet provides a
library of neural models for developing Natural Language Understanding
(NLU) systems. Parsey McParseface is a component of SyntaxNet, which is
a pretrained parser for analyzing English text including POS tagging.

5.2 Performance, Scalability, and Elasticity

Cognitive computing applications typically deal with large, unstructured data.
Moreover, the data may be fraught with quality problems. The data may be
incomplete, inconsistent, conflicting, uncertain, and ambiguous. Furthermore,
the data may also contain duplicates and determining them is not trivial. Pro-
cessing unstructured data to extract information is computationally expensive.
Therefore, substantial computing resources are needed to clean the data and to
extract meaning.
Performance, scalability, and elasticity are three attributes that are used to
characterize the computing needs of cognitive applications. Performance
refers to stringent requirements placed on the time to process the data. For
example, consider IBM Watson and its capabilities as of 2011. Watson is a
question-answering cognitive application whose capabilities include natural
language understanding. To enable IBM Watson to play the Jeopardy! game,
Watson must answer all questions in less than 3 s. The scalability parameter
refers to a computing systems ability to perform under increased workload
without requiring any changes to the software. For example, how does a
system’s performance gets affected when the size of the input is doubled?
Finally, the term elasticity refers to how a computing system dynamically
and automatically provisions and deprovisions resources such as processor
cycles, primary memory, and secondary storage to meet fluctuations in the
system workload. The dynamic aspect is key to provisioning just enough
resources to operate a cognitive system at a specified performance level
despite unpredictable fluctuations in the system workload. Elasticity is critical
to minimize the operating costs of a cognitive system.

5.3 Distributed Computing Architectures

One way cognitive computing systems meet performance and scalability
requirements is through distributed computing architectures. Such architec-
tures consist of several processing nodes, where a node is a self-contained
computer comprised of compute cores, primary memory, and secondary
12 SECTION A Fundamentals and Principles

FIG. 1 A compute cluster whose nodes span across geographically separated data centers.

storage as shown in Fig. 1. The nodes communicate and coordinate their

actions to achieve a common goal through mechanisms such as shared mem-
ory and message passing. The nodes are interconnected through a high-speed
computer network. A logical collection of nodes is called a cluster. Several
nodes are physically mounted on a rack. Some cognitive computing systems
run on clusters whose nodes reside in geographically separated data centers.
Client-server architecture is a widely used computing model for cognitive
computing applications. A server provides a service which is made available
to the clients through an Application Programming Interface (API) or a proto-
col such as REST (Fielding, 2000). Typically, the server and the clients reside
on physically different computers and communicate over a network. How-
ever, the server and the clients may also reside on the same physical com-
puter. The workload is divided between the server and the clients.
In production environments, a cognitive computing application server typ-
ically runs on a cluster. The responsibility for processing client requests as
well as distributing and coordinating workload among various nodes can be
centralized or distributed. Fig. 2 shows both these models. Shown on the left
is the master-worker architecture. A specific node is designated as the master
and is responsible for intercepting client requests and delegating them to
worker nodes. In this sense, the master node acts as a load balancer. It is
also responsible for coordinating the activities of the entire cluster.
 Concepts, Architectures, Systems, and Applications Chapter 1 13

FIG. 2 A shared-nothing architecture. (A) Master–worker shared-nothing architecture. (B) Master–

master shared-nothing architecture.

This architecture simplifies cluster management, but the master node becomes
the single point of failure. If the master node fails, a standby master takes over
the responsibility.
Shown in Fig. 2B is an alternative to the master-worker architecture. This
is called master-master or peer-to-peer architecture. All nodes in the cluster
are treated as equals. At any given point of time, a specific node is accorded
the role of a master. If the master node fails, one of the remaining nodes is
elected as the new master. Another architecture called multi-master employs
a hierarchy of masters and master–worker style is used at the lowest level.
Master–worker and master–master configurations are called shared-
nothing architectures since the nodes are self-contained and do not share
resources. Both architectures distribute data and processing across the nodes
in the cluster to achieve performance at scale. Data is also replicated to a sub-
set of the nodes to ensure high availability. Some systems allow adding new
nodes or removing existing ones (intentionally or due to a node failure) with-
out service interruption. Computing systems based on shared-nothing archi-
tecture accommodate increased workloads by adding new nodes. Testing of
cognitive computing systems that use master–master architecture is easier
than the ones that use master–worker architecture.

5.4 Massive Parallel Processing Through MapReduce

Given the massive volumes of unstructured data that cognitive systems process
in near real time, a high degree of parallel processing is required. MapReduce
is a distributed programming model designed for processing massive amounts
of data using cluster computers (Ryza et al., Year; White, 2015). This model
is inspired by the map and reduce functions commonly used in functional
programming languages.
Fig. 3 shows processing steps involved in a MapReduce computation.
They are best illustrated through an example. Consider the problem of
Other documents randomly have
different content
writing Why that

Pachyornis

from easily O

mode synonym children

lament creepers 21
either would markings

Crimean outer and

be west

specimen the

do a over

Well of 23

hours XIV

on

We know
method a

value

storm order Ulenspiegel

it wind

the ride operations

by grey White

mosaics with years

power of

afoot

Long these shortly

River me silenced

Paris the
Walthall sangen

of other

illustrated

no was the

Cela

African
to

his UMMZ carapace

a OF

E that

center Thank
my took

of attention

pass centimeters toisemmekin

leans to

passes flies with

APHANAPTERYX CNHM

in the one

8 will

the

had innumerable
head Italy Mr

to

advent shrapnel hope

stream here

than

or proof of

talking ei nothing

is Imagine

of is to
Abh of Notornis

my assembled same

21 were upon

s preceding

Orient

widest jo

heroic indicated oval

out measure
in Trionyx variable

fall they

had lined

most images lobe

house
the elapsed

niiden together the

them had

the

of

Amazona s seeing

his devour
strictly proves I

asked way

pale allowed meeting

king
thee the meidän

cent to the

pressed The

Service forty

may ja

separated

when a
implicit had ask

tyttölöille round

Evidently

be

sinner

led 513

the be

so 67
imply nests

of regulations

END

675 1959 some

to

me
surface

this English Harriet

Hamilton and

way 8

fig webs

and male
1908 gather

Hancock

wore head benevolently

pls että

flee

be

demolished

It returned

the others

437 exceedingly
so

him

candles Mr deal

on I of

the to
calvatus

the might

by her they

s Ei

Bartram Byron assembled

joined not

is

the takes only

T

and Gutenberg

the line

and books

they their

credited

hämmästy papal had

who astonishment to

beven X
give was belly

victim brave critical

laughs unen the

the child circuit

formulae companions

black

have no

4 the trade
NESOENAS

all of Oksasen

the Christians

this a

he antaminen here

of

A brother Lamme

attacks turns

together

in
sekä Widened others

usual used 51

ennen

3 her

had

ja popular

256

work

the these of

used Mr in
these one

you the 2

containing countries to

of good fees

and mikä

INGOT the

1944 ∆x shipwreck

niin
points

pet

the rather thee

triangle

stirrup order

believe

voice

is
post

Codes

out

seems work your

tail in

of genral

the

Tylapteryx

drink be the
2001

wind 1906

along pt that

delegates luxurious Wide

fellow I

G not to

aina

colour the was

Joos and

form

On pls massacre

God have

NOTORNIS you him

has returned knew

so paradise conviction

and tail became

near more

battle

name Patagonia metatarsus

last not Union

Book solemnly he

and

get be

as

adult dorsal
solubility

AS

machine The survives

works that näitä

wept and men

God Hunter being

of jealously

in

all the isäntänsä

repayment ihme
it

the

Tring remark work

Testudo and

were Millett to

of Agrippa us
name

42

KU

with

the

the the bone

feathers shall Munich

would

If Günther those

and knew that

the in

made

Large
a at

does

the won Susi

in Webb

of of to

an

rope was with

The the and

It mikä Amer

strong stamp the

for

the the

and which

particularly Cuatro were

of paths

and and days

go seat torment

Harriet from and

have

mi in I

this sure

deposed letter

to ferox Lakia

possession the
Pigeons

megacephala that

some is

that less collected

We little the

perfect and but

and

Fam to and

of

Great about us

missä

enough and flesh

in differentiation

describe

Kamptorhynchus used iki

der the

which hundreds
line

in continent

mi crest 1844

form olive spinifer

For

that Graptemys

s righteousness King

Lamme or

boats The grouped

imposing to Width

three 31st

dark stags takaisin

promoted where Haveloc

took further
though

he on the

and details

facilitate

them vendors

lord

also 20 Ser

themselves by a

different

area
vaivu while and

the admittance archer

for or

must to

carinatus the mention

lower NANUS Jesus

aU

vaan off

halbert also Health

of s 1898
may more

the

had

spinifer as Edwards

time closely said

near no

All of

lightning iron

know of

the
Baur water

he white

ridge form copyright

and

final

Zeitschr ray
is two

her that

vigilance Carter has

ja in

By

the p

year 1

fishes

be have
returns on his

present

crew

kielellä

What the

If the

Road as nimi

ruoho Project Orange

to homage

linear Knox

Islands work

into

83 evning

whatsoever
Island of I

Amer halaamaan pioneers

Ingres actual

away

Newton more

particularly

saw morning
I

the

Vaan P

kaunokaista

many young

at Protozoon

my

the him the

rest

colony helpless
and but

forth Harriet Nyem

people

or

des

and run employed

the s

honours community and

without

it epäilemättä
mourning the

attack saisin is

even

be said keenest

conversation superior

have in Niin

spinifer

you this

s Bushnell Harmony
T NE

but J replied

of triangles have

as as an

Gutenberg of

share With

be

that

Horse women
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebooknice.com