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The Selected Poems of Osip Mandelstam New York
Review Books Classics 1st Edition Mandelstam Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Mandelstam, Osip
ISBN(s): 9781590170915, 1590170911
Edition: 1st
File Details: PDF, 6.97 MB
Year: 2004
Language: english
TRANSLATED BY
NEW YORK REVIEW BOOKS
GuEASyon rs

ite ere th PORMS

OF OSIP MANDELSTAM

OSIP MANDELSTAM (1891-1938) was born and raised in St. Peters-

burg, where he attended the prestigious Tenishev School, before
studying at the universities of St. Petersburg and Heidelberg and
at the Sorbonne. Mandelstam first published his poems in Apollyon,
an avant-garde magazine, in 1910, then banded together with Anna
Akhmatova and Nicholas Gumilev to form the Acmeist group, which
advocated an aesthetic of exact description and chiseled form, as
suggested by the title of Mandelstam’s first book, Stone (1913). Dur-
ing the Russian Revolution, Mandelstam left Leningrad for the
Crimea and Georgia, and he settled in Moscow in 1922, where his
second collection of poems, 7ristia, appeared. Unpopular with the
Soviet authorities, Mandelstam found it increasingly difficult to
publish his poetry, though an edition of collected poems did come
out in 1928. In 1934, after reading an epigram denouncing Stalin to
friends, Mandelstam was arrested and sent into exile. He wrote
furiously during these years, and his wife, Nadezhda, memorized
his work in case his notebooks were destroyed or lost. (Nadezhda
Mandelstam’s extraordinary memoirs of life with her husband, Hope
Against Hope and Hope Abandoned, published in the 1970s, later
helped to bring Mandelstam a worldwide audience.) In 1937, Man-
delstam’s exile ended and he returned to Moscow, but he was arrested
again almost immediately. This time he was sentenced to hard labor
in Siberia. He was last seen in a transit camp near Vladivostok.

CLARENCE BROWN was born in South Carolina in 1929. He

went to Duke, then to the Army Language School (Russian), then
to the University of Michigan (Linguistics), and then to Harvard
(Russian Literature). He taught at Princeton until his retirement in
1999. His study of Osip Mandelstam won the Phi Beta Kappa Gauss
Award for Criticism. Clarence Brown also served as cartoon editor
for the Saturday Review and created the comic strip Ollie. He now
lives in Seattle and writes a newspaper column, “Ink Soup.”

W.S. MERWIN was born in New York City in 1927 and grew up in
Union City, New Jersey, and in Scranton, Pennsylvania. From 1949
to 1951 he worked as a tutor in France, Portugal, and Majorca. He
has since lived in many parts of the world, most recently on Maui
in the Hawaiian Islands. He is the author of many books of poems,
prose, and translations and has received both the Pulitzer and the
Bollingen Prizes for poetry, among numerous other awards.
 OST
MANDELSTAM
SELECTED
POEMS
translated by
Clarence Brown
and
W.S. Merwin

NEW YORK REVIEW BOOKS

This is a New York Review Book
Published by The New York Review of Books
435 Hudson Street, New York, NY 10014
www.nyrb.com

Translation copyright © 1973 by Clarence Brown and W. S, Merwin

Translation of “Conversation about Dante” copyright © 1971 by Clarence Brown
and Robert Hughes; used by kind permission of the translators
All rights reserved.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Mandelshtam, Osip, 1891-1938.
[Poems. English. Selections]
The selected poems of Osip Mandelstam / translated by Clarence Brown and W. S.
Merwin.
p. cm. — (New York Review Books classics)
Includes index.
ISBN 1-59017-091-1 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Mandelshtam, Osip, 1891-1938—Translations into English. I. Brown,
Clarence, 1929— II. Merwin, W. S. (William Stanley), 1927— II]. Mandelshtam,
Osip, 1891-1938. Razgovor o Dante. English. IV. Title. V. Series.
PG3476.M355A23 2004
891.71'3—de22
2004014656

ISBN 978-1-59017-091-5

Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper.

TORO RSG
 CONTENTS

Introduction

Note on the Text

From Stone

From Tristia

From Poems (1928)

Poems of the Thirties

Conversation about Dante

Title and First Line Index

 INTRODUCTION

Osip Emilievich Mandelstam was born in Warsaw in January

1891, but his family removed so soon thereafter to the imperial
Russian capital, St. Petersburg, that it became, in every meaning
of the term save the literal one, his native city. His father was a
leather merchant whose ancestors came from Kurland. His
mother, born Flora Verblovskaya, was a relative of the famous
literary historian Vengerov and prided herself on her family’s
belonging to the intelligentsia. She herself was a teacher of
music, a love of which the most gifted of her three sons inherited.
The very fact of their residing in Petersburg testifies to the
privileged status of Mandelstam pére, for Jews were permitted
to do so only exceptionally.
We know little of Osip Mandelstam’s childhood aside from
what he himself recorded in his autobiographical work The Noise
of Time. True to its title, it concentrates more on the time than
on the young intelligence that was taking it in. But one carries
away much more from reading these deliberately blurred and
impressionistic pages than a sense of Russia’s mauve decade.
Writing at a time when there was little left for him to celebrate
in the contemporary city, when the very name of Peter’s capital
had already undergone the change through Petrograd to Lenin-
grad, he celebrated those images and events—the general ‘noise’
of a culture now dead—that he retained in his mind, and it is
from these that we can piece together some notion of his early
years. It is a notion made up of contradictions that are un-
resolved—perhaps unresolvable.
On the one hand there is all the melancholy paraphernalia of
the ‘dying age’—the ‘unhealthy tranquillity and deep provincial-
Vv
ism’ as Mandelstam put it, and the note of decay is one of the
constants of the book; but on the other hand, it is all depicted
with such stylistic brio, with such relish for the somehow festive
aplomb of Petersburg’s going down, accompanied by eternal con-
certs and military parades as counterpoints to the funeral pomps,
that the impression left is that of indelible joy. Upon all of this he
knew himself to be looking as an outsider, an onlooker from what
he called ‘the Judaic chaos’ of his family and its traditions:
But what had I to do with the Guards’ festivals, the monot-
onous prettiness of the host of the infantry and its steeds, the
stone-faced battalions flowing with hollow tread down the
Millionnaya, gray with marble and granite? All the elegant
mirage of Petersburg was merely a dream, a brilliant covering
thrown over the abyss, while round about there sprawled the
chaos of Judaism—not a motherland, not a house, not a
hearth, but precisely a chaos, the unknown womb world
whence I had issued, which I feared, about which I made
vague conjectures and fled, always fled.
Was it not, then, even more of a triumph that he should so have
possessed the Czar’s capital and made it his own? Beside such
paragraphs one must set the rest of the book: the string of French
and Swiss governesses who succeeded one another in the nursery,
sedate games in the Summer Garden, the treasures of Russian
literature—Pushkin in calico binding and ‘heavy’ Dostoevsky—
as furnished by the family bookcase, the music of Tchaikovsky
and Scriabin, concerts by Hofmann and Kubelik, the fine sand
of a Finnish summer resort, Vera Komissarzhevskaya’s theater,
and a richly particular gallery of human portraits. On balance,
one’s final impression of his childhood is that he spent it savoring
experience in an atmosphere that afforded him sufficient emo-
tional security and a certain clarity of self-definition. The
contrary assumption would make it more difficult to understand
that strength of character that sustained Mandelstam through
the tragic years that were to come.
It is a further testimony to his family’s standing that he gained
admission to the Tenishev School, an academy that managed to
vi
be not only thoroughly elite but also doctrinairely “democratic
and educationally very advanced. Vladimir Nabokov’s liberal
father would send the future great novelist to the same school
some ten years later (to leave memoirs of it predictably different
from those of Mandelstam); and another Jew who managed to be
admitted, Victor Zhirmunsky, would become one of Russia’s
greatest scholars and a loyal friend of his classmate Mandelstam
for the rest of his life. It was a hotbed of excellence.
From there he went abroad on the first of several trips to study
and travel in France, Italy, and Germany. His formal courses dur-
ing a semester spent at Heidelberg in 1909-1910 included lectures
on the philosophy of Kant and on Old French. On his return to
Petersburg he entered the University, though he never received
his degree. The very fact of his having been accepted as a student
was baffling for years, for a Jew could be admitted only with the
very highest academic credentials, and though Mandelstam had
greatly profited from the Tenishev School, his actual record
there was very indifferent. His widow recently revealed that he
had undertaken to be baptized a Lutheran somewhere in Finland
purely for the sake of being matriculated as a Christian. In later
life his attitude toward religion in general and Christianity in
particular would have forbidden so lightly considered a step, to
which he subsequently attached little importance.
By 1913, the year when Stone, his first book of poems, appeared,
Mandelstam was already known within the confines of the Peters-
burg literary world as a poet of unusual promise. Still, the little
green brochure struck his contemporaries as a kind of revelation.
It was something of a mystery where he had come from. The
reigning school was that of Russian Symbolism, which included
Alexander Blok, Mandelstam’s nearest competitor as Russia’s
greatest twentieth-century poet, and also Andrey Bely, Valery
Bryusov, Konstantine Balmont, Vyacheslav Ivanov, Zinaida
Gippius, and a great many others. There is a sense, indeed, in
which Symbolism included at one time or another a// the other
poets of Russia’s ‘Silver Age’ on either side of the century mark,
for it furnished an indispensable part of their education, and its
significance therefore greatly exceeds that ofits several successors.
vil
But this brief introduction is hardly the place for polemics, and
besides, there are many who find it genuinely consoling to
assign individual genius to a multiplicity of ‘schools’. Let us stick
to the prevailing categories.
Symbolism, then, which had arisen at about the time of Man-
delstam’s own entrance into the world, was now, on the arrival
of his first book, defunct as a unified movement. At the end of the
last century it had provided a crash course in poetic re-education
after Russian nineteenth-century verse, languishing under the
overpowering success of Russian nineteenth-century prose, had
seemed at times to aspire to prose itself, or else to retreat into the
mere prettiness of numbers. By the end of the first decade of this
century, the original Symbolist impulse towards reform of taste
and technique had become fragmented and drained off into various
neo-Romantic dead-ends such as diabolism, an exaggerated
absorption with the ego of the poet, various embarrassing forms
of the occult and mystical religion, and, in general, a sort of
hankering after the drastic for its own sake. Younger poets com-
ing into their maturity at this time inherited the Symbolist
rejuvenation of technique, but their elders’ preoccupations in
other fields left them cold, and the only other schools of modern
Russian poetry that deserve mention along with the Symbolists
took their departure. Mayakovsky and Khlebnikov were ‘Futur-
ists’. Mandelstam was an ‘Acmeist’.
I doubt that the programme of Acmeism, as originally formu-
lated, could ever be arrived at purely by means of induction, on
the evidence of the poems alone, for the poets who gathered for a
time under its banner were very different one from the other. The
leader was Nikolay Gumilev, and the only other poets of any
lasting consequence were Gumilev’s sometime wife, Anna Akh-
matova, and Mandelstam himself. The number of poems by
these people which, independently of all overt pronouncements,
might reasonably be compared on the basis of their formal and
thematic resemblance, so as to evince a distinctly separate move-
ment in poetry, is not large. Put in a few words, the Acmeists’
early declarations boil down to a desire for poems free of any
Symbolist nonsense about contact with other worlds. Images
vill
were to be concrete and sharply realized and the statement of
poems rigorously logical. Their strength, like that of Antaeus,
was to come from contact with the earth. Gumilev in particular
called for a virile, even feral, outlook on life and for a steady,
wholesome equilibrium in all things, but especially in the con-
struction of poems. For a notion of what Acmeism was or sup-
posed itself to be, it is tempting to send the English reader to a
source much closer to home: Ezra Pound’s list of ‘Don’ts for
Imagists’.
For it is hardly feasible to send him directly to the poems
translated here. Indeed, from reading the majority of these
poems either in Russian or in English one is more likely to con-
clude that most of the early tenets of Acmeism had been devised
for the express purpose of being ignored by Mandelstam. The
fact is that he had his own view of Acmeism, and it is a view that
only partly coincides with that outlined above. It also evolved
over a long period of time, during which it changed. In 1910 in an
essay on Francois Villon he had already sketched an Acmeist
poetic that antedated the later and better known formulations of
others. In 1937 Akhmatova reports him as having replied to some
heckler demanding a definition of Acmeism that it was ‘a home-
sickness for world culture’. This exhausted, defiant retort was his
last word on the subject, but it carries, of course, a good deal
more emotional than theoretical weight. In between these dates
he found occasions for more extended and reasoned deliberations,
the last fully composed of which appears in an essay of 1922,
where Mandelstam’s Acmeism emerges as half poetics and half
moral doctrine. He now called it, revealingly enough, by a new
name—the ‘organic school’. While it is naturally riot possible to
treat the full complexity of his thought here, the reader of the
following pages will need to know at least this: that the ‘logic’
so insistently called for by the syndics of the movement has now
far more to do with the intuitive and purely verbal logic of inner
association—with the logic, say, of Mallarmé—than with the
rather commonsense logic of discursive statement to be found in
Gumilev. As for the moral component of Mandelstam’s Acmeism,
that might without undue distortion be put as a kind of
ix
democratic humanism, which does not differ greatly from what
the Acmeists always, explicitly and by inference, desired.
However one resolves the question whether Acmeism or any
other -ism ever existed except on the paper of its manifestoes, it
is clear that Acmeists existed, for that is what they were called by
themselves and others. They were a group of poets, most of them
young and unfledged at the time, who clustered around the
commanding personality of Gumilev. When the latter enlisted
for the World War, which he did at the first opportunity, he left
the group with no natural center, and that was the end of
Acmeism in its public and least arguable form—their frequent
gatherings to read and discuss their own work. Mandelstam was
not conscripted, and of course did not enlist, but he did engage in
various home-front activities such as organizing benefit evenings
of poetry. Stone appeared in a second, expanded edition in 1916.
The deprivations of the War and the Revolution frequently
drove Mandelstam to the more tranquil and well-provided south
of Russia, especially to the Crimea. Returning to the north at the
end of the Civil War, he brought with him a new book, Tristia,
which was published in 1922. It was the book of a poet who had
passed through the schooling of the Symbolists, testified to by the
early poems of Stone, and the more doctrinaire formulations of
primitive Acmeism, to achieve a voice uniquely his own. Mandel-
stam looked over the heads of his immediate preceptors, as it
were, to Derzhavin (1743-1816) and Tyutchev (1803-1873),
poets who combine exquisite verbal power with a ceremonious,
even oratorical, solemnity of manner. The following year, 1923,
both his collections of poetry were brought out in new editions
and he was now a poet of considerable and widespread fame. He
was also married. His wife, Nadezhda Yakovlevna, is now herself
known throughout the world for her moving memoir of their last
years together, published in English translation as Hope Against
Hope (1970). It is chiefly owing to her that our knowledge of
Mandelstam’s subsequent life is infinitely fuller and more exact
than that of his former life.
It became increasingly difficult for him to make a living—not
that it had ever been easy. But now the causes were different.
x
Like practically all the intellectuals of Russia, Mandelstam had
welcomed the Revolution, but from a very early time he had also
mistrusted the Bolshevik usurpers of it, as had most of the other
Acmeists. Gumilev’s life had ended before one of the firing squads
of the new regime in 1921, and all his former associates were auto-
matically suspect. Employment began to depend more and more
upon one’s being certifiably loyal, and Mandelstam, who took
few pains to conceal his real feelings, was flagrantly not so.
Editors of journals and publishing houses were increasingly
warned to be on their guard against printing the work of the
class enemy. In 1928 Mandelstam published three separate books:
Poems, which contained his previous two collections plus the
poems written between 1921 and 1925; On Poetry, his collected
critical essays; and The Egyptian Stamp, his collected prose. That
would make the year seem to be the summit of his career so far,
but the appearance is very deceptive. For some three or four
years before that he had been forced to live by writing children’s
books, by doing hack translations and journalism, and by what-
ever odd jobs he could pick up in the government publishing
houses. His standing among connoisseurs of poetry had never
been higher, but the Soviet state viewed him with increasing
suspicion and malevolence.
In spite of this, he had a very highly placed protector in the
person of Nikolay Bukharin, who liked Mandelstam and valued
his poetry. It was only through his intervention that Mandelstam
survived a plot that was meant to remove him altogether from
the profession of letters. In the same year (1928) when three of
his own books appeared, Mandelstam brought out Charles de
Coster’s Thyl Ulenspiegel, which he had been commissioned by a
government publishing house to edit on the basis of two existing
Russian translations. When it appeared, however, Mandelstam’s
name was printed on the title-page as translator. This provided
the grounds for a campaign of vilification against him in the press.
One of the translators all but accused him of plagiarism, and
attacked the editorial work itself as slovenly and inaccurate. 'To
readers in the West this may all seem very small potatoes, but it
is necessary to remember, first, that Russian polemics can reach
xl
a level of personal invective so outrageous as to be almost literally
intolerable, and second, that public defamation of character was
only the preliminary step in a series that would end, as Mandel-
stam foresaw, with his exclusion from the right to publish at all.
Furthermore, where his personal honor was concerned, Mandel-
stam was as touchy as Pushkin. The accusations against him,
which were after all merely the public culmination of a long
series of private affronts, drove him to paroxysms of rage. Bukh-
arin finally had the campaign stopped and arranged for Mandel-
stam and his wife to be sent off to distant Armenia, ostensibly
for the purpose of reporting on how that country was enjoying
sovietization but actually to be out of harm’s way. This worked,
but the shock of what he had endured during the last years of the
Twenties dried up the sources of his poetry for an agonizing
period of five years—his ‘deaf-mute’ period, as he called it. On the
way back from Armenia in 1930 he cured himself by a desperate
act of self-therapy: a strange and completely unclassifiable work
known as Fourth Prose. A blend of autobiography, criticism, and
sheer excoriation, it is Mandelstam’s summation of his defense
against all the forces that seemed bent on silencing him. Poetry
returned, and so did another work of prose (this one publishable,
which in Russia Fourth Prose never has been), a work called
Journey to Armenia. Heavily censored, it appeared in a journal in
1933, the last time that his work would appear in the Soviet
press for some three decades of ‘non-existence’.
The story of Mandelstam’s final years, thanks to his widow’s
obstinate courage and her own extraordinary powers as a writer,
is now widely known. He was arrested in 1934 for having com-
posed a poem in which he made grim fun of Stalin, the ‘Kremlin
mountaineer’, and his relish for torture and execution (see page
69). Someone informed on him and he was immediately clapped
into prison, where he underwent intensive interrogation and
psychological and physical torment. Friends intervened in so far
as they dared or were able—his protector Bukharin was to be
among the first victims of Stalin’s purge later in the decade—
and by some miracle the intervention worked. The poet was not
shot, as everyone reasonably supposed that he would be, but
xu
exiled, first to a small town in the Urals (where, half insane from
the prison experience, he attempted to kill himself) and later on
in the provincial town of Voronezh. His wife was at his side
from the moment he was put on the train into exile, and her
presence literally kept him alive through his remaining years,
for his anxiety in her slightest absence was so great as to
threaten nervous and physical collapse. They lived on the
donations of friends, for the most part. The bouts of mental
suffering seem to have been even worse than the physical depri-
vations; Mandelstam lived in the expectation of imminent
peril.
It would be natural to imagine that the poems composed at
this period would all be haggard replicas of his experience, but
this is not so. There are nightmares of colossal atrocities—
‘mounds of human heads’—on a scale befitting the actual crimes
of Stalin. But the visitations of poetry were occasions far too
sustaining and joyous for Mandelstam to derive no more from
them than that.
Opulent poverty, regal indigence!
Live in it calmly, be at peace.
Blessed are these days, these nights,
and innocent is the labor’s singing sweetness.
The ‘labor’ was that of poetry, and in the employment of his art
Mandelstam took what, in the light of his circumstances, one is
tempted to call an incorrigible delight. There was his favorite
bird, the goldfinch, its colors and attitude, to be turned into
words, or a boy on a sled, or a Breughel-like winter scene. It was
not from mere self-indulgence that his pleasure arose, for Mandel-
stam, like every Russian poet worthy of the name, felt that his
gift imposed upon him an obligation: the people needed poetry
no less than bread.
The people need poetry that will be their own secret
to keep them awake forever,
and bathe them in the bright-haired wave
of its breathing.
xill
 The term of exile expired in May 1937, and the Mandelstams
returned to Moscow only to find that they had lost the right to
‘living-space’ upon which Nadezhda had maintained a tenuous
hold. Homeless and unable to find work, the following twelve-
month is a nightmare of wandering and terror: the wave of
second arrests, as they were called, was under way. Mandel-
stam’s condition worsened. He had two heart attacks. Finally, in
May 1938, they received the visitors whom they had long
expected. Mandelstam’s sentence ‘for counter-revolutionary
activities’ was five years of hard labor (he had been seized at a
rural sanatorium where he was recuperating). Held for a while in
prison, he was put in the autumn on one of the prisoner trains
that were then plying between European Russia and its remote
eastern regions. He seems to have been quite insane at times,
though there were lucid intervals. It must have been during one
of these that he wrote a last letter in October, 1938, a scrap of
brown paper asking to be sent warm clothes and money and
saying that he was being held at a transit camp pending shipment
to a permanent one. Alexander Mandelstam received notice that
his brother had died—of ‘heart failure’—on 27 December 1938.

AN AFTERTHOUGHT ON THE TRANSLATION

It was my intention, and hope, that the foregoing should suffice

as a minimal introduction to the poet whose altered voice fills the
following pages. The publisher—and, even more cogently, my
co-translator—have now convinced me against what may yet
prove to have been my better judgment that many readers of
such a volume as this will be legitimately curious as to how it
came into being. Hence this brief word concerning not so much
the voice that was there to be altered, nor yet its altered form,
but the process of alteration itself.
For more years than I find it comfortable to admit I have been
preparing a study of Mandelstam’s life and poetry (now to be
published by Cambridge University Press under the title Mandel-
stam), and in the course of that I developed a habit of preparing
XIV
worksheets on each poem. These included, along with notes on
every aspect of the poem that struck me, notations of variant
readings, semantic nuances of the diction, peculiarities of the
prosody, and so on, a plain English translation, often with numer-
ous alternative translations. Thus, when W. S. Merwin proposed
to me in the spring of 1971 that we might collaborate on an
English translation of Mandelstam (Russian, by some inadvert-
ance, having been omitted from his impressive array of languages),
it struck me that much of my own share of the work had already
been done. This proved, though only very partially, to be true,
for the first stage in our work was my simply turning over to
Merwin my worksheets. From these, with a truly heroic effort of
decipherment, he produced first versions. In the intervening
couple of years we have, with a pleasure that I trust was mutual,
debated the early results, sometimes syllable by syllable, often
by painstaking correspondence and more often still by personal
meetings in Princeton and London. Bargains were struck, but no
compromises were undertaken, I hope, with the English poem
that was trying to be born out of Mandelstam’s Russian.
The poems that resulted are of course no longer calques of the
original (though an occasional happy line or two from the work-
sheet did sometimes survive), but we have not consciously
invented thoughts or images that the original could in no sense
warrant. It need scarcely be said, I suppose, that we never con-
sidered the folly of trying to convey to the ear of our English
readers the sounds of the Russian.
Here is an example that will perhaps save much explanation.
The beginning of the Russian original of No. 394 might be
brought over into a painfully literal English as follows:

Limping automatically (or involuntarily] on the empty earth

with [her] irregular, sweet gait,
she walks, slightly preceding
[her] quick girlfriend and the youth one year older [or
younger] than she.
The straitened freedom of [her] animating affliction
draws her [on].
 And it seems that a lucid surmise
wants to linger in her gait—
(the surmise] that this spring weather
is for us the first mother [i.e., Eve] of the grave’s vault
and [that] this will be forever going on.

I am of course unable, and have no desire, to enquire into what

passed through Merwin’s mind as he wrestled with something
like the above (and he is, by the way, blameless for this Introduc-
tion), but most literate readers, I think, could account for the
clock that does not occur in Mandelstam’s poem. It is a concrete
image (very Mandelstamian, by lucky chance) that ¢e//s in the
line as one of those limp adverbs would not, and its tick can be
discerned in the quick and back later on. Why is it her left leg? I
suppose because I told Merwin that the particular verb for limp-
ing normally occurs in a phrase specifying which leg is lame, and
I see from the worksheet that I have noted that Natasha Shtempel,
to whom the poem was written in 1937, is in fact lame in her /eft
leg. I spent several delightful days with this now aged lady in
1966 and think I know what Mandelstam meant by ‘sweet’, but
the word has inconvenient overtones in English—at least for
Merwin. It strikes me that ‘drags at her foot’ is a marvellous
visual and kinetic image for the rather cerebral sense of the literal
version (there is an entirely different excellence in the Russian,
where the cerebral thought is beautifully concretized by lines
that do not so much describe as enact Natasha Shtempel’s way of
walking). The repetition of ‘she must know’ strikes me as
effective in this general context of dire periodicity. There is noth-
ing in the Russian to account for it other than the dire periodicity,
though it occurs to me that my having had to repeat ‘surmise’
for the sake of the sense might have helped to prompt it. But it is
pointless to go on praising Merwin’s superiority—not over the
original, but over the exiguous sense remaining from it on my
worksheet. One final note: ‘go on’ results from an altered read-
ing (in the first, now superseded, edition of Vol. 1 of the New
York edition, the Russian word meant ‘begin’).
Would Mandelstam approve? I cannot quite bring myself up
XV1
to the presumption of answering in his name, so I shall rather
let him answer for himself by an account of his own practice.
Mandelstam also translated. Like most of the Russian poets
who brought about the great reflowering of their art around the
turn of the century, he was at home in the languages of culture,
and translation was a part of his response to the world. With the
advent of the bad times that I have mentioned, when his own
work was being systematically rejected by ‘vigilant’ editors, he
was driven to translating in order to live. He had to translate
under sweatshop conditions, the texts assigned him being the
trash in vogue at the time with the authorities. This loathsome
hackwork even crowded out his own muse. He had to endure
reading here and there in official reference works, chronicles of
the literary scene and so on, that he had given up poetry and
“gone over to translating’, a legend that clung to his name for
years.
But even under these conditions he sometimes managed to
translate in response to the old genuine urgency—out of love.
In 1933 he turned four sonnets of Petrarch into Russian. They
remained unpublished and indeed unknown until the late Vic-
tor Zhirmunsky, his old Tenishev classmate, gave them to me in
1962, whereupon they came out in the New York edition of his
works. I had received the texts alone, with no indication of where
the originals might be among Petrarch’s hundreds of sonnets, so
my first concern was naturally to seek these out. It was an awful
headache. No sooner would I have identified this or that image
in an opening line or two than some wild divergence would con-
vince me that Mandelstam must have been working from another
original. The ‘other original’ stubbornly refusing to turn up, I
was driven back to my starting point, and had to conclude what
is the point of this little narrative: that Mandelstam had trans-
lated Petrarch not into Russian, but into Mandelstam.
Lest any reader think that by lending myself to this under-
taking I have switched sides in the Lowell-Nabokov debate,
let me say, first, that he should inspect my several tributes to
Nabokov, and secondly, that that controversy, now that time
had dissipated the fog of animus, can be seen for what it was, a
XV
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Environmental Science - Teaching Resources
First 2022 - College

Prepared by: Professor Johnson

Date: July 28, 2025

Methodology 1: Case studies and real-world applications

Learning Objective 1: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 2: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 3: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Learning Objective 4: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 4: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Learning Objective 5: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 5: Historical development and evolution
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 6: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Definition: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 10: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Test 2: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 11: Case studies and real-world applications
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 13: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 13: Experimental procedures and results
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 19: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 20: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Summary 3: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Important: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 21: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Literature review and discussion
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 23: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 23: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Historical development and evolution
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 25: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 25: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 27: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 28: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Topic 4: Literature review and discussion
Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 34: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 36: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
References 5: Key terms and definitions
Example 40: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 43: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 46: Ethical considerations and implications
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Practice Problem 47: Key terms and definitions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 48: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Module 6: Key terms and definitions
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 52: Study tips and learning strategies
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 53: Key terms and definitions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 54: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 56: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 58: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Key terms and definitions
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Background 7: Literature review and discussion
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 62: Study tips and learning strategies
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 63: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 65: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 67: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 68: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Test 8: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 71: Key terms and definitions
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Literature review and discussion
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 74: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 75: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 77: Current trends and future directions
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 78: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Practical applications and examples
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 80: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Abstract 9: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 81: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 83: Current trends and future directions
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 85: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 85: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 86: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 87: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Ethical considerations and implications
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 89: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 89: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Quiz 10: Comparative analysis and synthesis
Remember: Practical applications and examples
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Note: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Example 95: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 96: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 98: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 99: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Literature review and discussion
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Discussion 11: Practical applications and examples
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 101: Case studies and real-world applications
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 102: Ethical considerations and implications
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 106: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 110: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Introduction 12: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 111: Historical development and evolution
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
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