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Gendered Touch
 Nuncius Series
Studies and Sources in the Material and Visual History of Science

Series Editors

Marco Beretta (University of Bologna)

Sven Dupré (Utrecht University / University of Amsterdam)

VOLUME 9

The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/nuns

Gendered Touch
Women, Men, and Knowledge-Making
in Early Modern Europe

Edited by

Francesca Antonelli
Antonella Romano
Paolo Savoia

LEIDEN | BOSTON
Cover illustration: Edmé-Gilles Guyot, Neue physikalische und mathematische Belustigungen. Bey Eberhard
Kletts sel. Wittwe: Augsburg, 1772 (Frontispiece).

The Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available online at https://catalog.loc.gov

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022012126

Typeface for the Latin, Greek, and Cyrillic scripts: “Brill”. See and download: brill.com/brill-typeface.

issn 2405-5077
isbn 978-90-04-51260-3 (hardback)
isbn 978-90-04-51261-0 (e-book)

Copyright 2022 by Francesca Antonelli, Antonella Romano and Paolo Savoia. Published by Koninklijke
Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.
Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Hotei, Brill Schöningh, Brill Fink,
Brill mentis, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Böhlau and V&R unipress.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system,
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addressed to Koninklijke Brill NV via brill.com or copyright.com.

This book is printed on acid-free paper and produced in a sustainable manner.

Contents

Acknowledgements vii
List of Figures viii
Notes on Contributors xii

Introduction: Gender, History, and Science in Early Modern Europe 1

Francesca Antonelli and Paolo Savoia

Part 1
The Gendered Construction of Textual Traditions:
The Case of Maria the Alchemist

1 Maria the Alchemist and Her Famous Heated Bath in the Arabo-Islamic
Tradition 21
Lucia Raggetti

2 Maria’s Practica in Early Modern Alchemy 40

Matteo Martelli

Part 2
Domestic and Apothecary Workshops: Food and Pharmacy
in the Seventeenth Century

3 Cheese-making and Knowledge-making: Women’s Expertise and

Men’s Explanation 69
Paolo Savoia

4 Making Marmalade and Conserving Fruit within the Architecture of

Seventeenth-Century Courtly Entertainment 92
Juliet Claxton

5 Women in Secrets: Drug Inventions between Household, Guilds and Small

Scale-Economy 119
Sabrina Minuzzi
vi Contents

Part 3
Eighteenth-century Spaces of Gendered Knowledge

6 The “Anonymous Neapolitan”: Faustina Pignatelli and the Bologna

Academy of Sciences 161
Paula Findlen

7 Note-taking and Self-promotion: Marie-Anne Paulze-Lavoisier as a

Secrétaire (1772–1792) 220
Francesca Antonelli

8 Musical Bodies: Materiality, Gender, and Knowledge in Musical

Performance in 18th-century France 245
Amparo Fontaine

Postface
On Hands, Feelings, and a Nose: Bodies Beyond Gender as Transdisciplinary
Tools in Science 283
Paola Govoni

Index 303
Acknowledgements

The essays presented here are the result of a collective discussion, which much
benefited from the presence of scholars who kindly accepted to comment
on our papers. We thus wish to thank those who were present at the confer-
ence and shared with us their thoughts, in particular Elisa Andretta, Monica
Azzolini, Marco Beretta, Paola Bertucci, Simon Dagenais, Paola Govoni, Cynthia
Klestinec, Anne Rasmussen, Silvia Sebastiani and Stéphane van Damme.
Figures

1.1 Ibn Sallūm’s two ways of distilling through the technique of bain-marie. 1.1.a.
First method of distillation using a bain-marie. The inner receptacle is deeply
immersed in the water that is contained in the outer receptacle. From
bottom to top: copper vessel filled with water (A, ināʾ min al-nuḥās), the
gourd (B, qarʿa) is inserted into an opening on the flat lid (C, ġiṭāʾ musaṭṭaḥ),
the alembic is attached to it (D, inbīq), and this, in turn, is attached to the
receptacle that collects the distillate (E, qābila). 1.1.b. Second method of
distillation using a bain-marie. The inner receptacle is suspended above the
water by means of a stand (F, manṣib) that is placed inside the outer receptacle.
The upper part of the distillation device remains the same 26
2.1 MS Marcianus gr. 299, fol. 195v as reproduced and interpreted by Marcelin
Berthelot, Charles-Émile Ruelle, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (Paris,
1887–1888), vol. 1, p. 146 41
2.2 Solar calcination of antimony, Le Fèvre, Traicté de la chymie (Paris, 1660) 47
2.3 Triple vessel in Newton’s handwritten copy of Flamel’s Exposition of the
Hierogyphical Figures (Ms. Var. 259), fol. 3.1v. The Chymistry of Isaac Newton:
http://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/newton/mss/norm/ALCH00200 49
2.4 Daniel Stolz von Stolzenberg, Hortolus Hermeticus (Frankfurt, 1637), p. 9:
Emblems dedicated to Hermes, Adfar, Cleopatra and Medera 61
3.1 Women squeezing whey out of the mass of curd. Royal Society, CI.P/3i/22 79
3.2 Tacuinum sanitatis: Recocta. Cod. Ser. n. 2644, fol. 62r. Vienna, Österreichische
Nationalbibliothek 80
3.3 Women milking cows and making butter and cheese. Cycle of the Months,
June (detail). Castle of Buonconsiglio, Trent, The Month of June
(late fourteenth century) 81
4.1 The Countess of Arundel, Daniel Mytens, c.1618. National Portrait Gallery,
London 96
4.2 Wenceslaus Hollar, Tart Hall, c.1640, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam 101
4.3 Francisco Zurbaran, The House in Nazareth, c.1630, Cleveland Museum
of Art 105
4.4 Two women and a man work at distilling plants and herbs, Wellcome
Collection 108
4.5 Diego Velazquez, Old Woman Cooking Eggs, c.1618, National Galleries
Scotland 110
4.6 Brass chafing dish, c.17th century, Victoria & Albert Museum 112
Figures ix

4.7 Abraham Hondius, The Monkey and the Cat, c.17th century, Cleveland Museum
of Art 116
5.1 Venetian apothecaries 125
5.2 Rome, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, R.I.IV.1551 (int. 86), Marietta Colochi’s
anti-plague recipes 130
5.3 Wellcome Library, Ms. 3777, Margaret Paston’s Recipes Book, f. 26v. One of the
many occasions on which Margaret speaks of her ‘fondaria’ or ‘foundry’ 139
5.4 Wellcome Library, Ms. 3777, c. 3r. Reference to the baker’s oven and to the
gemstone grinding wheel used in the preparation of bezuard powder
balls 140
5.5 Wellcome Library, Ms. 3777, c. 7v. Reference to the use of the baker’s
oven 140
5.6 Wellcome Library, Ms. 3777, c. 36r. Transmission of important knowledge to the
heirs who, in Margaret’s hopes, will run her foundry 140
5.7 Wellcome Library, Ms. 3777, c. 64v. Margaret says she is confused and distracted
while her writing becomes more cursive 140
5.8 Wellcome Library, Ms. 3777, c. 91r. Medicinal remedies from the protomedico
Iseppo Ton 141
5.9 Wellcome Library, Ms. 3777, c. 126r. The recipes become shorter and shorter,
the cartulation is misspelled (from c.1010 [but 110] to the end of the remedies,
c.1027 [but 127]) 141
5.10 Gazzetta veneta of 4 June 1760, p. 4. Advertisement in which Lucietta Visomio
announces that she is producing and keeping for sale at home the well-known
plaster cerotto del Sig. Antonio 149
5.11 Archivio di Stato di Venezia, Sanità, Rapporti medici, b. 588, 24 agosto 1771.
Protomedico Giambattista Paitoni enthusiastically evaluates Elisabetta Amorosi
Manini’s antiscorbutic remedy 151
6.1 The Bologna Academy of Sciences. De Bononiensi Scientiarum et Artium
Instituto atque Academia Commentarii (Bologna, 1748) 164
6.2 The Palazzo Carafa dei Maddaloni in Naples. Pompeo Sarnelli and Antonio
Bulifon, Guida de’ forastieri: curiosi di vedere, e d’intendere le cose più notabili
della regal città di Napoli, e del suo amenissimo distretto (Naples, 1697 ed.),
engraving by Bulifon between pp. 44–45 166
6.3 The Academy of Monte Caprario founded by Francesco Carafa at Formicola.
Francesco Carafa, Il Caprario. Accademia di diversi rimatori, che nel medesimo
monte si radunarano (Naples, 1729) 172
6.4a–b Faustina Pignatelli’s anonymous solutions to four mathematical problems,
1734. [Faustina Pignatelli], “Problemata mathematica Neapoli ad Collectores
x Figures

Actorum Eruditorum transmissa,” Nova Acta Eruditorum 1 (January 1734):

28–34 179–180
6.5 Niccolò di Martino’s mathematics textbook written for Faustina Pignatelli,
1734. Niccolò De Martino, Elementa sectionum conicarum conscripta ad usam
Faustinae Pignatelli (Naples, 1734), 2 vols 182
6.6 Francesco Maria Zanotti’s dialogue on living force inspired by conversations
with Pignatelli and her philosophical circle in Naples. Francesco Maria Zanotti,
Della forza de’ corpi che chiamano viva (Bologna, 1752) 201
7.1 Experiments on diamonds, 22 October 1773. Paulze-Lavoisier’s handwriting.
Archives de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, Fonds Lavoisier, Registre de labora-
toire n. 4, f. 4-Bv 226
7.2 Trudaine’s burning lens, 1774. Engraving. Reproduced in Antoine-Laurent
Lavoisier, Œuvres, vol. 3 (Paris: Imprémerie Imperiale, 1864), Planche IX. 231
7.3 A page from Lavoisier’s Registres de laboratoire dealing with the experiments on
minerals and precious stones (January 6, 1783). Paulze-Lavoisier’s handwriting.
Archives de l’Académie des Sciences, Paris, Registre de laboratoire n. 6,
f. 184r 235
7.4 The experiments on human respiration and transpiration in a drawing by
Marie-Anne Paulze-Lavoisier, 1790 circa. Pen and brown ink and wash.
The original title of the drawing is unknown. Wellcome Collection, London,
item no. 37197i 237
8.1 Jean Baptiste Voboam, Pardessus de viole with diadem (1719). Coll. Musée de la
Musique, Paris. INV. Nº: E.998.11.1 249
8.2 Jean-Marc Nattier, “La Leçon de Musique” (France, 1710). Oil on canvas,
131 × 99,5 cm. Coll. Musée de la Musique, Paris. INV. Nº: E.997.13.1 250
8.3 “De la Position du Corps”, in Pierre Rameau, Le maître à danser (Paris, 1725),
plate 3. Engraving by the autor. Bibliothèque nationale de France 256
8.4 Nicolas Arnoult, “Joueur de violon du roi. Un membre des Vingt-quatre
Violons du Roi, en habit” (Paris, 1688). Engraving. Bibliothèque nationale
de France 257
8.5 Pierre Pasquier, “Portrait d’une jeune femme jouant de la guitare devant
une colonnade” (Paris, 1779). Watercolour, ink and pigments. INV.
Nº: E.2002.5.1 260
8.6 Jacques-Martin Hotteterre, Principes de la flute traversiere ou de la flute
a bec. Engraving by Picart (Paris, 1707). Bibliothèque nationale de
France 262
8.7 “Joueuse de Tympanon” (The dulcimer player). Made by Pierre Kinzing and
David Roentgen (Neuwied, 1784). INV. Nº: 07501-0001 268
Figures xi

P.1 Giulio Cesare Casserio, approximately 1552–1616, line engraving by G. van Veen.
Wellcome Collection 292
P.2 Anna Morandi Manzolini, wax self-portrait with brain 293
P.3 Barbara McClintock (1902–1992), US geneticist, in a maize field taking
notes 295
Notes on Contributors

Francesca Antonelli
is currently Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Bologna. In May 2021 she
received her PhD from the University of Bologna and the École des Hautes
Études en Sciences Sociales, with a thesis on Marie-Anne Paulze-Lavoisier
(1758–1836) and Lavoisier’s laboratory notebooks, on which she is now prepar-
ing a book. Her main research interests are the history of scientific practices,
material culture, and gender in the long eighteenth century.

Juliet Claxton
is an independent lecturer and scholar with experience of teaching and
research roles at both Queen Mary, University of London and King’s College,
London. She is the Features Editor for Jewellery History Today (Society of
Jewellery Historians) and is currently researching the material culture of bio-
mineral gemstones, particularly with reference to their inclusion in early mod-
ern medicinal recipes.

Paula Findlen
is Ubaldo Pierotti Professor in Italian History. Her publications include
Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern
Italy (University of California Press, 1994), Athanasius Kircher: The Last Man
Who Knew Everything (Routledge, 2004) and most recently Leonardo’s Library:
The World of a Renaissance Reader (Stanford University Library, 2019), Empires
of Knowledge: Scientific Networks in the Early Modern World (Routledge,
2019), Early Modern Things: Objects and Their Histories, 1500–1800, 2nd edi-
tion (Routledge, 2021), and Camilla Erculiani, Letters on Natural Philosophy,
ed. Eleonora Carinci, trans. Hannah Marcus, foreword by Paula Findlen
(ITER, 2021).

Amparo Fontaine
is Lecturer in Early Modern History at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de
Valparaíso in Chile. After receiving her M.Phil and Ph.D. from the University of
Cambridge in 2019, she was a Max Weber postdoctoral fellow in the European
University Institute. Her research focuses on the cultural history of music and
knowledge in the long eighteenth century, especially in France. She is currently
working on a book project that explores the notion of musical harmony in
French culture, combining scientific practices, material culture, performance,
Notes on Contributors xiii

and the French Revolution. Additionally, she is also working on two research
projects on cultural encounters between early-modern Europe and the
Americas. From 2022, she will be Marie Skłodowska-Curie Fellow at the École
des Hautes Études in Paris.

Paola Govoni
is Associate Professor at the University of Bologna. She is the author of books and
articles on science and society in modern and contemporary times. Her latest
publications in the area of this book are: Drawing Nature, Building Knowledge:
Between Beauty and ‘Gut Feelings’ in the Sciences, in Non-Fiction Picturebooks:
Sharing Knowledge as an Aesthetic Experience (ed. by G. Grilli, Florence, 2020);
Hearsay, Not-So-Big Data, and Choice: On Understanding Science and Maths by
Looking at Men Who Supported Women, in Against all Odds: Women’s Ways to
Mathematical Research Since 1800 (ed. by E. Kaufholz-Soldat and N. Oswald,
Springer, 2020).

Matteo Martelli
(PhD Greek Philology, 2007; PhD History of Science, 2012) is professor of
History of Science at the University of Bologna. His research focuses on
Graeco-Roman and Byzantine science – with particular attention to alchemy
and medicine (pharmacology) – and its reception in the Syro-Arabic tradi-
tion. His publications include The Four Books of Pseudo-Democritus (2014),
Collecting Recipes. Byzantine and Jewish Pharmacology in Dialogue (2017; edited
with L. Lehmhaus), and L’alchimista antico. Dall’Egitto greco-romano a Bisanzio
(2019). He is the principal investigator of the ERC project AlchemEast, and he is
currently working on a critical edition of the Syriac alchemical books ascribed
to Zosimos of Panopolis.

Sabrina Minuzzi
is a Marie Skłodowska-Curie Global Fellow in Early Modern History at Ca’
Foscari and at Brown University, Providence (H2020 [2018], G. A. 844886).
She is developing her interdisciplinary project MAT-MED in Transit. The
Transforming Knowledge of Healing Plants, which interweaves the study of the
circulation of naturalia with that of the reception of related medical-scientific
knowledge through the object book. Among her works Sul filo dei segreti.
Farmacopea, libri e pratiche terapeutiche a Venezia in età moderna (Milano:
Unicopli, 2016), and “Quick to say quack. Medicinal secrets from the household
to the apothecary’s shop in early eighteenth-century Venice,” Social History of
Medicine, 2019/1.
xiv Notes on Contributors

Lucia Raggetti
is Assistant Professor of the History of Ancient Sciences in the University
of Bologna. After receiving her PhD in Arabo-Islamic studies in Naples, she
held a DAAD Fellowship in Hamburg and then worked as research assistant at
Freie Unversität Berlin, in the research group on Wissensgeschichte. Her main
research interests are Arabic philology and the history of natural sciences and
medicine in the Arabo-Islamic milieu, on which she has published a variety of
articles. She is author of ‘Īsā ibn ‘Alī’s Book on the Useful Properties of Animal
Parts: Edition, Translation and Study of a Fluid Tradition (de Gruyter, 2018) and
Un coniglio nel turbante. Intrattenimento e Inganno nella scienza arabo-islamica
(Bibliografica 2021).

Antonella Romano
has been researcher at the CNRS since 1997 and professor of the history of sci-
ence at the European University Institute (Florence) between 2005 and 2013.
She is currently full professor at the EHESS, member and former director of
the Alexandre-Koyré Centre. Her work, mainly focused on the 16th century,
is based on the study of religious orders and missionaries as institutions and
agents of the recomposition of the European grammar of knowledge about
the world. Among her latest pubblications: Impressions de Chine. L’Europe et
l’englobement du monde (16e–17e siècles) (Paris: Fayard, 2016, trans. into Spanish
and Italian); with Bert de Munck (ed.), Knowledge and the Early Modern City
(London: Routledge, 2019); with Elisa Andretta and Romain Descendre (ed.),
Un mondo di Relazioni. Giovanni Botero e i saperi nella Roma del Cinquecento
(Rome: Viella, 2021).

Paolo Savoia
is Assistant Professor of the History of Science at the University of Bologna. He
studied Philosophy at the Universities of Bologna and Pisa, and History of sci-
ence at Harvard University. His publications concern the history of early mod-
ern medicine, the history of practical knowledge related to food and science,
gender and history, and the historiography of science. Recently, he published
the book Gaspare Tagliacozzi and Early Modern Surgery: Faces, Men and Pain
(Routledge, 2020).
 Introduction

Gender, History, and Science in Early

Modern Europe

Francesca Antonelli and Paolo Savoia

1. The idea of this book comes from a two-day conference co-organized by

CIS – The International Centre for the History of Universities and Science
of the University of Bologna, and the Centre Alexandre Koyré (Ehess-Paris)
which took place at the University of Bologna on June 28–29, 2019, developing
a suggestion coming from one of the series editors, Marco Beretta.1 The con-
ference took place during a heatwave (the first day temperatures in Bologna
reached 40° C), the essays then written during the first outbreak of a global
pandemic, and as we sit writing this introduction, we are at the beginning of
a record-breaking – if focused on the richest areas of the world – vaccination
campaign against Covid-19. As it is almost a truism that the problems of the
present guide the questions historians ask the past, it is worth noting that
writing about the history of science and knowledge means dealing with very
specific historical and scientific conditions these days. In our case, pandemics
and climate change certainly sharpen the effects of worldwide differences and
inequalities based on class, race, and gender.
The essays collected here aim at exploring how practical expertise, or
embodied knowledge, of the gendered bodies intersected with the produc-
tion of knowledge in early modern Europe. Gendered touch looks at both how
representations of gendered bodies contributed to the production of knowl-
edge, and at how practice itself was gendered. These two intertwined research
dimensions will be pursued in parallel to inquiry about how knowledge was
produced, translated, appropriated, and transmitted among different kinds of
actors – both women and men – such as craftspeople, physicians, alchemists,
apothecaries, music theorists, natural philosophers, and natural historians. In

1 This introduction is the outcome of shared approach and fruitful discussions between the
two authors. Francesca Antonelli authored sections 1, 3, 6; Paolo Savoia authored sections 2,
4, 5. We both wish to thank Antonella Romano for the generous exchange of ideas and com-
ments throughout the writing of this text.

© Francesca Antonelli and Paolo Savoia, 2022 | doi:10.1

2 Antonelli and Savoia

pursuing these goals, one of the major efforts of this book is to keep a balance
between the history of women and men, and reflections on gender.2
2. This search for a balance between the social history of women (and men)
and the significance of gender roles for historical inquiry is certainly not new.
In the 1980s, building on intellectual and political work of at least two decades
of feminist work, and expanding enquiries about social history, historians con-
structed powerful narratives and shaped new analytical tools about the history
of women, science, and gender.
In 1980, Carolyn Merchant published her book The Death of Nature, sub-
titled Women, Ecology and the Scientific Revolution, famously claiming that the
transformations of the idea of nature that happened during the seventeenth
century brought about a new era of joint exploitation of nature – conceived as
a passive resource – and of women – conceived as passive, domestic, beings.3
Merchant’s book was much subtler than it appeared to its first readers, and
painted a complex picture of the bright and the dark sides of the so-called
“scientific revolution” in light of the history of women. It is true that the book
painted too narrow a picture of both nature’s and women’s predicaments in
early modern Europe, as the period was mostly productive in relation to the
new claims of gender studies.4 On the other hand, a historiographical category
as crucial to Merchant’s analysis as that of “scientific revolution” has by then
been the object of profound revisions by historians.5 It was still a time where
history of science was not interested by the social and gendered dimension of
science making, except when women emerged as instruments: a new audience

2 See Gianna Pomata, “Histoire des femmes et ‘gender history’,” Annales. Économies, Sociétés,
Civilisations, 48, 4 (1993): 1019–1026.
3 Carolyn Merchant, The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution (New
York: Harper, 1980).
4 Gianna Pomata, “Donne e rivoluzione scientifica: verso un nuovo bilancio,” in Nadia Maria
Filippini, Anna Scattigno, and Tiziana Plebani, ed., Corpi e storia (Roma: Viella, 2011), pp. 165–
191; Charis Thompson, “Back to Nature? Resurrecting Ecofeminism after Poststructuralist and
Third-Wave Feminisms,” Isis, 97 (2006): 505–519. For a different but equally insightful reac-
tion to Merchant’s book, see also Sylvana Tomaselli, “The Enlightenment Debate on Women”,
History Workshop Journal, 20 (1985): 101–124. In the field of anthropology of science, A Cyborg
Manifesto by Donna Haraway, first published in 1985, opened a new line of investigation
where gender and science were deeply re-elaborated (the Manifesto was originally published
as “Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s,” Socialist
Review, 80 (1985): 65–108). See also Donna Haraway, “Situated Knowledges: The Science
Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective,” Feminist Studies, 14, 3 (1988):
575–599.
5 See Antonella Romano, “Fabriquer l’histoire des sciences modernes. Réflexions sur une dis-
cipline à l’ère de la mondialisation”, Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 70, 2 (2015): 381–408
and its bibliography.
Gender, History, and Science in Early Modern Europe 3

for enlightened scientists, or a new instrument of its diffusion through the

typically feminine space of sociability, the “salon”.6 Merchant’s work remains
important, however, in that it opened up a space to think together the history
of women, the history of science, and the history of gender roles as they mat-
tered not only to social history but also to the very process of the production
of scientific knowledge.
A few years later, Joan Scott famously invited historians of women to pause
and reflect on the vast mass of empirical material that had been put together
in the past decades, and to do so by experimenting with the category of gender.
Writing in 1986, Scott recalled that while the grammar term ‘gender’ had been
sporadically used by 19th-century thinkers to describe sexual characters, it was
only recently that feminists begun using the word to refer to “the social organi-
zation of the relationship between the sexes.”7 Feminists used gender mainly
to underline and expose the implicit biological reductionism implied by the
insistence on “sexual difference”, and to underline the fundamentally social
character of distinctions based on sex. At a more academic level, ‘gender’
seemed to allow scholars the possibility of studying not only women but also
men, or masculinity, from a social and historical point of view. In other words,
‘gender’ opened up a view on a world where men and women were recipro-
cally defining social and cultural constructs.8 The stakes were higher than sim-
ply doing ‘women’s studies’: it was a matter of writing a new kind of history
altogether. Historians like Joan Kelly had already claimed that a feminist his-
tory of women should not be only a new sub-discipline, but, on the contrary,
that the history of women could bring about within mainstream history new
topics such as the history of experience and the history of the body. ‘Gender’,
often combined with class and race, answered these new needs. Using gender
as a historiographical tool meant to claim that a separated sphere inhabited by
women never existed, but that men and women constantly entertained com-
plex social, cultural and symbolic relations. Scott, writing in a period of mount-
ing success of post-structuralist theory, also underlined that an excessive

6 See for exemple Daniel Roche, Les républicains de lettres. Gens de culture et Lumières au XVIIIe
siècle (Paris: Fayard, 1998); Giuliana Gemelli, Maria Malatesta, “Le avventure della sociabil-
ità,” in Maria Malatesta, Giuliana Gemelli, ed., Forme di sociabilità nella storiografia fran-
cese contemporanea (Milano: Feltrinelli, 1982) pp. 9–120; Antoine Lilti, Le monde des salons.
Sociabilité et mondanité à Paris au XVIIIe siècle (Paris: Fayard, 2005). For an historiographical
overview on the notion of “sociability”, see also Stéphane Van Damme, “La sociabilité intel-
lectuelle. Les usages historiographiques d’une notion”, Hypothèses, 1, 1 (1998): 121–132.
7 Joan W. Scott, “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis,” The American Historical
Review, 91, 5 (1986): 1053–1075, quotation p. 1053.
8 Natalie Zemon Davis, “Women’s History in Transition: The European Case,” Feminist Studies,
3, ¾, (1976): 83–103.
4 Antonelli and Savoia

reliance on Foucault’s philosophical work or Lacanian psychoanalysis lead

historians to select their sources too partially and narrowly, to find what they
already expected to find, and therefore to lose the empirical, experimental
dimension of the historian’s craft. It was a matter of going back to the archives
with new questions, not to abandon them in the name of post-modern irony
or the power of discourse. For Scott, ‘gender’ was not only about gender identi-
ties, but rather a new way to look at historical questions: “gender is a constitu-
tive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between
the sexes, and gender is a primary way of’ signifying relationships of power.”9
Londa Schiebinger’s The Mind has No Sex? can be considered one the best
embodiments of Scott’s hopes. Published in 1989, the book makes a very con-
scious use of gender (“gender shaped sex, rather than vice versa”10) in the his-
tory of science, and is at the same time very attentive in reconstructing the life
and work of several women artisans in early modern Europe as well as those
of several women doing science through aristocratic sociability and patron-
age practices. Schiebinger’s book described not only the history of women but
also the history of the socially constructed gender roles in the process of the
formation of scientific knowledge – as an eloquent example, she focused on
Linnaeus’ classification system based on the concept of mammals, showing
that it emerged in parallel with new campaign for breastfeeding that swept
eighteenth-century Europe. Schiebinger distanced her work from essentialism
more vigorously than Merchant, and argued that the point of feminist histo-
riography was not just to unearth the history of important women, but also
to describe – in view of disrupting it – the space of scientific knowledge as
marked by a distribution of power along gendered lines.11
These US approaches have been crucial in reshaping the theoretical and
empirical landscape for gender and history of science. At the same time, in

9 Scott, “Gender,” p. 1067. Since then, the relationships between gender and women’s his-
tory have inspired many complex and stimulating debates. Besides the already mentioned
article by Pomata, see also Laura Lee Downs, “If ‘Woman’ Is Just an Empty Category,
Then Why Am I Afraid to Walk Alone at Night? Identity Politics Meets the Postmodern
Subject.” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 35, 2 (1993): 414–437; the AHR Forum:
Revisiting “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis”, in American Historical Review,
113, 5 (2008); Ida Fazio, “Introduzione. Genere, politica, storia. A 25 anni dalla prima
traduzione italiana de Il “genere”: un’utile categoria di analisi storica” in Joan W. Scott,
Genere, politica, storia (Rome: Viella, 2013), pp. 6–30.
10 Londa Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex? Women in the Origins of Modern Science
(Cambridge, Ma: Harvard University Press, 1989), p. 161.
11 Schiebinger, The Mind Has No Sex?, pp. 265–277. Some of these issues were later devel-
oped by Schiebinger in her Nature’s Body. Gender in the Making of Modern Science
(London: Routledge, 1993). See also Londa Schiebinger, ed., Women and Gender in Science
and Technology, 4 vols. (London: Routledge, 2014).
Gender, History, and Science in Early Modern Europe 5

Europe, similar issues were developed along the lines of a new social his-
tory which was putting women at the center. In this perspective, the debate
about women in history developed in the framework of the “History Workshop
Journal” in the 1970s, and it culminated in important works on the 18th
century.12 Later, the editorial project launched in France, Histoire des femmes
en occident, became a model all around the world.13 Published in French and
Italian in 1991, and shortly after translated into six other languages, this five-
volume collection stimulated a wider debate on the role of women in history,
while raising methodological and historiographical questions that challenged
historical practice tout court. It is obviously not possible here to summarize the
variety of orientations and historiographic fields that were defined, also thanks
to those early debates, in the following years.14 However, in the context of the
present volume, it is worth noting that many of the issues discussed since then
touch on key problems of doing history, such as – just to mention one – that of
how to combine the study of cultural representations with an investigation
of social practices and individual trajectories. Especially in Italy, the adoption
of a micro-historical approach and the use of a biographical focus in historical
analysis proved quite crucial in this sense, highlighting the tensions between
the individual and the collective and encouraging further inquiries on how
historical actors re-appropriated social and gender norms.15 In this line, and
also in the wake of the interest in “subaltern” subjects encouraged once again
by microhistory, women in/and science gradually became a legitimate field

12 Sally Alexander, Anna Davin, “Feminist History,” History Workshop Journal, 1, 1 (1976): 4–6;
Women’s History, History Workshop Journal, 35, 1 (1993): 1–116; Sex and Gender, History
Workshop Journal, 41, 1 (1996): 1–90.
13 Georges Duby, Michelle Perrot, ed., Histoire des femmes en Occident, 5 vols. (Paris: Plon,
1990–1991); Sylvie Steinberg, “1991: Duby et Perrot rendent l‘histoire impensable sans les
femmes”, http://40ans.ehess.fr/2015/11/08/1991-une-histoire-sans-les-femmes-nest-plus
-possible/. For some translations: Storia delle donne in Occidente (Roma-Bari: Laterza,
1991–1992), and Historia de las mujeres en Occidente (Madrid: Taurus, 1992). For a general
review of these discussions, see Mónica Bolufer, Mujeres y hombres en la historia. Una
propuesta historiográfica y docente (Granada: Comares, 2018), esp. chap. 2; on the French
context, Françoise Thébaud, Écrire l’histoire des femmes et du genre (Lyon: ENS Éditions,
2007).
14 For a synthesis, see once again Bolufer, Mujeres y hombres en la historia, chap. 2. For
some recent developments see also Sylvie Steinberg, Mélanie Traversier, Camille Noûs,
“Aperçus sur les développements récents de l’histoire des femmes et du genre à l’époque
moderne”, in Combats, débats, transmission: les 20 ans de Mnemosyne, ed. Julie Verlaine,
Patrick Farges, Genre & Histoire, 26, special issue, 2020, https://journals.openedition.org/
genrehistoire/5933.
15 Ida Fazio, “Storia delle donne e microstoria,” in Marina Caffiero, Maria Pia Donato, and
Giovanna Fiume, ed., Donne potere religione. Studi per Sara Cabibbo (Milano: FrancoAngeli,
2017), pp. 81–94.
6 Antonelli and Savoia

of investigation. Significantly, the first studies devoted to this topic within

the Italian historiographical landscape dealt with the individual trajectories
of some 17th- and 18th-century women who creatively reinterpreted gender
norms of the time to carve out a space for themselves in contemporary scien-
tific debates, circles and institutions.16
These different strands of analysis and methodological issues concentrated
in the works of Marta Cavazza who, around the mid-1990s, began working on
the history of early modern “women graduate and lecturers (dottrici e lettrici)”
reconstructing the careers of 17th and 18th century women who exceptionally
made it through the gates of university and scientific academies.17 Cavazza’s his-
torical scholarship has been particularly inspiring as an example of the perfect
balance between social history and gender history, since her approach always
“naturally” mixed empirical description and meta-reflections on such descrip-
tions. For example, Cavazza described the dynamic of pope Benedict XIV’s
patronage of women doing natural philosophy, mathematics, and anatomy
(Laura Bassi, Maria Gaetana Agnesi, and Anna Morandi Manzolini) by asking
what role did the patronage of learned women played in the context of the
so-called Catholic Enlightenment. She argued that these projects of support
of learned women were not so much part of a politics of enhancing women’s
education (although strains of Catholic reformist thought advocated for that),
but rather of a strategy of renovation of Catholic religious and lay institutions,
connected to papal support of experimental sciences and the ideal of public
utility of applied sciences. The pope saw in learned women an opportunity
to attract the attention of the European republic of Letters to Bologna again,
after its 17th century decline, also exploiting a largely mythical tradition of
learned women at the university of Bologna, in a historically complex knot

16 In addition to the works by Marta Cavazza, briefly discussed in the next paragraph, see
the series of case-studies collected in Raffaella Simili, ed., Scienza a due voci (Florence:
Olschki, 2006). For a more comprehensive review of Italian historiography on women,
gender, and science, see Marta Cavazza, “Dalla rimozione alla riscoperta. Gli studi sul
contributo femminile alla scienza nell’Italia del Settecento”, in Dario Generali, ed., Clelia
Borromeo Arese. Un salotto letterario settecentesco tra arte, scienza e politica, 2 vols., vol. 1
(Florence: Olschki, 2011), pp. 149–164, now in Id., Laura Bassi: Donne, genere e scienza
nell’Italia del Settecento (Milan: Bibliografica, 2020), pp. 13–24. A microhistorical approach
is also influential in the recent Federica Favino, Donne e scienza nella Roma dell’Ottocento
(Rome: Viella, 2020).
17 Marta Cavazza, “’Dottrici’ e ‘lettrici’ dell’Università di Bologna nel Settecento,” Annali di
storia delle università italiane, 1 (1997): 109–126, now in Ead., Laura Bassi: Donne, genere
e scienza nell’Italia del Settecento (Milan: Bibliografica, 2020), pp. 37–72. The first article
Cavazza devoted to the Bassi case was published in 1995: Ead., “Laura Bassi e il suo gabi-
netto di fisica sperimentale: realtà e mito”, Nuncius, 10 (1995): 715–753, now also in Ead.,
Donne, genere e scienza, pp. 131–161.
Gender, History, and Science in Early Modern Europe 7

of different strategies involving both sensationalism and commitment to the

new sciences by these women.18 Cavazza’s work outlined the interest of
the Enlightenment as a period where gender relations could take new avenues,
as other investigations demonstrated.19 At the same time, Cavazza moved in
the territory of gender roles (male and female) with great ease, thus teaching
historians that it is not possible to write a history of science, or of women in
science, without at the same time writing a history of men in science (and vice
versa). Paving the path for other research both in Italy and elsewhere, in the
18th century and other periods, her work remains a turning point to which this
volume aims at being an homage.
3. The essays collected here make no sharp distinction between the social
history of men, women, and gender, simply because during the very process of
historical research and writing, these things are not separable. As Evelyn Fox
Keller wrote in 1985: “The widespread assumption that a study of gender and
science could only be a study of women still amazes me: if women are made
rather than born, the surely the same is true of men. It is also true of science.”20
In any case, this is not some nostalgic 1980s revival. If historians in the 1980s
were afraid to confine the history of women and science in a separated space,
disconnected from the mainstream of history, today – even taking into account
various different national traditions and institutional arrangements – it is
becoming largely impossible to teach and write history of science and knowl-
edge without including the history of women and gender.21 The articles col-
lected in this volume take full advantage of more recent studies of women,
gender, men, and science in early modern Europe, a field so rich, pluralistic,
and multifaceted that it is even difficult to call it a “field.”22

18 Marta Cavazza, “Between Modesty and Spectacle: Women and Science in Eighteenth-
Century Italy,” in Paula Findlen, Wendy Wassyng Roworth, and Catherine Sama, ed., Italy’s
Eighteenth Century: Gender and Culture in the Age of the Grand Tour (Stanford: Stanford
University Press, 2009), pp. 275–302.
19 Barbara Taylor, Sarah Knott, ed., Women, Gender and Enlightenment (London: Palgrave
MacMillan, 2005); Silvia Sebastiani, The Scottish Enlightenment: Race, Gender, and the
Limits of Progress (London: Palgrave MacMillan, 2013).
20 Evelyn Fox Keller, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press,
1996), pp. 3–4.
21 Karen Offen, Chen Yan, ed., Women’s History at the Cutting Edge (London: Routledge,
2020).
22 It is largely beside the scope of this introduction to compile a bibliography on gender and
early modern science, but see, among others, Katharine Park, Secrets of Women: Gender,
Generation, and the Origins of Human Dissection (New York: Zone Books, 2006); Sandra
Cavallo, Artisans of the Body in Early Modern Italy: Identities, Families and Masculinities
(Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010); Rebecca Messbarger, The Lady Anato-
mist: The Life and Work of Anna Morandi Manzolini (Chicago: University of Chicago Press);
Mary E. Fissell, “Introduction: Women, Health, and Healing in Early Modern Europe,”
8 Antonelli and Savoia

In different ways, the essays collected in this volume pay close attention
to materiality and spaces, as both perspectives are themselves indebted with
gender approaches.23 This volume also aims at connecting in circular dynam-
ics the expertise of those who have been traditionally considered “subaltern”
knowledge makers – including women – with the theoretical activities of
the natural philosophers. In this respect, we have also been inspired, besides
feminist historians, by historians as different from each other as Edgard Zilsel
and Piero Camporesi, who significantly enlarged the number of actors who
can legitimately be counted as part of early modern knowledge-making.24 The
essays composing this volume therefore explore a fruitful tension – displaying
itself along gendered lines – between the textual transmission and appropria-
tion of knowledge, and the practical and performance-like aspects of produc-
ing knowledge. The cases of alchemical recipes, food production, adapting
mechanical bodies to musical instruments, and taking notes in the new experi-
mental spaces are all pervaded by such tension.
While these historiographical references served as the background for our
discussions, each author was left to personally reinterpret the editors’ broad

Bullettin of the History of Medicine, 82 (2008): 1–17; Elaine Leong Recipes and Everyday
Knowledge: Medicine, Science, and the Household in Early Modern England (Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press, 2018); Sharon Strocchia, Forgotten Healers: Women and the
Pursuit of Health in Late Renaissance Italy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2019);
Adeline Gargam, Les Femmes savantes, lettrées et cultivées dans la littérature française des
Lumières ou la conquête d’une légitimité, 2 vols. (Paris: Honoré Champion, 2013). For a sur-
vey of the recent literature, see the introduction by Adeline Gargam to Femmes de sciences
de l’Antiquité au XIXe siècle. Réalités et représentations (Dijon: Éditions Universitaire de
Dijon, 2014) and its rich bibliography, and Marta Cavazza, “Introduzione: dalla rimozi-
one alla riscoperta” in Ead., Laura Bassi. Donne, genere e scienza nell’Italia del Settecento,
pp. 13–34.
23 Among others, see Marco Beretta, Storia materiale della scienza (Rome: Carocci, 2020);
David N. Livingstone, Putting Science in Its Place. Geographies of Scientific Knowledge
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2003). For a critical review of recent historiography
on the so-called “material turn” of the history of science see, among others, Stéphane Van
Damme, La prose des savoirs. Pragmatiques des mondes intellectuels (Strasbourg: Presses
universitaires de Strasbourg, 2020), chap. 3. For an evaluation of the rich historiogra-
phy on the spaces of knowledge production, see among others, the Premessa by Sabina
Brevaglieri e Antonella Romano to Produzione di saperi. Costruzione di spazi, special issue
of Quaderni storici, 158, 1 (2013): 3–19. A fundamental contribution to this topic is also
Christian Jacob, ed., Lieux de savoir, 2 vols., (Paris: Albin Michel, 2007–2011).
24 Edgar Zilsel, “The Sociological Roots of Science,” in Id., The Social Origins of Modern
Science, ed. D. Raven, W. Krohn, and R.S. Cohen (Dordrecht: Springer, 2003), pp. 7–21;
Piero Camporesi, La miniera del mondo: artieri inventori impostori (Milan: Il Saggiatore,
1990).
Gender, History, and Science in Early Modern Europe 9

initial insights. The idea was to compare our respective research questions and
methodologies through the presentation of case studies on which each of us
was working and which involved, to a different extent and in various ways,
women as well as men. Accordingly, the articles gathered in this book cover
different settings, from domestic experimentation with preparation and pres-
ervation of food items to the humanists’ libraries, from the alchemists’ work-
ing spaces to eighteenth-century laboratories. They also cover different kinds
of actors, the men and women cooperating and fighting for the production of
knowledge, and deal with different chronologies and geographies. However,
the variety of perspectives that can be found in what follows stems more
from the intent to combine the analytical tools offered by different historiogra-
phies than from the intent of proposing another big narrative on early modern
science and knowledge.
4. The first part of this book is titled The Gendered Construction of Textual
Traditions: The Case of Maria the Alchemist. The two essays by Lucia Raggetti
and Matteo Martelli form a dyad which must be read together. These essays
complement each other, as they examine the role of Maria The Alchemist –
an ambiguous and mythical figure, also known as Maria The Jewess or Maria
Prophetissa – in different textual traditions. Raggetti opens her analysis by
noting that, before being celebrated by early modern European alchemists as
the inventor of the heated bath – a heating technique eponymously named
“bain-marie” – the figure of Maria “had come a long way across more than one
millennium, and through the eyes and the idioms of different cultures and tra-
ditions.” Her focus is on the Arabo-Islamic tradition, in which Maria entered
through the translations of Greek texts, in particular the Graeco-Egyptian
alchemical corpus. Following the circulation of the myth in the new context
of reception, Raggetti explores the multiple identities of Maria, reconstruct-
ing an “elusive portrait” which, as she shows throughout her essay, was to a
great extent the result of various cultural reappropriations. Maria’s name – in
the Arabic version of Maryam – was itself a source of speculation and could
alternatively be associated with the mother of Jesus, the sister of Moses and
Aaron, a Coptic slave offered to the prophet Muhammad, as well as and with
other obscure figures of an ancient and often mythical past. Her origins, that
now shifted from Jewish to Copt and Egyptian, were also the object of atten-
tion in several sources. As the author highlights, many complex issues were at
stake in these adaptations such as, for instance, the relationship between Islam
and the Jewish tradition that the myth of Maria involved. It is not until the
seventeenth century, however, that we find an Arabic source connecting Maria
to the famous heated bath. It is a treatise on chemical medicine by Ibn Sallūm,
10 Antonelli and Savoia

the chief-physician of the Ottoman sultan Mehemet IV, based in Constantinople,

who probably read about the bain-marie in Latin alchemical works that
were available in the Ottoman capital. Several passages of this text – which
appears as a significant example of how women’s alchemical knowledge was
re-appropriated and represented by men in different cultural contexts – are
translated by Raggetti at the end of the essay.
Martelli inquiries on how the mythical figure of Maria the Alchemist and
the practical alchemical knowledge attributed to her in many languages
and cultures were interpreted, used, and authenticated by early modern alche-
mists, humanists, and natural philosophers in their search for authority. Such
different attempts at reading Maria’s work form what Martelli defines “a com-
plex and polyphonic discussion on Maria and her alchemical achievements”.
Martelli tracks down the readings of Maria’s Practica – and in particular
commentaries about her procedures for “whiting the stone” and the famous
specific heating method – in a backward process beginning from Netwon back
to Orthelius and to Parcelsus, in Latin as well as in several European vernacu-
lars. The case of Netwon’s notes on Maria’s special heating technique shows
that the name of Maria and the alchemical equipment associated to her were
inherited by early modern alchemists from an earlier tradition, which was
deeply rooted into Arabo-Latin alchemical treatises. Renaissance and early
modern humanists – such as Isaac Casaubon and Justus Scaliger – played an
important role in the identification of the figure, knowledge, and techniques
related to Maria, as Greek alchemical literature, either in translation or through
manuscripts, provided new pieces of information, which could complement
and, sometimes, rectify what had been already extracted from the Arabo-Latin
tradition.
In this intricate textual history, Maria is one of the three or four women who
were deemed able to perform alchemical knowledge in the Byzantine tradition.
Ultimately, alchemists’, humanists’, and philosophers’ historical and textual
inquiries on Maria the Alchemist allowed them to redesign the chronological
and geographical boundaries of their art and to root their own practices and
theories into this convenient past, a past which produced the ‘ancient’ alchem-
ical literature that they never stopped to reinterpret and re-contextualize.
Women’s alchemical knowledge is therefore placed by Martelli at the center of
a process of rewriting the past in search for origins and authority.
5. The second part is titled Domestic and Apothecary Workshops: Food and
Pharmacy in the Seventeenth Century. Paolo Savoia’s article begins by noting
that early modern cheesemaking was accompanied by a specific scientific
interest to understand such a peculiar natural process of transformation of
Gender, History, and Science in Early Modern Europe 11

natural matter by collecting information from those who mastered it in their

everyday life. It turns out that in early modern Europe the art of transforming
milk into cheese and butter was almost exclusively the domain of women. By
showing connections between ideas about transformation of natural matter,
gender, and techniques of manipulation of nature, Savoia argues that these
observations and artisanal practices contributed to changing the way knowl-
edge was made and nature was known by physicians, natural philosophers,
and natural historians around the time of the “scientific revolution.” This con-
tribution was a process of transformation of expertise into explanation. Savoia
focuses on the issues of the observation, translation and eventually appropria-
tion of both artisanal practical skills embodied in women’s cheese-making,
and on a supposedly female intimate knowledge with milk and dairy products
by learned natural historians and natural philosophers from the late fifteenth
century to the seventeenth century. Savoia examines significant examples of
the dynamics of expertise/explanation: the late fifteenth-century book on
dairy products written by Piedmontese physician Pantaleone of Confienza;
the reports and experiments on cheese-making at the Royal Society in London
and the Académie des Sciences in Paris in the 1660s; the 1664 booklet on
people disgusted by cheese by the Dutch theologian and natural philosopher
Martin Schook.
Savoia argues that women’s expertise with cheesemaking, which early mod-
ern sources take for granted, involved women’s experience not only with medi-
caments and recipes, but also with touching natural matter, mastering complex
natural processes of transformation, and devising/utilizing technology. Savoia
claims that the polarity between expertise and explanation, or practical skills
and their scientific appropriation and translation, was reinforced by notions
of gender and by the social work gender roles played in acquiring expertise,
disseminating practical knowledge, and establishing new knowledge. Far from
being only a matter of “representations,” gender roles mediated, on the one
hand, the observation and recording of experimental and practical knowledge;
and, on the other hand, some of the processes of theory-making and induction
which are typical of the scientific revolution.
Juliet Claxton explores the culinary and medicinal experimentation that
has been associated with Alathea Talbot, Countess of Arundel (c.1585–1654)
by discussing both her literary output, and household inventories. Claxton
specifically focuses on the knowledge procedures taking place in particular
spaces within this elite household, as well as the coordinated activity between
the lady and her domestic staff. Claxton links Talbot’s recipe collections to the
1641 inventory of the Countess’ Westminster home Tart Hall, and therefore
12 Antonelli and Savoia

she sites her experimental activities within contemporary courtly architec-

ture and illustrates where and how the Countess’ own ‘touch’ can be identified
within different domestic locations.
Claxton focuses on the gendering of the preparation of marmalade and other
preservation techniques in seventeenth-century English households, where
“household collectives”25 performed cooking and preserving experiments with
foodstuff. Such preparations aroused the attention of canonical natural philos-
ophers and naturalists such as Robert Boyle, John Beale, and Samuel Pepys. In
elite establishments where the management of a large and complex household
required both hands-on knowledge and lived experience, most domestic food
preparation was performed by servants, but the lady of the house was expected
to have the knowledge and ability to manage and oversee the everyday running
of her home. In fact, making marmalade and conserving fruit was a complex
task that required specific knowledge, an ability to judge temperature, and
familiarity with visual signals to achieve the correct setting point. Observing
an expert was the chief method of learning, and women initiated each other
into the techniques.
Claxton argues that while the knowledge transfer generated by seventeenth-
century culinary and pharmacological literature have been extensively studied,
much less critical discussion has been concerned with the siting of knowledge
production or the equipment specified within recipe collections. Preserving
and distilling was an experimental process, classified as ‘natural philosophy’
and often termed ‘kitchen physic’ that needed its own space and technology.
Claxton inquiries about the space where this type of culinary experimenta-
tion and knowledge transfer happened, what equipment was used, and who
were the female and male actors actually performing the procedures. Claxton
argues that while Alathea Talbot’s Dutch ‘Pranketing Room’ – a space devoted
to collective food experimentation directed by her – remained primarily a
space for entertainment, the room also included a performative aspect where
the final elements of food preservation became part of courtly ‘scientific’
entertainment.
The case of the Countess of Arendel is interesting if read against Minuzzi’s
article on women experimenting with pharmacology in early modern Venice.
Minuzzi eloquently begins her article – which analyzes women’s activities in
a variety of spaces, including households, apothecary’s guilds workshops – by
acknowledging that “the concept of marginality of women in the history of
medicine can only be considered true on the surface, yet rather superseded
in substance”. By providing an overview of recent trends in medical history,

25 Leong, Recipes and Everyday Knowledge, p. 4.

Gender, History, and Science in Early Modern Europe 13

Minuzzi recalls that through methodological tools such as “medical agent” and
“bodywork” the field of early modern male and female healthcare providers –
and, we add, knowledge-carriers – has dramatically expanded. Minuzzi argues
that by now we are able to see that women’s marginality in respect to the
organised work in arts and colleges and to the medicine taught at the universi-
ties cohabits with a dense multiplicity of women active in many contexts of
medical practice and in the exchange of knowledge even with the academic
and professional, lay and religious, as well as commercial universe. Therefore,
Minuzzi argues that in the history of early modern medicine, women, as well
as other non-officially sanctioned healthcare providers, form a series of “con-
nective tissues” with respect to medical care of the body in general.
Minuzzi’s article starts from a reflection on its sources, namely the authori-
sations for the handling of medicinal secrets in early modern Venice. While
this kind of source privileges male representation, in reviewing the few female
figures that emerge from it Minuzzi intersects other biographical information
available, and in a couple of cases print books and manuscripts, which are
capable of bridging in part the silence or the omissions that characterise the
main serial source. Minuzzi therefore puts together clues to reconstruct
the socio-cultural profiles of the women engaged in the invention and/or han-
dling of medicinal secrets within a normative system that allowed them to
start up or continue a trade in the drug on a small scale.
Minuzzi shows that the “women in secrets” reviewed in her article are char-
acterised by their belonging to a middling-sort, in which the lowest extreme
does not appear and the highest one is represented, as in the case studied by
Juliet Claxton in this volume, by a English lady, Margaret Paston. Moreover, the
women in secrets active in Venice were all regularly authorised and were eager
to be so. Unlike the noblewomen at the Italian courts, these middle-class, arti-
san women in secrets were more keen in handling on their knowledge to the
public and to posterity. Minuzzi argues that it was in the spaces between
the apothecary and the home, between shop laboratory and urban kitchen
more or less equipped that the women-artisans of secrets lived. Between the
domestic walls the trade labels and the gender differences in knowing and
doing fell, the medicinal secrets continued to be handled and sold in the
same way.
6. The third part – titled Eighteenth-century Spaces of Gendered Knowledge –
begins with Paula Findlen’s chapter analysing the context that led the Academy
of the Sciences of Bologna to admit Neapolitan noblewoman Faustina
Pignatelli (1705–1769), as its second female member in 1732, after the much
more famous and celebrated Laura Bassi. Building on Marta Cavazza’s studies,
Findlen discusses the Bolognese academicians’ debates not only around the
14 Antonelli and Savoia

relative merits of these two women, but also about the desirability of admit-
ting more than one woman to the Bologna Academy of Sciences, as many did
not want their recognition of Pignatelli, a foreigner, to set a worrisome prec-
edent. Bassi had been a singular instance of a city publicly embracing the
demonstrable talent of a local prodigy, a young woman well versed in natural
philosophy; but the prospect of Pignatelli’s admission raised concerns that the
Bologna Academy of Sciences might now admit any and every learned woman
who demonstrated aptitude in the sciences. Ultimately, Pignatelli’s admission
was the outcome of a successful campaign mounted by Neapolitan political
and scientific authorities to establish close links with the Bologna Academy of
the Sciences. Findlen argues that by looking at correspondence as a material
object it appears that the exchange of letters was the most powerful tool for
Pignatelli’ success in gaining reputation as a skilled mathematician. Findlen
places this episode in the intellectual and political context of early modern
Naples, and argues that Pignatelli was the expression of a noble world and a
court society that was about to end in the long eighteenth century, thus illu-
minating how gendered knowledge intersects with different sorts of social and
political powers: for both her detractors and her defenders, she was the excep-
tion that prevented the fearsome rule of women becoming part of elite scien-
tific societies.
The question of spaces, and of how historical actors put them to use in order
to access scientific knowledge and build their own reputation, is discussed
also in Francesca Antonelli’s essay, which focuses on the case of Marie-Anne
Paulze-Lavoisier (1758–1836). Known as the wife and associate of the French
chemist and tax farmer Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier – and in particular as a trans-
lator and illustrator of chemical texts – Paulze-Lavoisier is here presented as
a “secrétaire” that is, following the meaning of the term in eighteenth-century
French, a cultural and political agent whose main activity is that of writing on
behalf of someone. The aim of this form of writing was not necessarily publi-
cation, but rather the storing of information: a task that Paulze-Lavoisier took
on since the very beginning of her collaboration with her husband in the early
1770s. Antonelli works on Lavoisier’s laboratory notebooks (the Registres de
laboratoire) and especially on some notes relating to a series of experiments on
diamonds and precious stones that were performed by the Lavoisiers in differ-
ent settings – a famous Parisian public garden, the Jardin de l’Infante, as well as
domestic laboratories – between the early 1770s and the early 1780s. Following
Paulze-Lavoisier’s hand, the author develops a two-fold analysis. On the one
hand, she examines the material, spatial, and social dimensions of her work
as note-taker, putting the problem of information management at the core of
her collaboration with Lavoisier. On the other hand, she investigates how her
Gender, History, and Science in Early Modern Europe 15

trajectories as a secrétaire intersected with other kind of practices, mostly con-

nected with polite sociability. The question underlying the analysis is in fact
to what extent Paulze-Lavoisier’s involvement in note-taking practices went
beyond Lavoisier’s need for a vast and well-organized archive and became
a mean of self-promotion, through which she could negotiate her position
within scientific circles of the time. From a broader point of view, through the
case of the Lavoisiers the author intends to highlight how a set of social and
gender norms – such as, just to name one, modesty – could be reinterpreted by
historical actors in creative ways. Through the same lens, she argues, it is possi-
ble not only to relook at some well-known sources – such as Paulze-Lavoisier’s
illustrations for her husband’s Mémoires de physique et de chimie, dating to the
early 1790s – from a different angle, but also to cast some new light on Lavoisier
himself. In contrast with the image of the solitary genius, compiling the whole
of his laboratory notebooks by himself, the French chemist represented here is
a man of his time, needing the constant support of his associates and eager to
take part, together with his wife, in the social life of eighteenth-century Paris.
With Amparo Fontaine’s essay we are still in eighteenth-century France, but
this time the focus is on musical performance as a gendered practice, involving
contemporary physiological and medical knowledge as well as moral, social
and political values. Basing on a wide set of sources – from didactic music
manuals to other prescriptive literature such as acting and dancing meth-
ods, but also musical instruments, literary texts and visual representations of
the performers – Fontaine mantains that “perfomers of musical instruments
expressed and mobilised different understanding of the physical body”. As it is
known, musical instruments had been associated since the Renaissance with
human physiology, offering various metaphors for the functioning of the body.
However, Fontaine goes further in her analysis, stating that musical instru-
ments, invested as they were with “gender, social status, character, morality, and
anatomy”, were “translated into the espressive requirements to the performer
which”, she argues, “relied on the performer’s physical body”. She thus estab-
lished three models aiming at describing how musical bodies were adopted
by eighteenth-century musical performers: the “courtly body”, the “mechanical
body”, and the “expressive body”. Each of these models emerges in a specific
historical conjucture – although the chronologies sometimes overlapped, so
that the three models end up coexisting in the second half of the eighteenth
century – and stems from different conceptions of the body but also from the
gendered and social expectations directed to the performers. This does not
mean, however, that these models were passively adopted by the musicians:
on the contrary, they met frequent oppositions and personal reinterpreta-
tions through, for instance, the introduction of new material technologies and
16 Antonelli and Savoia

instrumental techniques. They were also part of wider intellectual debates

which, as the author shows, were related not only to musical performance
itself but also to the role of women in musical practice.
In the postface, Paola Govoni offers some thought-provoking remarks on
women, men, gender, and science that exceed the chronological boundaries of
the early modern period. In particular, she focuses on the reciprocal influence
of gender on scientific practice, and on how the sciences have molded gender
ideas. Govoni’s postface provides therefore the best possible end for a book: an
invitation to further reserch, inquiry, and reflection.

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AHR Forum: Revisiting “Gender: A Useful Category of Historical Analysis”, in American

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Alexander, Sally, Anna Davin, Sex and Gender, History Workshop Journal, 41, 1 (1996):
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Alexander, Sally, Anna Davin, “Feminist History,” History Workshop Journal, 1, 1 (1976):
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Alexander, Sally, Anna Davin, Women’s History, History Workshop Journal, 35, 1, (1993):
1–116.
Beretta, Marco, Storia materiale della scienza (Rome: Carocci, 2020).
Bolufer, Mónica, Mujeres y hombres en la historia. Una propuesta historiográfica y
docente (Granada: Comares, 2018).
Brevaglieri, Sabina, Antonella Romano, “Premessa,” in Sabina Brevaglieri, Antonella
Romano, ed., Produzione di saperi. Costruzione di spazi, special issue of Quaderni
storici, 158, 1 (2013): 3–19.
Camporesi, Piero, La miniera del mondo: artieri inventori impostori (Milan: Il Saggiatore,
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Cavallo, Sandra, Artisans of the Body in Early Modern Italy: Identities, Families and
Masculinities (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2010).
Cavazza, Marta, “Between Modesty and Spectacle: Women and Science in Eighteenth-
Century Italy,” in Paula Findlen, Wendy Wassyng Roworth, and Catherine Sam, ed.,
Italy’s Eighteenth Century: Gender and Culture in the Age of the Grand Tour (Stanford:
Stanford University Press, 2009), 275–302.
Cavazza, Marta, Laura Bassi: Donne, genere e scienza nell’Italia del Settecento (Milan:
Bibliografica, 2020).
Downs, Laura Lee, “If ‘Woman’ Is Just an Empty Category, Then Why Am I Afraid to
Walk Alone at Night? Identity Politics Meets the Postmodern Subject,” Comparative
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